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Translation Theory Lecture1.pptx

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Core Texts
J. Munday Introducing Translation Studies. Theories and Applications
B. Hatim Teaching and Researching Translation
A. Pym Exploring Translation Theories
Course Assessment
Attendance to obtain a Pass (3)
Written test to obtain a higher mark
Course Contents
What is a translation theory? Introducing Translation Studies as a discipline;
Pre-Theoretical Period (translation theory before 20th century) overview;
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Equivalence (R. Jakobson; E. Nida dynamic equivalence; Catford formal and

textual equivalence, P. Newmark semantic and communicative translation; Koller
equivalence frameworks; O. Kade typology; R. de Beaugrande textuality and
equivalence; natural equivalence and directional equivalence;
The translation shift approach (e.g.Vinay and Darbelnet taxonomy, Catfords
translation shifts, Van Leuven-Zwarts comparative-descriptive model of
translation shifts)
Course Contents
Functional Approach to Translation (Skopos theory; Theory of the Translators
Expertise and Translational and Translatorial Action);
Discourse and register analysis approaches (Hallidayan model of language and
discourse; J. House TQA; M. Bakers text and pragmatic level analysis;
Literary and cultural Approaches (Polysystem Theory, Toury and DTS,
Manipulation School; Venuti and the (in)visibility of translation)
What is a translation theory?

Translators are theorizing all the time
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Translation is a bit like shoveling coal. You scoop it up and toss it into the
furnace. Each lump is a word, and each shovelful is another sentence, and if your
back is strong enough and you have the stamina to keep it for eight or ten hours
at a stretch, you can keep the fire hot.
Paul Auster The Book of Illusions
Theorizing assumes shared concepts

ST (source text)
TT (target text)
SL (source language)
TL (target language)
SC (source culture)
TC (target culture)
Models of Translation
Translating is a set of processes leading from one side to the other;
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Translation is directional (from L1 to L2);

Translation evokes a spatial image
Simple questions
Why should we have only two sides involved (ST and TT)?
Does translation only affect TT?
Compare the word anuvad = repeating or saying later (in Sanskrit)
Temporal rather than spatial perception of translation
Theories are formed because of disagreements

How should we translate the term Tory?
Translation should explain the source culture
Translation should make things understandable to the target culture
Translation should re-situate everything in the target culture
The ST was not about politics so there is no need to waste time on that detail
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From theories to paradigms

THE HOLMES TOURY map
J. S. Holmes (1972 / 1988 / 2000)
Paper - 1972: Third International Congress of Applied

Linguistics (Holmes founding statement for the field:
limitations by TR being dispersed across other
disciplines
need to reach all scholars working in the field (from
whatever background)
cf. map of TR studies
Holmes in G. Toury (1995): TR Studies cover:
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description of the phenomena of TR (descr. TR theory

- DTS)
the establishment of gen. principles to explain and
predict such phenomena (TR theory)
No general - only partial theories
medium-restricted theories MT / human
area-restricted theories to specific language pairs (contrastive; stylistics)
rank-restricted theories word or sentence
text-type restricted history of TR
problem-restricted - equivalence, unit of TR, universals etc.
NB: a mix of theories (pure aspects of the theory preferred by Holmes)
DTS:
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product-oriented DTS (examines existing translations) diachronic - synchronic )

function-oriented DTS (function of the translation in the recipient sociocultural
situation)
process-oriented DTS (psychology of translation)
Early period/pre-linguistic period of translation (Newmark

1981)
Word-for-word or sense-for-sense TR a recurring theme;
Cicero
St Jerome
Martin Luther
Early attempts at systematic TR: Dryden, Dolet, Tytler
Schleiermacher and the valorisation of the foreign
TR theories in 19th and early 20th cent.
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1. The early period

The practice of translation was discussed by Cicero and Horace (first century
BCE) and St Jerome (fourth century CE);
their writings exerted an important influence up until the twentieth century
St Jeromes approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin affected later translations of the Scriptures.
Non verbum de verbo sed sensum de senso!
the translation of the Bible was to be for well over a thousand years and
especially during the Reformation in the sixteenth century the battleground of
conflicting ideologies in western Europe
Word-for-word or sense-for-sense TR
TR theory until 20th cent.: a sterile debate over the triad literal, free, and faithful
TR (Steiner 1998)
Cicero (46 BCE, De optimo genere oratorum):
word for word vs sense for sense TR chief principles of TR of the age
word for word (interpreter / literal TLR) - The replacement of each individual word of ST (Greek) with its closest grammatical
equivalent in Latin (reading Gr & Lat side by side), p. 19
sense for sense (orator) produce a speech that would move the listeners
Ancient tradition, the Middle Ages

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Horace (Ars poetica): the goal of producing an aesthetically pleasing and

creative text in the TL
St Jerome (influenced by Cicero & Horace) De optimo genere interpretandi
395 CE
Now I not only admit but freely announce that in translating from Greek except of course in the case of the Holy Scripture,
where even the syntax contains a mystery I render not word-for-word but sense-for-sense.
Jeromes view interpreted later as opposing poles: literal vs free TR (form vs content) a perennial debate
word-for-word produces an absurd TR, cloaking the sense of the original
Chinese TR: same type of concern about TR (Sanskrit Buddhist sutras into
Chinese)
Rich TR tradition of the Arab world: word-for-word TR unsuccessful (the Abbasid
Period 750-1250)
Matin Luther
Literal vs free TR debate continued
correct established meaning of the Bible
Any diverging from the accepted interpretation deemed heretical
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Dolet (1546) burned (apparently) for adding the phrase rien du tout [nothing at
all] in a passage about what existed after death immortality issue!
Non-literal TR seen as blasphemy, a weapon against the

church:
The New Testament into East Middle German (1522)
Old Testament (1534)
Sendbrief vom Dolmetschen (1530) accused of altering the Holy Scriptures in
his vernacular, dialect TR)
Accused for adding the word allein not found in the original
Rejected word-for-word TR
Focusing on the TL and TLT reader (in the vernacular)
Martin Luther
Matthew 12:34:
Ex abundantia cordis os loquitor
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The English King James version:

Out of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaketh
Wes der Herz voll ist, des geht der mund uber [speak straight from the heart]
Faithful, spirit and truth: faithful- accurate - translation

Not theory of TR, just explanations in prefaces
No consideration of previous TR work
Lack of consecutiveness (Amos 1920);
No consent over the meaning of basic concepts
Kelly (1979) The True Interpreter

FIDELITY (fidus interpres)
initially dismissed as word-for-word TR
End of 17th cent.: faithfulness to the meaning rather than the words of the author
SPIRIT
Creative energy, inspiration (to literature)
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StAugustin: The Holy Spirit
TRUTH
Spirit and truth intertwined (truth = content)
An interconnection between fidelity, spirit and truth in the TR of sacred texts
Early attempts at a systematic theory of TR: triadic model

Dryden (1680): TR categories:
Metaphrase: corr. to literal, word-for-word, line for line
Paraphrase: TR with latitude, words not so strictly followed as the sense; corr. to faithful, sense-for-sense TR
Imitation: forsaking both words and sense; corr. to free TR and adaptation
John Dryden: poet and translator

An important step forward in translation theory;
deliberate, reasoned statements, unmistakable in their purpose and meaning
Reaction against taken, left out and added what I please to the Odes Cowley
1640;
Ben Johnson is criticised as being a verbal copier; servile, literal translation
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dismissed
Other prescriptive proposals Etienne Dolet (1540): principles of

TR
TLR must perfectly understand the sense and the material of the original author,
although he should feel free to clarify obscurities;
TLR should have a perfect knowledge of both SL and TL, so as not to lessen the
majesty of the language;
TLR should avoid word-for-word renderings;
TLR should avoid Latinate and unusual forms;
TLR should assemble and liaise with words eloquently to avoid clumsiness;
Alexander Tytler (1797): Essay on the principles of

translation
The TR should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work
The style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the
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original
The TR should have all the ease of the original composition
Tytlers Laws
Scrupulous imitation should be avoided since it loses the ease and spirit of the
original;
To adopt the very soul of his author;
The first two laws represent the two widely different opinions about translation;
Laws ranked in order of comparative importance;
Schleiermacher and the valorization of the foreign

17th cent.: TR as imitation
18th cent.: TLRs duty to recreate the spirit of ST for the reader of the time
Early 19th cent (Romanticism):
Translatability vs untranslatability
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Schleiermacher (1813) Ueber die verschiedenen Methoden des Uebersetzens

Founder of Protestant theology and modern hermeneutics:
a Romantic approach to interpretation
based not on absolute truth
but on the individuals inner feeling and understanding
Schleiermacher, ctd.
Distinguished between:
Dolmetscher (commercial texts)
Uebersetzer (scholarly and artistic texts):
On a higher creative plane
Breathing new life into the language
Q: How to bring the ST writer and the TT reader together?
Only two paths for the true TLR:

Either the TLR leaves the writer alone as much as possible and moves the reader
to the writer, or
He leaves the reader alone as much as possible and moves the writer toward the
reader
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TLR must adopt an alienating method of TR orienting himself by the language

and content of the ST
TLR must valorize the foreign and transfer that into TL
He must communicate the same impression which he/she received from SLT
A special language of TR is necessary for compensating the hackneyed expression that cannot convey the impression of
the foreign
Schleiermachers influence:
Enormous influence on modern translation
Consideration of different text types (Reiss)
Alienating vs naturalizing (Venuti)
Foreignization v. domestication
Hermeneutics (Steiner)
language of transation (W. Benjamin
Late 19th and early 20th cent.
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Focus on the status of the ST and the form of TL

Newman (translating Homer): foreignness of the work (deliberate archaic
language)
M. Arnold: advocated a transparent TR of Homer
Elitist attitude: It was thought that TR could never reach the heigths of the ST, it is
preferable to read the work in the original language
Late 19th and early 20th cent.

devaluation and marginalization of translation;
Pre-university and university students are discouraged from turning to translation
for help;
Very little popular literature is translated into English;
Relatively few subtitled foreign films are screened in mainstream cinemas in the
UK
Towards contemporary translation theory

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Criteria for judgments vague and subjective;

Judgments highly normative;
Redefining the concepts in operational terms; describing meaning in scientific
terms
Proposing systematic taxonomies of translation phenomena
Roman Jakobson: the nature of linguistic meaning and

equivalence
On linguistic aspects of translation (1959) equivalence in meaning;
intralingual, interlingual and intersemiotic kinds of translation;
Saussures ideas on relations between the signifier and the signified = the
linguistic sign (arbitrary, unmotivated)
cheese food made of pressed curds

equivalence
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Equivalence in meaning
There is ordinarily no full equivalence between code-units
English cheese not identical to the Russian syr
Establishing the general principle of interlinguistic

difference between terms and semantic fields;
Roman Jakobson: what is interlingual translation?
Interlingual translation involves substituting messages in one language not for
separate code-units but for entire messages in some other language
The translator recodes and transmits a message received from another source.
Thus translation involves two equivalent messages in two different codes
(Jakobson 1959: 114).

equivalence
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Different languages (sign systems) partition reality differently;

Equivalence in difference is the cardinal problem of language and the pivotal
concern of linguistics;
The problem of meaning and equivalence focuses on differences in the structure
and terminology of languages

equivalence
Cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical
forms: Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what
they may convey.
The level of gender
The level of aspect
The level of semantic fields
Eugene Nida 1914-2011
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Nida and the science of translating

Towards a Science of Translating (1964);
The Theory and Practice of Translation (with Taber) (1969)
incorporating insights from linguistics;
The theory of generative-transformational grammar (Chomsky 1957, 1965)
The nature of meaning: advances in semantics and pragmatics

Moving away from the idea that an orthographic word has a fixed meaning;
A functional definition: word acquires meaning through its context and can
produce varying responses according to culture
The nature of meaning: advances in semantics and pragmatics

Meaning is broken down into:
linguistic meaning;
referential meaning;
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emotive (referential) meaning;

Hierarchical meaning and componential analysis;
semantic structure analysis
Hierarchical structuring
Differentating series of words according to their level:
The superordinate animal and its hyponyms goat, dog, cow, etc.
vehicle, car, bus, etc.
Componential analysis
Identifying and discriminating specific features of a range of related words;
grandmother, mother, cousin, etc.
sex (male, female),generation, lineality (direct ancestor/descendant);
bachelor: +male, +unmarried
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Semantic structure analysis

Separating out visually different meanings:
spirit (demons, angels, gods, ghosts, ethos, alcohol, etc.);
To demonstrate the semantic complexity of terms, how they vary and are
conditioned by their context;
Varying emotive or connotative value depending on the target culture
The importance of context for communication

Metaphorical meaning;
Complex cultural idioms
Techniques of componential analysis as a means of clarifying ambiguities,
elucidating obscure passages and identifying cultural differences
The influence of Chomsky

Phrase-structure rules generate an underlying or deep structure which is
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Transformed by transformational rules relating one underlying structure to

another (e.g. active to passive), to produce
a final surface structure, which itself is subject to phonological and morphemic
rules
The structure relations universal feature of human language

kernel sentences most basic structures simple, active declarative sentences
the minimum of transformation; basic structural elements out of which language
builds its elaborate surface structures
Incorporating key features of Chomskys model into the science of translation;
Technique for decoding the ST and a procedure for encoding the TT
Nidas three-stage system of translation

Chomsky and TT From Nida & Taber (1969:33)
Kernels: four types of functional class
events (usually verbs);
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objects (usually nouns);

abstracts (quantities and qualities, including adjectives);
relationals (inc. gender, prepositions and conjunctions)
Examples of analysis (Nida 1964)

Surface struture: will of God
Back transform: B(object, God) performs A (event, wills)
Surface structure: creation of the world

Back transform: B (object: the world) is the goal of A
(event, creates)
From Nida (1964: 185-7)
Two Basic Orientations: formal and dynamic equivalence
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Formal equivalence:
Formal equivalence focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and
content One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should
match as closely as possible the different elements in the source language
(Nida1964a: 159)
Bridging cultural and linguistic differences: Dynamic

Equivalence
The principle of equivalent effect: the relationship between receptor and
message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the
original receptors and the message
Correspondence in meaning must have priority over correspondence in style
Four basic requirements of a translation

Making sense;
Conveying the spirit and manner of the original;
Having a natural and easy form of expression;
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Producing a similar response
Dynamic equivalence procedures include:

Substituting more appropriate TL cultural material for less accessible SL items;
Making references which are implicit in the ST linguistically explicit in TL;
Regulating redundancy in order to facilitate comprehension
Language, culture and society

Lamb of God rendered as Seal of God
Relate the receptor to modes of behaviour relevant within the context of his (sic)
own culture
Adjustment techniques
Adding or taking away information;
Altering the material;
Providing footnotes;
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Generally modifying the ST by removing any element likely to be perceived as

alien, if not totally incomprehensible to the target audience
The importance of Nidas work

Introducing a receptor-based orientation
Dynamic vs formal (dynamic v. structural) represents points on a cline;
More-or-less not either-or dichotomies;
The role and responsibility of the translator;
The importance of Nidas work

Preoccupation with equivalence at word level;
Equivalent effect or response impossible to measure;
Is Nidas theory really scientific?
Technique for effective preaching?
3. TR Studies since 1970s:

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TR developed into an academic discipline

US: TR workshops, creative writing, Princeton, Iowa; comparative literature
(cultural studies)
Contrastive analysis (TR - subject of research): Linguistic approach : languages
in contrast (1960s 1970s)
CA: James 1980, Vinay Darbelnet (1958), Catford 1965, Connor, Chesterman (2001)
CA useful but fails to account for sociolinguistic & pragmatic factors nor the role of TR as a comm. act
Since 1970s, ctd.

LINGUISTIC / SYSTEMATIC APPROACH: (1950s 1960s)
J.P. Vinay & J. Darbelnet (1958) Stylistique comparee du francais et de langlais
contrastive approach
G. Mounin (1963) Les problemes theoriques de la traduction linguistic issues
E. Nida (1964) Toward a Science of Translating = Ubersetzungswissenschaft (W.
Wills, Koller, Kade, Neubert)
Candidate names: science, translatology, translatologie, traductolgia studies
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Translation Studies
Andr Lefevere Louvain Colloquium on Literature and Translation, 1976
Translation Studies discipline concerned with the problems raised by the
production and description of translation
a discipline in its own right: complex
not a minor branch of comparative literary study
not a specific area of linguistics
Main issues:
literal vs. free vs faithful
unit of translation
contrastive analysis
the equivalence problem
translatability vs untranslatability
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SLT vs TLT relation

translation types
translation strategies
communication factors
cognitive factors
machine translation
translation quality assessment
translation ethics / manipulation etc.
Developments since the 1970s

Different areas of Holmess map come to the fore:
Contrastive analysis has fallen by the wayside
strong linguistic-oriented science approach to TR (Germany) , decline of the
equivalence issue (Snell-Hornby 1995);
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theories around text types (Reiss)

text purpose skopos (Reiss, Vermeer)
Functional theories of translation (e.g. translational action, Skopos theory)
DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1970s - summary

TR viewed as a communicative act in a sociocultural context (influenced by
M.A.K. Halliday: discourse analysis and systemic functional grammar) Bell
1991, Baker 1992, Hatim and Mason (1990, 1997),
e) Hallidayan influence:
discourse analysis and
systemic functional grammar:
views language as a communicative act in a sociocultural context
prominent over the past decades in Australia and the UK: Bell (1991), Baker
(1992) and Hatim and Mason (1990, 1997)
the rise of a descriptive approach (late 1970s and the 1980s) G. Toury 1991,
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1995), I. Even-Zohar:
origins in comparative literature and Russian Formalism (Levy, Popovi)
The polysystemist approach (Lefevere, Bassnet, Hermans the Manipulation
School) dynamic, culturally oriented approach literary TR
the literary polysystem in which:
g) the literary polysystem in which:

different literatures and genres, including translated and non-translated works,
compete for dominance (Tel Aviv: Itamar Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury)
The polysystemists (Andr Lefevere, Susan Bassnett and Theo Hermans), e.g.
The Manipulation of Literature: Studies in Literary Translation (Hermans 1985a),
the Manipulation School
a dynamic, culturally oriented approach (continuation of Holmess DTS)
Gender research (Canada), feminist topics, postcolonial translation theory
CONCLUSION:
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Various theories competing for supremacy

Split between theory and practice ways to overcome it
Rapid development of the discipline
Challenges of the new technology
No general and comprehensive theory
Richness of linguistic, literary, historical, culturalist etc. approaches
Holistic approach
TRANSLATION STUDIES
Holmes: 1972 / 1988 2000: The name and nature of TR studies
= the complex of problems clustered round the phenomenon of translating and
translations
M. Snell-Hornby 1988: TR studies: An Integral

Approach
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the demand that TR Studies should be viewed as an independent discipline has

come from several quarters in recent years
M. Baker (1997) The Routledge Encyclopaedia. :

TRS exciting new discipline, bringing together scholars from a wide variety of
often more traditional disciplines
TRANSLATION STUDIES - impact

Visible ways of prominence:
proliferation of specialized translating (BA / MA)
proliferation of interpreting courses
literary translation
proliferation of conferences, books and journals (Babel, Traduire, Perspectives,
Rivista int. di technica della traduzione, Target, Translator)
publishers: Benjamins, Routledge, St. Jerome, Multilingual Matters)
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associations bulletins: The Linguist, the ITI Bulletin (Inst. For Translating and
Interpreters, TRANSST, BET, In Other Words)
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Teoria tumaczenia - Gd - prezentacje

Translation Theory Lecture1.pptx

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Equivalence (R. Jakobson; E. Nida dynamic equivalence; Catford formal and

What is a translation theory?

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Theorizing assumes shared concepts

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Translation is directional (from L1 to L2);

Theories are formed because of disagreements

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From theories to paradigms

Paper - 1972: Third International Congress of Applied

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description of the phenomena of TR (descr. TR theory

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product-oriented DTS (examines existing translations) diachronic - synchronic )

Early period/pre-linguistic period of translation (Newmark

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1. The early period

Ancient tradition, the Middle Ages

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Horace (Ars poetica): the goal of producing an aesthetically pleasing and

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Non-literal TR seen as blasphemy, a weapon against the

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The English King James version:

Faithful, spirit and truth: faithful- accurate - translation

Kelly (1979) The True Interpreter

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StAugustin: The Holy Spirit

An interconnection between fidelity, spirit and truth in the TR of sacred texts

Early attempts at a systematic theory of TR: triadic model

John Dryden: poet and translator

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Other prescriptive proposals Etienne Dolet (1540): principles of

Alexander Tytler (1797): Essay on the principles of

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Schleiermacher and the valorization of the foreign

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Schleiermacher (1813) Ueber die verschiedenen Methoden des Uebersetzens

Q: How to bring the ST writer and the TT reader together?

Only two paths for the true TLR:

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TLR must adopt an alienating method of TR orienting himself by the language

Late 19th and early 20th cent.

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Focus on the status of the ST and the form of TL

Late 19th and early 20th cent.

Towards contemporary translation theory

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Criteria for judgments vague and subjective;

Roman Jakobson: the nature of linguistic meaning and

Roman Jakobson: the nature of linguistic meaning and

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Establishing the general principle of interlinguistic

Roman Jakobson: the nature of linguistic meaning and

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Different languages (sign systems) partition reality differently;

Roman Jakobson: the nature of linguistic meaning and

Eugene Nida 1914-2011