Project Report on semiconductors - INTRODUCTION

Semiconductors :- Most of the solids can be placed in one of the two classes: Metals and
insulators. Metals are those through which electric charge can easily flow, while insulators are
those through which electric charge is difficult to flow. This distinction between the metals and
the insulators can be explained on the basis of the number of free electrons in them. Metals have
a large number of free electrons which act as charge carriers, while insulators have practically
no free electrons.
There are however, certain solids whose electrical conductivity is intermediate between metals
and insulators. They are called Semiconductors. Carbon, silicon and germanium are examples
of semi-conductors. In semiconductors the outer most electrons are neither so rigidly bound with
the atom as in an insulator, nor so loosely bound as in metal. At absolute zero a semiconductor
becomes an ideal insulator.

semiconductors - Theory and Definition

Semiconductors are the materials whose electrical conductivity lies in between metals and
insulator. The energy band structure of the semiconductors is similar to the insulators but in
their case, the size of the forbidden energy gap is much smaller than that of the insulator. In this
class of crystals, the forbidden gap is of the order of about 1ev, and the two energy bands are
distinctly separate with no overlapping. At absolute o0, no electron has any energy even to jump
the forbidden gap and reach the conduction band. Therefore the substance is an insulator. But
when we heat the crystal and thus provide some energy to the atoms and their electrons, it
becomes an easy matter for some electrons to jump the small ( 1 ev) energy gap and go to
conduction band. Thus at higher temperatures, the crystal becomes a conductors. This is the
specific property of the crystal which is known as a semiconductor.

Effect of temperature on conductivity of Semiconductor

At 0K, all semiconductors are insulators. The valence band at absolute zero is completely filled
and there are no free electrons in conduction band. At room temperature the electrons jump to
the conduction band due to the thermal energy. When the temperature increases, a large number
of electrons cross over the forbidden gap and jump from valence to conduction band. Hence
conductivity of semiconductor increases with temperature.

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semi-conductors. In a pure semiconductor, each
atom behaves as if there are 8 electrons in its valence shell and therefore the entire material
behaves as an insulator at low temperatures.

A semiconductor atom needs energy of the order of 1.1ev to shake off the valence
electron. This energy becomes available to it even at room temperature. Due to thermal
agitation of crystal structure, electrons from a few covalent bonds come out. The bond from
which electron is freed, a vacancy is created there. The vacancy in the covalent bond is
called a hole.
This hole can be filled by some other electron in a covalent bond. As an electron from
covalent bond moves to fill the hole, the hole is created in the covalent bond from which the
electron has moved. Since the direction of movement of the hole is opposite to that of the
negative electron, a hole behaves as a positive charge carrier. Thus, at room temperature, a
pure semiconductor will have electrons and holes wandering in random directions. These
electrons and holes are called intrinsic carriers.
As the crystal is neutral, the number of free electrons will be equal to the number of holes. In
an intrinsic semiconductor, if ne denotes the electron number density in conduction band,
nh the hole number density in valence band and ni the number density or concentration of
charge carriers, then

ne = nh = ni

extrinsic semiconductors
As the conductivity of intrinsic semi-conductors is poor, so intrinsic semi-conductors are of
little practical importance. The conductivity of pure semi-conductor can, however be
enormously increased by addition of some pentavalent or a trivalent impurity in a very small
amount (about 1 to 106 parts of the semi-conductor). The process of adding an impurity to a
pure semiconductor so as to improve its conductivity is called doping. Such semi-conductors
are called extrinsic semi-conductors. Extrinsic semiconductors are of two types :
i)
ii)

n-type semiconductor
p-type semiconductor

n-type semiconductor
When an impurity atom belonging to group V of the periodic table like Arsenic is added to the
pure semi-conductor, then four of the five impurity electrons form covalent bonds by sharing one
electron with each of the four nearest silicon atoms, and fifth electron from each impurity atom is
almost free to conduct electricity. As the pentavalent impurity increases the number of free
electrons, it is called donor impurity. The electrons so set free in the silicon crystal are called
extrinsic carriers and the n-type Si-crystal is called n-type extrinsic semiconductor. Therefore ntype Si-crystal will have a large number of free electrons (majority carriers) and have a small
number of holes (minority carriers).

In terms of valence and conduction band one can think that all such electrons create a donor
energy level just below the conduction band as shown in figure. As the energy gap between
donor energy level and the conduction band is very small, the electrons can easily raise
themselves to conduction band even at room temperature. Hence, the conductivity of n-type
extrinsic semiconductor is markedly increased.
In a doped or extrinsic semiconductor, the number density of the conduction band (n e) and the
number density of holes in the valence band (nh) differ from that in a pure semiconductor. If ni is
the number density of electrons is conduction band, then it is proved that

ne nh = ni2

p-type semiconductor
If a trivalent impurity like indium is added in pure semi-conductor, the impurity atom can provide
only three valence electrons for covalent bond formation. Thus a gap is left in one of the covalent
bonds. The gap acts as a hole that tends to accept electrons. As the trivalent impurity atoms
accept electrons from the silicon crystal, it is called acceptor impurity. The holes so created are
extrinsic carriers and the p-type Si-crystal so obtained is called p-type extrinsic
semiconductor. Again, as the pure Si-crystal also possesses a few electrons and holes, therefore,
the p-type si-crystal will have a large number of holes (majority carriers) and a small number of
electrons (minority carriers).
It terms of valence and conduction band one can think that all such holes create an accepter
energy level just above the top of the valance band as shown in figure. The electrons from
valence band can raise themselves to the accepter energy level by absorbing thermal energy at
room temperature and in turn create holes in the valence band.
Number density of valence band holes (nh) in p-type semiconductor is approximately equal to that
of the acceptor atoms (Na) and is very large as compared to the number density of conduction
band electrons (ne). Thus,

nh Na > > ne

electrical resistivity of semiconductors

Consider a block of semiconductor of length l1 area of cross-section A and having number density
of electrons and holes as ne and nh respectively. Suppose that on applying a potential difference,
say V, a current I flows through it as shown in figure. The electron current (Ic) and the hole
current (Ih) constitute the current I flowing through the semi conductor i.e.
I = Ie + Ih
(i)
It ne is the number density of conduction band electrons in the semiconductor and
ve, the drift velocity of electrons then
Ie = eneAve
Similarly, the hole current, Ih = enhAvh
From (i)
I = eneAve + enhAvh
I = eA(neve + nhvh)
(ii)

If is the resistivity of the material of the semiconductor, then the resistance

offered by the semiconductor to the flow of current is given by :
R = l/A
(iii)
Since V = RI, from equation (ii) and (iii) we have
V = RI = l/A eA (neve + nh vh)
V = le(neve + nhvh)
(iv)
If E is the electric field set up across the semiconductor, then:
E = V/l
(v)
from equation (iv) and (v), we have
E = e (neve + nhvh)
1/ = e (ne ve/E + nh vh/E)
On applying electric field, the drift velocity acquired by the electrons (or holes) per unit
strength of electric field is called mobility of electrons (or holes). Therefore,
mobility of electrons and holes is given by :
e = ve/E and h = vh/E
1/ = e(ne e + nh h)
(vi)
Also, = 1/ is called conductivity of the material of semiconductor

= e (ne e + nh h)
(vii)

The relation (vi) and (vii) show that the conductivity and resistivity of a
semiconductor depend upon the electron and hole number densities and their mobilities. As
ne and nh increases with rise in temperature, therefore, conductivity of semiconductor
increases with rise in temperature and resistivity decreases with rise in temperature.