COST IE 0601 + ESWM – Braga 2008

What one needs

to know
for the assessment
of timber structures

Helena Cruz, José

José Saporiti Machado, Pedro Palma

Laborató
Laboratório Nacional de Engenharia Civil

Repair, strengthening and up-grading of old buildings

represent an increasing percentage of building contractors activity:

• the urge for new construction is diminishing
• economical benefits
• historical or environmental concerns

“Pre-Pombalinos” “Pombalinos” “Gaioleiros”

(< 1755) (1755-1880) (1880-1930)

Variable no. of
4 storeys 5 to 8 storeys
storeys
20 820
39 %

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 Timber structures

Stone masonry
or
External composite wood-masonry walls
(filled with rubble masonry
assembled with lime mortar)
Walls
Stone masonry
Interior
or timber-framed (load bearing)

Thin wooden partition covered

Partition
with render and stucco

Timber slabs and wood

Floors
floorboards

Roof Timber trusses

“Pombalino” (1755-1880)

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Difficulties

● Engineering & architectural teaching ignores old materials and

construction techniques.
● Professional carpenters no longer exist
● Many so-called carpenters do not understand wood
and base their activity on erroneous principles
(applied with a frightening sense of self-confidence).

The assessment of old timber structures is normally a great source of

problems
and a frequent justification for integral replacement of structures that
would otherwise be kept in service.

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 In some hopeless cases decisions may be easy

- Nothing can be done

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In some other cases decisions may also be easy

the structure looks mostly sound and the intended use is not going to change

- Nothing seems necessary

(except minor maintenance works)

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 … but decisions may not be so easy

When the structures look partially damaged

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… but decisions may not be so easy

When safety has to be assessed due to a planned change of use.

Changing a private house into a public space (museum)

removing walls and pillars on the lower floors

Adding extra floors and extra internal walls

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… but decisions may not be so easy

… Or if you can’t even see the structure … or circulate inside the building

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Evaluation purpose

1. Understand the original structural system;

2. Identify and judge possible effects of modifications to the original structure;

3. Understand behaviour of joints and possible effects of mistakes and damages;

4. Recognise biological agents and damage caused to the structure;

5. Assume reasonable strength and stiffness values for timber;

6. Evaluate residual cross sections, representative of most timber members;

7. Judge the importance of local higher damage or poorer quality of timber

(than the ones assumed for most members).

Local individual members with higher damage or poorer quality may be object of special
attention;

Highly stressed members may be double checked to see if they may be allocated better
properties as a result of careful selection of timber during construction

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Structural considerations

sometimes complex and difficult to understand

ancient structures are not always structurally correct
• improvised
• basic conceptual / structural errors
• poorly detailed or poorly made
• Altered, disrespecting safety considerations.

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Structural considerations – common errors

In roof structures:
> erroneous geometry
> eccentric loading at supports
> and due to rafters away from the truss nodes
> lack of bracing between trusses
> missing elements due to previous interventions

In floor systems:
> insufficient support at beam ends
> lack or sloppy bracing between beams
> removal of supports or introduction of intermediate loading partitions

In joints:
> metal corrosion
> sloppiness
> timber splitting or crushing
> missing plates or fasteners
> minute edge and end distances of fasteners
> too small washers
> gaps between elements that should be in contact

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> Structural defects must receive due consideration and the interventors must be aware of
the need to guarantee suitable safety levels (and/or to restrain its use to less demanding
activities) despite the historical or architectural interest of the building.

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Estimation of basic properties

Sampling
● may involve a couple of members (that are to be replaced);
● may involve a small amount of wood taken from different locations:

either clear wood to check its properties

or wood with biological attack, aimed to evaluate its effects in strength.

Due to the natural variability of timber, such sampling is not representative

Sampling of clear wood disregard the influence of defects and local biological damage

Sampling is useful to provide information on:

species, moisture content and density

to check if strength values of clear wood fall within the expected range

Sampling must be used in conjunction with other methods to derive strength values
appropriate for design.

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Estimation of basic properties

Static load tests

● may be performed to the whole structure or parts of it

● loading is applied to the structure and measured deflection is compared to the
predictions of modelling (generally a finite element modelling) of the structure

● the estimated mechanical properties of the elements and joints (especially stiffness)
necessary for the model are adjusted/calibrated to match the measured deflections.

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Estimation of basic properties

Static load tests

Provide an estimation of elastic modulus (MoE) of timber, which serve to

derive strength values.

Bending (MoR) and compressive strength are derived from existing

correlations of these with MoE+density for that specific species.

The other properties are generally derived from more general correlations
between different properties.

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Estimation of basic properties

Vibration (load) tests

an instantaneous load (hit) is applied to the structure and the resulting motion is
measured by accelerometers.

Vibration frequencies provide an estimation of the MoE, knowing geometry, support

conditions and material properties.
The estimated MoE is used to derive the other mechanical properties

160
140
120
MOR (N/mm )
2

100
80
60
40
20
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000
2
MOE (N/mm )

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Estimation of basic properties

Load tests

Interpretation of results depends on how accurately the support conditions and the
influence of load-sharing elements can be understood and modelled

Local moisture content variations may introduce errors

Results depend on how good the correlations between different properties are

The specific sample of timber used in a particular structure may deviate from the average
correlation established for that species

For some species such correlations were never determined

The whole approach assumes that the correlations between different strength properties
obtained for new timber of a given species also apply for old timber

(even if it has suffered unknown load and environment history)

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 Estimation of basic properties

The grading approach (most current)

● identification of the wood species used (historical records + wood anatomist)
● evaluation of the quality of individual timber members
evaluation of timber quality should be reported to an existing stress grading standard
for which strength values can be allocated

Allocation of an average grade to all members in the structure

After a first structural analysis, a more refined grading can be carried out on those
members which importance in the structure and/or high stress level justify extra
attention.

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Estimation of basic properties

The grading approach

Requires an extensive survey of the structure - time consuming

Strength values for timber of structural dimensions may not be available for a specific
species and provenance

Assumes that the strength values allocated to new timber of a certain species and grade
also apply to old used timber

The influence of moisture content variations in the strength and stiffness of timber are
known to have a negative effect
Load history previously applied to timber is known to reduce strength and stiffness, highly
depending on the stress levels attained and the environmental conditions.
Studies suggest that time itself enhanced some of the timber properties, although we lack
precise information about the properties of that very same timber when it was new.

Unknown stress history and environment history brings a high degree of uncertainty

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 Biological damage and estimation of cross sections

Overall and local effects of biological degradation on strength and stiffness of members and
joints must be judged
… normally a great source of problems

Fungal attack

The affected volume may be assessed by non-destructive methods

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Biological damage and estimation of cross sections

Fungal attack

It is common to assume no contribution of cross sections seriously affected by decay

In those cases where decay seems to affect just the surface of a member, that member
may be kept in place if it is clearly overdesigned by report to calculated stresses.

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 Biological damage and estimation of cross sections

Fungal attack

Models to predict strength and stiffness reduction of the affected section in a practical
situation involves a high degree of uncertainty

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Biological damage and estimation of cross sections

Insect attack

Timber members affected by insects have decreased strength due to a reduced cross section

Commonly only a surface layer of sapwood is destroyed

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 Biological damage and estimation of cross sections

Insect attack
The depth of the attacked layer may be assessed with non-destructive techniques.
An equivalent reduced cross section may then be estimated.

The same cross section reduction may be assumed for all members in the structure
followed by a more detailed assessment and refined verification for specific members of
higher importance or higher calculated stress levels.

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Biological damage and estimation of cross sections

Insect attack
Insect attack may instead take the form of a diffuse damage throughout most of the cross
section.
Alternatively, a reduced quality due to a reduced apparent density may be assumed for such
cases.

The real influence of insect attack in the strength and stiffness of timber members has yet to
be clarified.

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Conclusions

Assessment of old timber structures requires specific expertise and knowledge

quantify individual timber members: material properties
effective strength (effective cross section).

Regarding the timber members assessment:

>> load tests
>> grading + assessment of cross section

Need well established methods to evaluate the safety of timber structures

Wood Science should help reduce the present degree of uncertainty associated
to some necessary assumptions,
- thus improving safety
- while avoiding too conservative evaluations that may obstacle maintenance of
still safe structures.

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Conclusions

Load tests
Rely on existing correlations between timber strength / stiffness and between different
strength properties
Need correlations for other species
Need checking if above correlations found for new timber also apply for timber grown
in different conditions and subjected to unknown loading and environment.

Grading
Rely on existing correlations: species + origin + (quality) grade and strength properties
Need correlations for other species
Need to check if correlations established for new timber also apply to aged timber
Need grading rules more suitable for timber in service

Estimation of effective cross section

Assumes reduced cross section for insects, reduced (0 / 100%) properties for decay
Calibrate NDTs to identify volume affected by decay or insect attack
Assess effective strength decrease due to biological attack

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 COST IE 0601 + ESWM – Braga 2008

What one needs

to know
for the assessment
of timber structures

Helena Cruz, José

José Saporiti Machado, Pedro Palma

Laborató
Laboratório Nacional de Engenharia Civil

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