Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
The text of this publication, or any part thereof, may not be reproduced or transmitted in anyform
or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, storage inan
information retrieval system, or otherwise, without prior permission of Department of
Polytechnic Education.
Preface
MECHANICALCOMPONENTSAND
MAINTENANCEcoversbasicmechanical
componentsneedsinIndustry.Thetopicincludesmaintenanceprinciples,procedures,
lubrication,powertransmission,bearing,clutches
and
brakes
and
pumps,valves
compressor.Thiscoursealsogivesknowledgeandskillsregardingmaintenanceof
and
mechanical
componentsand assemblies.
Editor
Arman Bin Md Said
Table of Contents
1.0
2.0
MAINTENANCEPRINCIPLESANDPROCEDURES
1.1
Understandingof maintenance.
1.1.1 Definethemeaningofmaintenance.
1.1.2 Describe theobjectiveandadvantagesofimplement
maintenance.
1.2 Explain various types of cost maintenance related.
1.3
Describeworkplacesafety.
1.3.1 Identifythebenefitcleanandsafeworkingenvironment.
1.3.2 Explaintheimportantof personal protectionequipments.
1.3.3 Uselockoutandtag-outwhenneeded.
1.3.4 Identifyalltheorganizationthatgovernsthesafetyof
hazardousmaterial.
1.4
Identifytypesofhand tools,powertoolsandmaintenanceequipments.
1.4.1 Listthe mostcommon typesofhand tool andpowertools.
1.4.2 Demonstratetheproperuseofvarious typesofhandtooland powertools.
1.4.3 Determine theimportanceofinspectingahand toolandpower
tools
LUBRICATION
2.1
Understandlubrication principle.
2.1.1 Describelubricationsystemandbenefitimplement
lubricationsystem.
2.1.2 Stateseveralterm andprincipletounderstandandselect proper
lubrication.
3.0
2.2
Understandfluidmanagement.
2.2.1 Applyfouressentialcomponentsina fluid management
program.
a.
Selectionandpurchaseoflubrication
b.
Lubricationmonitoringduringuse
c.
Lubricantmaintenanceusingprocessing d.
Refortificationtechniques
e.
Disposalofthespentlubricant.
2.3
Identifylubricatingdevicesandsystem.
2.4.1 Evaluateeffectivenesslubricatesuchasselectrightlubricant
type,place, amountandtimeto use.
2.4.2 Choosesuitable lubricatingdevices systembased onequipment
ormechanical components.
POWERTRANSMISSION
3.1
Describethedrivemechanismintheprocessoftransformingpower fromone
pointtotheother.
3.1.1 Classifytypesof drivemechanismsbeltdrive, chaindrive and gear
drive
3.2
Describegear in powertransmissionsystem.
3.2.1 Listapplicationofgear.
3.2.2 Classifytypes ofgearsandtheir characteristics basedonits
function.
3.2.3 Identify gearmeshingandbacklash.
3.2.4 Explain coupling concept into gear system.
3.2.5 Identifygearmaintenancepracticesuchasdailyroutine
inspection.
3.2.6 Developgearchecklistforpreventivemaintenance,symptoms
andrecord observationforpreventive maintenance ,etc.
3.2.7 Assembleanddisassembleafewtypesofgearsa practical.As an examples
componentscanbeuseisassemblyspurgearexercise or assemblyspur
wheel /wormgear station.
3.2.8 Developmaintenanceprocedure.
a.
Geartooth-wearandfailure.
b.
Lubrication contaminationandincorrectlubrication.
c.
Overheating.
d.
Lowoillevel,etc
3.3
3.4
Understandchain drive.
3.4.1 List applicationof chaindrive.
3.4.2 Classify FIVEtypesofchaindrive and theircharacteristicsbased
onitsfunction.
3.4.3 Developchecklistchaindrivemaintenance,symptomsand
recordobservationforpreventive maintenance.
3.4.4 Producechaindrivemaintenanceprocedure.
3.5
V-
3.5.1 Describethefundamentalsofshaftalignment.
3.5.2 Demonstratetheuseof thereversedialindicatormethodsto correct
shaft misalignment.
3.5.3 Assembleanddisassembleofmechanicaldrivesystemasa
practical.Asanexamples components canbeusearegear
assemblyforcombined drivesandalignment of drives, shafts
andgear.
4.0
BEARING
4.1
Understandbearingconcepts.
4.1.1 Listapplicationof bearing.
4.1.2 Classify FIVE types of bearing based on its application.
4.1.3 Identify bearing numenclature and code base on ISO
4.1.4 Explain Bearing Service Life, in hour or rotation
4.1.5 Explain the concept ofseals,gasketsandpackingintobearing
system.
5.0
4.2
4.3
Describe mountinganddismountingofbearing.
4.3.1 Applymountinganddismountingequipment andtools.
4.3.2 Usemeasuringequipmentforbearinginstallation.
4.3.3 Applyconcepttoadjusting theclearanceduringinstallation.
4.3.4 Classifymountingmethods likes cold mounting,temperature
mounting,mounting tapered-borebearing,dismountingof
bearing,hydraulic method.
4.3.5 Assembleanddissembleofbearingasapractical.As anexamples
componentscanbeuseare assemblyshaftwith journal
bearingsandassemblyhydrodynamic journal bearing.
4.4
Understandbearingdamage.
4.4.1 Developedbearing maintenance check list,symptoms
forpreventive maintenance.
a.
Fatigue,vibrationandwear
b.
Corrosiondamage.
c.
Scuffingandslidingmarks.
d.
Localindentationsintheraceway.
e.
Faultymountinganddefectiveinstallationmethods.
f.
Poorlubricationand faultindesign.
CLUTCHES ANDBRAKES
6.0
5.1
Describe clutchesandbrakesprinciple.
5.1.1 Identifyfunctionofa clutch and brakes.
5.1.2 Classify various typesof clutches based on:
iMechanical
iiElectric and
iiiHydraulic
5.1.3 Assembleanddissembleclutch and brake as a practical
.C o m p o n e n t s canbeuseare multiple plate clutch and drum
brakes
5.2
PUMPS,VALVESANDCOMPRESSOR
6.1
Understandpumpsconcepts.
6.1.1 Listapplicationofpumps.
6.1.2 Classifytypes ofpumpsbasedonits
principle.
i.
Positive displacement
ii.
Rotor dynamic
6.1.3 Assembleanddisassemblepumpasapractical.Asaexamples
componentscanbeuseiscentrifugal pump.
6.1.4 Developedcheck list pumpsmaintenance,symptomsandrecord
observationsforpreventive maintenance.
6.2
6.3
Understandcompressor concepts.
6.3.1 Listapplicationofcompressor.
6.3.2 Classifytypesofcompressor based on itsfunction.
i.
Positive displacement
iii.
Rotor dynamic
INDEX
REFERENCES
Determinelubricatingprogram.
a.
Theplantlubricationsurvey.
b.
Establishmentoflubricationschedulesand improvementsin
selection and applicationoflubrication.
c.
Lubricationanalysis
MAINTENANCEPRINCIPLESANDPR
OCEDURES
Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this chapter, students should be able to:1. Understandingof maintenance.
1.02. Explain
MAINTENANCEPRINCIPLESANDPROCEDURES
various types of cost maintenance related.
3. Describeworkplacesafety.
Introduction
4. Identifytypesofhand
tools,powertoolsandmaintenanceequipments.
Maintenance, repair, and operations (MRO) or maintenance , repair, and overhaul involve fixing
any sort of mechanical, plumbing or electrical device should it become out of order or broken
(known as repair, unscheduled or casualty maintenance). It also includes performing routine
actions which keep the device in working order (known as scheduled maintenance) or prevents
trouble from arising (preventive maintenance). MRO may be defined as, "All actions which have
the objective of retaining or restoring an item in or to a state in which it can perform its required
function. The actions include the combination of all technical and corresponding administrative,
managerial, and supervision actions.
1.1
Understandingof maintenance.
1.1.1 Definethemeaningofmaintenance.
I.
II.
The definition of maintenance often stated maintenance as an activity carried out for
any equipment to ensure its reliability to perform its functions.
III.
IV.
Breakdown maintenance
It means that people waits until equipment fails and repair it. Such a thing could be
used when the equipment failure does not significantly affect the operation or
production or generate any significant loss other than repair cost
II.
b) Predictive maintenance
This is a method in which the service life of important part is predicted based on
inspection or diagnosis, in order to use the parts to the limit of their service life.
Compared to periodic maintenance, predictive maintenance is condition based
maintenance. It manages trend values, by measuring and analyzing data about
deterioration and employs a surveillance system, designed to monitor conditions
through an on-line system.
III.
carried out reliably. Equipment with design weakness must be redesigned to improve
reliability or improving maintainability
IV.
I.
Planning of work improves the likehood of ensuring that the correct work is
carried out at the right time. Planning also provides information for purchasing
spare parts and materials and for determining personal requirements.
II.
Various means of learning from experience can also be employed. One way is to
keeprecord every operational problem. This data can be used as a basis for
planning.
III.
IV.
V.
Within the majority of areas, the amount of maintenance work necessary can be
reduced through improved application of experience, improved planning and
better design, coupled with application of suitable methods of investigating the
condition of plant and machinery (condition monitoring).
VI.
Maintenance contributes to reduced consumption of capital by helping to
maintain the value of materials and equipment.
VII.
Correct maintenance also extends the life of the equipment. This means that fund
that would otherwise have been required to invest in (i.e. purchase) new
equipment, can be used for other purposes within the company.
VIII.
The way in which maintenance is carried out in a company is of considerable
economic importance. Proper maintenance increases reliability and, therefore,
productivity, resulting in increased revenue.
Most of the measures described above result in less time and material being required for
maintenance, leading to reduced costs for the company. In general, it can be said that preventive
maintenance increases the profitability of the company.
Properly carried out maintenance results not only in economic gains, but also in an improved
working environment, improved human safety and reduced stress. Energy consumption and
capital costs can also be reduced through proper maintenance.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
b.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
c.
I.
II.
III.
for the maintenance engineer to apply for a supplementary addition to his budget. This approach
is to be preferred to the alternative of `delay tactics', where it is hope that savings will be created
in other areas, with the results that at the end of the year total actual costs compare favourably
with the budget costs. This could mean that the required level of maintenance on other machines
has not been completed, to the possible detriment of the machinery's effectiveness in the future.
In these circumstances, it is important that all interested parties appreciate the difficulties
associated with the maintenance function and as a result the engineer/manager and the
management accountant co-operate in developing a system which helps maintenance
management to be more efficient. This principle must apply both at the budget preparation stage
as well as the implementation stage, i.e. in the analysis of variances and consideration of the
various alternative courses of action.
When excessive maintenance occurs due to bad machinery design, it is equally important
that there should be effective feedback of the appropriate information to the manufacturer and/or
designer.
1.2.2 Cost or Result Controlled Maintenance
The cost controlled maintenance is not connected to modern maintenance. According to one of
the maintenance objective is to "keep up planned availability performance to the lowest cost
possible" which means that it is the long term results which must be taken into consideration.
The maintenance cost must be put in relationship with the planned availability performance.
The reason for why maintenance has been treated as a cost controlled activity is often that
technicians have had some difficulties to measure the investments in maintenance in total
economic terms. It is very easy to find the cost of maintenance but it is difficult to see the results.
The maintenance costs can be varying from organisation to organisation and divided into two
categories:I.
II.
Describeworkplacesafety.
Defnition
Workplace is the location at or from which an employee ordinarily performs the duties of
his or her position and, in the case of an employee whose duties are of an itinerant nature, the
actual building to which the employee returns to prepare and/or submit reports, etc., and where
other administrative matters pertaining to the employee's employment are conducted.
Workplace safety is essential for providing a safe environment in which employees can work
with minimal risk to their health. On-the-job accidents can cause injuries and death. Preventing
these accidents requires the effort of all employees in the organization. Numerous workplace of
risks exist, including dangers resulting from human errors and mechanical malfunctions. An
organization must use a combination of safety training and safety protocols to prevent as many
employee injuries as possible.
Safe and healthy environment in the workplace benefits everybody. When people feel safe and
are healthy their productivity at work increases. This in turn benefits the company. The number
of work hours lost due to illness and injuries is also decreased in a safe and healthy workplace.
Everyone will be more productive.
Safe and healthy work atmosphere assist in reducing the risk of avoidable problems. It is in the
interest of the company to provide safe and healthy workplace if it needs to avoid dealing with
complaints or lawsuits from its workers arising from injuries while at job.
Companies emphasizing on tidy, organized and safe work environment help boost the individual
and the companys morale as a whole. This encourages everyone working there to do their best
and feel good about getting the job done.
Ensuring the safety at workplace does not require huge investment of time or money or other
resources. All you need is to establish the basic framework and pathways to achieve the desired
targets. Everyone working in the company should be made aware of their responsibility to follow
the local policies, provided training with regular updates then the whole environment will
become safe and healthy. When individuals practice the safety at workplace on daily basis it
becomes a second nature. Workers should be encouraged to report near misses which are critical
in developing new strategies and safeguards against possible mishaps. Safe and healthy
workplace leads to confident and productive workers.
Prosperous companies make efforts to ensure their workers safety as these companies have
realized the importance of healthy and happy workers.
Working in a clean, healthy environment can have a major effect on your employees. They may
love their job, but on those bad days, a bright and clean workspace can help them through it and
keep them productive. In a dingy or cluttered workspace, bad days and problems seem to fester a
lot longer. A clean workspace can have a major impact on how people feel and behave in the
workplace
1.3.1 Identifythebenefitcleanandsafeworkingenvironment.
A clean workplace improves air quality, and that keeps everyone cutting down on sick days and
absenteeism. Your workers will have more energy and feel more creative. Just the simple task of
cleaning can improve performance and boost business.
When people feel better about their environment, they get along better. If you are having issues
with communication in the workplace and people seem to be bickering with co-workers, try
making the space cleaner. The fresh change may be just what everyone needs to feel better and
try harder to get along with one another in the workplace
Benefits
healthy workers are productive and raise healthy families; thus healthy workers are a key
strategy in overcoming poverty.
workplace health risks are higher in the informal sector and small industries which are key
arenas of action on poverty alleviation, where people can work their way out of poverty.
safe workplaces contribute to sustainable development, which is the key to poverty reduction.
the processes of protecting workers, surrounding communities and the environment for future
generations have important common elements, such as pollution control and exposure
reduction.
much pollution and many environmental exposures that are hazardous to health arise from
industrial processes, that can be beneficially influenced by occupational health and safety
programmes.
occupational safety and health can contribute to improving the employability of workers,
through workplace (re)design, maintenance of a healthy and safe work environment, training
and retraining, assessment of work demands, medical diagnosis, health screening and
assessment of functional capacities.
occupational health is fundamental to public health, for it is increasingly clear that major
diseases (e.g. AIDS, heart disease, cancer) need workplace wellness programmes.
Performing a "hazard assessment" of the workplace to identify and control physical and
health hazards.
Identifying and providing appropriate PPE for employees.
Training employees in the use and care of the PPE.
Maintaining PPE, including replacing worn or damaged PPE.
Periodically reviewing, updating and evaluating the effectiveness of the PPE program.
Specific requirements for PPE are presented in many different OSHA standards, published in 29
CFR. Some standards require that employers provide PPE at no cost to the employee while
others simply state that the employer must provide PPE. Appendix A at page 40 lists those
standards that require the employer to provide PPE and those that require the employer to
provide PPE at no cost to the employee.
Impact,
Penetration,
Compression (roll-over),
Chemical,
Heat/cold,
Harmful dust,
Light (optical) radiation, and
Biologic.
In addition to noting the basic layout of the facility and reviewing any history of occupational
illnesses or injuries, things to look for during the walk-through survey include:
Sources of electricity.
Sources of motion such as machines or processes where movement may exist that could
result in an impact between personnel and equipment.
Sources of high temperatures that could result in burns, eye injuries or fire.
Types of chemicals used in the workplace.
Sources of harmful dusts.
Sources of light radiation, such as welding, brazing, cutting, furnaces, heat treating, high
intensity lights, etc.
The potential for falling or dropping objects.
Sharp objects that could poke, cut, stab or puncture.
Biologic hazards such as blood or other potentially infected material.
When the walk-through is complete, the employer should organize and analyze the data so that it
may be efficiently used in determining the proper types of PPE required at the worksite. The
employer should become aware of the different types of PPE available and the levels of
protection offered. It is definitely a good idea to select PPE that will provide a level of protection
greater than the minimum required to protect employees from hazards.
The workplace should be periodically reassessed for any changes in conditions, equipment or
operating procedures that could affect occupational hazards. This periodic reassessment should
also include a review of injury and illness records to spot any trends or areas of concern and
taking appropriate corrective action. The suitability of existing PPE, including an evaluation of
its condition and age, should be included in the reassessment.
Documentation of the hazard assessment is required through a written certification that includes
the following information:
Selecting PPE
All PPE clothing and equipment should be of safe design and construction, and should be
maintained in a clean and reliable fashion. Employers should take the fit and comfort of PPE into
consideration when selecting appropriate items for their workplace. PPE that fits well and is
comfortable to wear will encourage employee use of PPE. Most protective devices are available
in multiple sizes and care should be taken to select the proper size for each employee. If several
different types of PPE are worn together, make sure they are compatible. If PPE does not fit
properly, it can make the difference between being safely covered or dangerously exposed. It
may not provide the level of protection desired and may discourage employee use.
OSHA requires that many categories of PPE meet or be equivalent to standards developed by the
American National Standards Institute (ANSI). ANSI has been preparing safety standards since
the 1920s, when the first safety standard was approved to protect the heads and eyes of industrial
workers. Employers who need to provide PPE in the categories listed below must make certain
that any new equipment procured meets the cited ANSI standard. Existing PPE stocks must meet
the ANSI standard in effect at the time of its manufacture or provide protection equivalent to
PPE manufactured to the ANSI criteria. Employers should inform employees who provide their
own PPE of the employer's selection decisions and ensure that any employee-owned PPE used in
the workplace conforms to the employer's criteria, based on the hazard assessment, OSHA
requirements and ANSI standards. OSHA requires PPE to meet the following ANSI standards:
Eye and Face Protection: ANSI Z87.1-1989 (USA Standard for Occupational and
Educational Eye and Face Protection).
Head Protection: ANSI Z89.1-1986.
Foot Protection: ANSI Z41.1-1991.
For hand protection, there is no ANSI standard for gloves but OSHA recommends that selection
be based upon the tasks to be performed and the performance and construction characteristics of
the glove material. For protection against chemicals, glove selection must be based on the
chemicals encountered, the chemical resistance and the physical properties of the glove material.
Employers should make sure that each employee demonstrates an understanding of the PPE
training as well as the ability to properly wear and use PPE before they are allowed to perform
work requiring the use of the PPE. If an employer believes that a previously trained employee is
not demonstrating the proper understanding and skill level in the use of PPE, that employee
should receive retraining. Other situations that require additional or retraining of employees
include the following circumstances: changes in the workplace or in the type of required PPE
that make prior training obsolete.
The employer must document the training of each employee required to wear or use PPE by
preparing a certification containing the name of each employee trained, the date of training and a
clear identification of the subject of the certification.
Dust, dirt, metal or wood chips entering the eye from activities such as chipping,
grinding, sawing, hammering, the use of power tools or even strong wind forces.
Chemical splashes from corrosive substances, hot liquids, solvents or other hazardous
solutions.
Objects swinging into the eye or face, such as tree limbs, chains, tools or ropes.
Radiant energy from welding, harmful rays from the use of lasers or other radiant light
(as well as heat, glare, sparks, splash and flying particles).
The eye and face protection selected for employee use must clearly identify the manufacturer.
Any new eye and face protective devices must comply with ANSI Z87.1-1989 or be at least as
effective as this standard requires. Any equipment purchased before this requirement took effect
on July 5, 1994, must comply with the earlier ANSI Standard (ANSI Z87.1-1968) or be shown to
be equally effective.
An employer may choose to provide one pair of protective eyewear for each position rather than
individual eyewear for each employee. If this is done, the employer must make sure that
employees disinfect shared protective eyewear after each use. Protective eyewear with corrective
lenses may only be used by the employee for whom the corrective prescription was issued and
may not be shared among employees.
Some of the most common types of eye and face protection include the following:
Safety spectacles. These protective eyeglasses have safety frames constructed of metal or
plastic and impact-resistant lenses. Side shields are available on some models.
Goggles. These are tight-fitting eye protection that completely cover the eyes, eye
sockets and the facial area immediately surrounding the eyes and provide protection from
impact, dust and splashes. Some goggles will fit over corrective lenses.
Welding shields. Constructed of vulcanized fiber or fiberglass and fitted with a filtered
lens, welding shields protect eyes from burns caused by infrared or intense radiant light;
they also protect both the eyes and face from flying sparks, metal spatter and slag chips
produced during welding, brazing, soldering and cutting operations. OSHA requires filter
lenses to have a shade number appropriate to protect against the specific hazards of the
work being performed in order to protect against harmful light radiation.
Laser safety goggles. These specialty goggles protect against intense concentrations of
light produced by lasers. The type of laser safety goggles an employer chooses will
depend upon the equipment and operating conditions in the workplace.
Face shields. These transparent sheets of plastic extend from the eyebrows to below the
chin and across the entire width of the employee's head. Some are polarized for glare
protection. Face shields protect against nuisance dusts and potential splashes or sprays of
hazardous liquids but will not provide adequate protection against impact hazards. Face
shields used in combination with goggles or safety spectacles will provide additional
protection against impact hazards.
Each type of protective eyewear is designed to protect against specific hazards. Employers can
identify the specific workplace hazards that threaten employees' eyes and faces by completing a
hazard assessment as outlined in the earlier section.
Welding Operations
The intense light associated with welding operations can cause serious and sometimes permanent
eye damage if operators do not wear proper eye protection. The intensity of light or radiant
energy produced by welding, cutting or brazing operations varies according to a number of
factors including the task producing the light, the electrode size and the arc current. The
following table shows the minimum protective shades for a variety of welding, cutting and
brazing operations in general industry and in the shipbuilding industry.
Table 1
Filter Lenses for Protection Against Radiant Energy
Operations
Arc current
<3
3-5
5-8
>8
< 60
60 - 160
160 - 250
250 - 550
7
8
10
11
< 60
60 - 160
160 - 250
250 - 500
7
10
10
10
Gas tungsten
arc welding
< 50
50 - 150
150 - 500
8
8
10
Air carbon
(light)
< 500
10
Arc cutting
(heavy)
500 - 1,000
11
< 20
20 - 100
100 - 400
400 - 800
6
8
10
11
< 300
300 - 400
400 - 800
8
9
10
(light)**
(medium)**
(heavy)**
Torch brazing
Torch soldering
14
Operations
Table 2
Filter Lenses for Protection Against Radiant Energy
Plate thickness inches
Plate thickness mm
Minimum* protective shade
Gas welding:
Light
< 1/8
< 3.2
Gas welding:
Medium
1/8 - 1/2
3.2 - 12.7
Gas welding:
Heavy
> 1/2
> 12.7
Oxygen cutting:
Light
<1
< 25
1-6
25 - 150
>6
> 150
Oxygen cutting:
Heavy
Source: 29 CFR 1910.133(a)(5).
* As a rule of thumb, start with a shade that is too dark to see the weld zone. Then go to a lighter
shade which gives sufficient view of the weld zone without going below the minimum. In
oxyfuel gas welding or cutting where the torch produces a high yellow light, it is desirable to use
a filter lens that absorbs the yellow or sodium line in the visible light of the (spectrum) operation.
** These values apply where the actual arc is clearly seen. Experience has shown that lighter
filters may be used when the arc is hidden by the workpiece.
The construction industry has separate requirements for filter lens protective levels for specific
types of welding operations, as indicated in the table below:
Laser Operations
Laser light radiation can be extremely dangerous to the unprotected eye and direct or reflected
beams can cause permanent eye damage. Laser retinal burns can be painless, so it is essential that
all personnel in or around laser operations wear appropriate eye protection.
Laser safety goggles should protect for the specific wavelength of the laser and must be of
sufficient optical density for the energy involved. Safety goggles intended for use with laser
beams must be labeled with the laser wavelengths for which they are intended to be used, the
optical density of those wavelengths and the visible light transmission.
The table below lists maximum power or energy densities and appropriate protection levels for
optical densities 5 through 8.
Table 3
Selecting Laser Safety Glass
Intensity, CW maximum power density
(watts/cm2)
10-2
Attenuation
Optical density
(O.D.)
Attenuation
factor
105
10-1
106
1.0
107
10.0
108
Head Protection
Protecting employees from potential head injuries is a key element of any safety program. A
head injury can impair an employee for life or it can be fatal. Wearing a safety helmet or hard hat
is one of the easiest ways to protect an employee's head from injury. Hard hats can protect
employees from impact and penetration hazards as well as from electrical shock and burn
hazards.
Employers must ensure that their employees wear head protection if any of the following apply:
Objects might fall from above and strike them on the head;
They might bump their heads against fixed objects, such as exposed pipes or beams; or
There is a possibility of accidental head contact with electrical hazards.
Some examples of occupations in which employees should be required to wear head protection
include construction workers, carpenters, electricians, linemen, plumbers and pipefitters, timber
and log cutters, welders, among many others. Whenever there is a danger of objects falling from
above, such as working below others who are using tools or working under a conveyor belt, head
protection must be worn. Hard hats must be worn with the bill forward to protect employees
properly.
In general, protective helmets or hard hats should do the following:
Hard hats must have a hard outer shell and a shock-absorbing lining that incorporates a headband
and straps that suspend the shell from 1 to 1 1/4 inches (2.54 cm to 3.18 cm) away from the head.
This type of design provides shock absorption during an impact and ventilation during normal
wear.
Protective headgear must meet ANSI Standard Z89.1-1986 (Protective Headgear for Industrial
Workers) or provide an equivalent level of protection. Helmets purchased before July 5, 1994
must comply with the earlier ANSI Standard (Z89.1-1969) or provide equivalent protection.
There are many types of hard hats available in the marketplace today. In addition to selecting
protective headgear that meets ANSI standard requirements, employers should ensure that
employees wear hard hats that provide appropriate protection against potential workplace
hazards. It is important for employers to understand all potential hazards when making this
selection, including electrical hazards. This can be done through a comprehensive hazard
analysis and an awareness of the different types of protective headgear available.
Hard hats are divided into three industrial classes:
Class A hard hats provide impact and penetration resistance along with limited voltage
protection (up to 2,200 volts).
Class B hard hats provide the highest level of protection against electrical hazards, with
high-voltage shock and burn protection (up to 20,000 volts). They also provide protection
from impact and penetration hazards by flying/falling objects.
Class C hard hats provide lightweight comfort and impact protection but offer no
protection from electrical hazards.
Another class of protective headgear on the market is called a bump hat," designed for use in
areas with low head clearance. They are recommended for areas where protection is needed from
head bumps and lacerations. These are not designed to protect against falling or flying objects
and are not ANSI approved. It is essential to check the type of hard hat employees are using to
ensure that the equipment provides appropriate protection. Each hat should bear a label inside the
shell that lists the manufacturer, the ANSI designation and the class of the hat.
Size and Care Considerations
Head protection that is either too large or too small is inappropriate for use, even if it meets all
other requirements. Protective headgear must fit appropriately on the body and for the head size
of each individual. Most protective headgear comes in a variety of sizes with adjustable
headbands to ensure a proper fit (many adjust in 1/8-inch increments). A proper fit should allow
sufficient clearance between the shell and the suspension system for ventilation and distribution
of an impact. The hat should not bind, slip, fall off or irritate the skin.
Some protective headgear allows for the use of various accessories to help employees deal with
changing environmental conditions, such as slots for earmuffs, safety glasses, face shields and
mounted lights. Optional brims may provide additional protection from the sun and some hats
have channels that guide rainwater away from the face. Protective headgear accessories must not
compromise the safety elements of the equipment.
Periodic cleaning and inspection will extend the useful life of protective headgear. A daily
inspection of the hard hat shell, suspension system and other accessories for holes, cracks, tears
or other damage that might compromise the protective value of the hat is essential. Paints, paint
thinners and some cleaning agents can weaken the shells of hard hats and may eliminate
electrical resistance. Consult the helmet manufacturer for information on the effects of paint and
cleaning materials on their hard hats. Never drill holes, paint or apply labels to protective
headgear as this may reduce the integrity of the protection. Do not store protective headgear in
direct sunlight, such as on the rear window shelf of a car, since sunlight and extreme heat can
damage them.
Hard hats with any of the following defects should be removed from service and replaced:
Always replace a hard hat if it sustains an impact, even if damage is not noticeable. Suspension
systems are offered as replacement parts and should be replaced when damaged or when
excessive wear is noticed. It is not necessary to replace the entire hard hat when deterioration or
tears of the suspension systems are noticed.
When heavy objects such as barrels or tools might roll onto or fall on the employee's feet;
Working with sharp objects such as nails or spikes that could pierce the soles or uppers of
ordinary shoes;
Exposure to molten metal that might splash on feet or legs;
Working on or around hot, wet or slippery surfaces; and
Working when electrical hazards are present.
Safety footwear must meet ANSI minimum compression and impact performance standards in
ANSI Z41-1991 (American National Standard for Personal Protection-Protective Footwear) or
provide equivalent protection. Footwear purchased before July 5, 1994, must meet or provide
equivalent protection to the earlier ANSI Standard (ANSI Z41.1-1967). All ANSI approved
footwear has a protective toe and offers impact and compression protection. But the type and
amount of protection is not always the same. Different footwear protects in different ways.
Check the product's labeling or consult the manufacturer to make sure the footwear will protect
the user from the hazards they face.
Foot and leg protection choices include the following:
Leggings protect the lower legs and feet from heat hazards such as molten metal or
welding sparks. Safety snaps allow leggings to be removed quickly.
Metatarsal guards protect the instep area from impact and compression. Made of
aluminum, steel, fiber or plastic, these guards may be strapped to the outside of shoes.
Toe guards fit over the toes of regular shoes to protect the toes from impact and
compression hazards. They may be made of steel, aluminum or plastic.
Combination foot and shin guards protect the lower legs and feet, and may be used in
combination with toe guards when greater protection is needed.
Safety shoes have impact-resistant toes and heat-resistant soles that protect the feet
against hot work surfaces common in roofing, paving and hot metal industries. The metal
insoles of some safety shoes protect against puncture wounds. Safety shoes may also be
designed to be electrically conductive to prevent the buildup of static electricity in areas
with the potential for explosive atmospheres or nonconductive to protect workers from
workplace electrical hazards.
hazards. Employees should follow the manufacturers' recommendations for cleaning and
maintenance of protective footwear.
Insulating rubber gloves (See 29 CFR 1910.137 and the following section on electrical
protective equipment for detailed requirements on the selection, use and care of
insulating rubber gloves).
Leather gloves protect against sparks, moderate heat, blows, chips and rough objects.
Aluminized gloves provide reflective and insulating protection against heat and require
an insert made of synthetic materials to protect against heat and cold.
Aramid fiber gloves protect against heat and cold, are cut - and abrasive - resistant and
wear well.
Synthetic gloves of various materials offer protection against heat and cold, are cut - and
abrasive - resistant and may withstand some diluted acids. These materials do not stand
up against alkalis and solvents.
Fabric gloves protect against dirt, slivers, chafing and abrasions. They do not provide
sufficient protection for use with rough, sharp or heavy materials. Adding a plastic
coating will strengthen some fabric gloves.
Coated fabric gloves are normally made from cotton flannel with napping on one side.
By coating the unnapped side with plastic, fabric gloves are transformed into generalpurpose hand protection offering slip-resistant qualities. These gloves are used for tasks
ranging from handling bricks and wire to chemical laboratory containers. When selecting
gloves to protect against chemical exposure hazards, always check with the manufacturer
or review the manufacturer's product literature to determine the gloves' effectiveness
against specific workplace chemicals and conditions.
Butyl gloves are made of a synthetic rubber and protect against a wide variety of
chemicals, such as peroxide, rocket fuels, highly corrosive acids (nitric acid, sulfuric
acid, hydrofluoric acid and red-fuming nitric acid), strong bases, alcohols, aldehydes,
ketones, esters and nitrocompounds. Butyl gloves also resist oxidation, ozone corrosion
and abrasion, and remain flexible at low temperatures. Butyl rubber does not perform
well with aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons and halogenated solvents.
Natural (latex) rubber gloves are comfortable to wear, which makes them a popular
general-purpose glove. They feature outstanding tensile strength, elasticity and
temperature resistance. In addition to resisting abrasions caused by grinding and
polishing, these gloves protect workers' hands from most water solutions of acids, alkalis,
salts and ketones. Latex gloves have caused allergic reactions in some individuals and
may not be appropriate for all employees. Hypoallergenic gloves, glove liners and
powderless gloves are possible alternatives for workers who are allergic to latex gloves.
Neoprene gloves are made of synthetic rubber and offer good pliability, finger dexterity,
high density and tear resistance. They protect against hydraulic fluids, gasoline, alcohols,
organic acids and alkalis. They generally have chemical and wear resistance properties
superior to those made of natural rubber.
Nitrile gloves are made of a copolymer and provide protection from chlorinated solvents
such as trichloroethylene and perchloroethylene. Although intended for jobs requiring
dexterity and sensitivity, nitrile gloves stand up to heavy use even after prolonged
exposure to substances that cause other gloves to deteriorate. They offer protection when
working with oils, greases, acids, caustics and alcohols but are generally not
recommended for use with strong oxidizing agents, aromatic solvents, ketones and
acetates.
Body Protection
Employees who face possible bodily injury of any kind that cannot be eliminated through
engineering, work practice or administrative controls, must wear appropriate body protection
while performing their jobs. In addition to cuts and radiation, the following are examples of
workplace hazards that could cause bodily injury:
Temperature extremes;
Hot splashes from molten metals and other hot liquids;
Potential impacts from tools, machinery and materials;
Hazardous chemicals.
There are many varieties of protective clothing available for specific hazards. Employers are
required to ensure that their employees wear personal protective equipment only for the parts of
the body exposed to possible injury. Examples of body protection include laboratory coats,
coveralls, vests, jackets, aprons, surgical gowns and full body suits.
If a hazard assessment indicates a need for full body protection against toxic substances or
harmful physical agents, the clothing should be carefully inspected before each use, it must fit
each worker properly and it must function properly and for the purpose for which it is intended.
Protective clothing comes in a variety of materials, each effective against particular hazards,
such as:
Paper-like fiber used for disposable suits provide protection against dust and splashes.
Treated wool and cotton adapts well to changing temperatures, is comfortable, and fireresistant and protects against dust, abrasions and rough and irritating surfaces.
Duck is a closely woven cotton fabric that protects against cuts and bruises when
handling heavy, sharp or rough materials.
Leather is often used to protect against dry heat and flames.
Rubber, rubberized fabrics, neoprene and plastics protect against certain chemicals
and physical hazards. When chemical or physical hazards are present, check with the
clothing manufacturer to ensure that the material selected will provide protection against
the specific hazard.
Hearing Protection
Determining the need to provide hearing protection for employees can be challenging. Employee
exposure to excessive noise depends upon a number of factors, including:
Generally, the louder the noise, the shorter the exposure time before hearing protection is
required. For instance, employees may be exposed to a noise level of 90 dB for 8 hours per day
(unless they experience a Standard Threshold Shift) before hearing protection is required. On the
other hand, if the noise level reaches 115 dB hearing protection is required if the anticipated
exposure exceeds 15 minutes.
For a more detailed discussion of the requirements for a comprehensive hearing conservation
program, see OSHA Publication 3074 (2002), Hearing Conservation" or refer to the OSHA
standard at 29 CFR 1910.95, Occupational Noise Exposure, section (c).
Table 5, below, shows the permissible noise exposures that require hearing protection for
employees exposed to occupational noise at specific decibel levels for specific time periods.
Noises are considered continuous if the interval between occurrences of the maximum noise
level is one second or less. Noises not meeting this definition are considered impact or impulse
noises (loud momentary explosions of sound) and exposures to this type of noise must not
exceed 140 dB. Examples of situations or tools that may result in impact or impulse noises are
powder-actuated nail guns, a punch press or drop hammers.
Table 3
Permissible Noise Exposures 1/4 or less 115
Duration per day,
in hours
90
92
95
97
100
11/2
5
102
105
1/2
110
1/4 or less
11
*When measured on the A scale of a standard sound level meter at slow response.
Source: 29 CFR 1910.95,Table G-16.
If engineering and work practice controls do not lower employee exposure to workplace noise to
acceptable levels, employees must wear appropriate hearing protection. It is important to
understand that hearing protectors reduce only the amount of noise that gets through to the ears.
The amount of this reduction is referred to as attenuation, which differs according to the type of
hearing protection used and how well it fits. Hearing protectors worn by employees must reduce
an employee's noise exposure to within the acceptable limits noted in Table 5. Refer to Appendix
B of 29 CFR 1910.95, Occupational Noise Exposure, for detailed information on methods to
estimate the attenuation effectiveness of hearing protectors based on the device's noise reduction
rating (NRR). Manufacturers of hearing protection devices must display the device's NRR on the
product packaging. If employees are exposed to occupational noise at or above 85 dB averaged
over an eight-hour period, the employer is required to institute a hearing conservation program
that includes regular testing of employees' hearing by qualified professionals. Refer to 29 CFR
1910.95(c) for a description of the requirements for a hearing conservation program.
Some types of hearing protection include:
Single-use earplugs are made of waxed cotton, foam, silicone rubber or fiberglass wool.
They are self-forming and, when properly inserted, they work as well as most molded
earplugs.
Pre-formed or molded earplugs must be individually fitted by a professional and can be
disposable or reusable. Reusable plugs should be cleaned after each use.
Earmuffs require a perfect seal around the ear. Glasses, facial hair, long hair or facial
movements such as chewing may reduce the protective value of earmuffs.
Definition of Lockout/Tagout
Lockout is a technique used to prevent equipment from being accidentally started and
stored energy from being released while an associated machine or piece of equipment is being
serviced. A padlock or any other appropriate mechanical device that physically prevents the
transmission or release of energy is placed on the energy-isolating device that should be in the
off or closed position.
Energy-isolating devices can be:
Disconnect switches
Circuit breakers
Valve handles
Blocks
Blind flanges
A tag also will be placed together with the locking device, to explain why the equipment is
locked, by whom and for how long. The use of only tags, without locks, is acceptable if
additional measures to protect equipment are put in place. For example:
Removal of the circuit-isolating element
Removal the valve handle
Blockage of a controlling device
The ultimate goal of lockout/tagout is to protect the safety and health of employees. Secondary is
the protection of equipment from damage.
Types of Lockout Devices:
Disconnect switches
Slide gates
Valves (ball, gate, etc.)
Colour Code for Locks and Tags:
Locks:
Blue locks - equipment locks - used to protect equipment.
Red locks - used for Personal Protection.
Green locks - given to contractors to use on equipment.
Lockout Procedure:
1. Preparation for Shutdown study the equipment and the source(s) of energy before
tagging/locking it. Alert the operator (s) that power is going to be disconnected.
2. Equipment Shutdown
3. Equipment Isolation find and isolate every form of energy that the machine uses.
4. Application of Lockout Devices apply lock and/or tags to all energy isolating equipment.
Anything that might restore the flow of energy to the work area must be locked out.
5. Control of Stored Energy after locking out/tagging out the equipment, the stored energy
must be controlled by:
i. Relieving any residual energy
ii. Waiting until moving parts stop
iii. Relieving trapped pressure
iv.
Installing ground wires to discharge electrical capacitors
v. Blocking or supporting elevated equipment
6. Verify Equipment Isolation before starting the work, check once more if all the equipment is
locked out/tagged out and free from stored energy.
Removal of Lockout
1. Restore Serviced Equipment:
Remove all tools
Ensure all equipment components are securely in place
Re-attach all safety features (guards)
Close serviced equipment
Ensure equipment is safe to operate
2. Notify Personnel that lockout/tagout devices are going to be removed
3. Remove lockout/tagout devices only the person who placed each lockout/tagout device is
authorized to remove them.
Reactivating Equipment
1. Wait until the last lockout/tagout device is removed
2. Gather all workers involved in the operation in a safe place, to ensure nobody is still working
in the area
3. Tell workers the equipment is going to be re-energized
4. Re-energize the equipment
Follow Up:
1. Report any problems found with the lockout/tagout procedure to your supervisor
2. Share this information with workers who were involved in the operation
1.3.4 Identifyalltheorganizationthatgovernsthesafetyof
hazardousmaterial.
A series of regulations have been introduced under OSHA 1994. The emphasis
of these regulations has been on establishing mechanism to implement OSH in
workplaces. Workplaces with five or more workers are required to formulate a Safety
and Health Policy. The Safety and Health Committee Regulations 1996 requires
establishments with 40 workers and above to establish a safety and health committee.
The committee is required to meet at least once in every three months, with the functions
to identify hazards at the workplace, institute control measures, investigate incident and
conducting audit.
In terms of representation in the committee, workplace with less than 100
workers will need to have at least two representatives each for workers and management
respectively. However, workplaces with more than 100 workers will need to have a
minimum of four representatives each for workers and management.
The Safety and Health Officer Regulations provide for specific industries to have
a Safety and Health Officer (SHO). A SHO is an individual who has attended training in
National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) or other accredited
training bodies and has passed the examination conducted by NIOSH and registered
with Department of Safety and Health (DOSH).
Accident Investigation
Purpose:
To establish the causes of the accidents
To establish proper control measures so that future accident can be prevented
To records all facts about the accident for various reasons (compensation, claims etc.)
To analyse trend and cost for long term planning
work with the SHR to identify and investigate hazards and incidents and develop
appropriate control measures.
4. Provide adequate protective clothing and equipment where hazards cannot be avoided.
To achieve this, a manager needs to:
know what protective clothing and equipment is required for the hazards in their
work area
make sure the appropriate protective clothing and equipment is available, and there
are facilities for cleaning, maintenance and storage
provide instruction and training on how to use and maintain the protective clothing
and equipment correctly
ensure that employees, students and visitors under their control correctly use protective
clothing and equipment provided.
Introduction
Hand Tools - Tools that are manually operated and powered by human force such as screw
drivers, pliers, wrenches, and cutting shears, etc.
Portable Power Tools - Power tools that are hand held, manually operated, and powered by
electricity, air, gasoline, diesel, or explosion, such as circular saws, sanders, drills, reciprocating
saws, air wrenches, air grinders, air fasteners, chainsaws, Ramset guns etc.
Different types of power tools source:
Electric
Pneumatic
Liquid fuel
Hydraulic
Powder-actuated
Each employer shall be responsible for the safe condition of tools and equipment used by
employees, including tools and equipment which may be furnished by employees. Employers
shall not issue or permit the use of unsafe hand tools. Wrenches, including adjustable, pipe, end,
and socket wrenches shall not be used when jaws are sprung to the point that slippage occurs.
andfree
Power
Impact tools, such as drift pins, wedges, and chisels,Hand
shallTools
be kept
of Tools
mushroomed heads.
The wooden handles of tools shall be kept free of splinters or cracks and shall be kept tight in the
tool.
Employees who use hand and power tools and who are exposed to the hazards of falling, flying,
abrasive and splashing objects, or exposed to harmful dusts, fumes, mists, vapors, or gases must
be provided with the particular personal equipment necessary to protect them from the hazard.
Employees and employers have a responsibility to work together to establish safe working
procedures. If a hazardous situation is encountered, it should be brought to the attention of the
proper individual immediately.
Appropriate personal protective equipment should be worn due to hazards that may be
encountered while using portable power tools and hand tools.
Floors should be kept as clean and dry as possible to prevent accidental slips with or around
dangerous hand tools.
1.4
Identifytypesofhand tools,powertoolsandmaintenanceequipments.
General Hazards:
The two most common hazards associated with the use of hand tools are misuse and improper
maintenance.
Misuse occurs when a hand tool is used for something other than its intended purpose. (An
example would be using a screwdriver as a chisel. This may cause the tip to break and strike
someone).
Improper maintenance allows hand tools to deteriorate into an unsafe condition.
(Examples would include cracked wooden handles that allow the tool head to fly off or
mushroomed heads that can shatter upon impact).
Specially designed tools may be needed in hazardous environments. (Always use non-sparking
tools in the presence of flammable vapors or dusts. Insulated tools with appropriate ratings must
be used for electrical work).
Personal Protective Equipment:
The type of personal protective equipment (PPE) needed when using hand tools depends on the
nature of the task. At a minimum, eye protection should always be worn.
The use of hand protection may also be appropriate to provide protection against cuts, abrasion,
and repeated impact.
1.4.1 Listthe mostcommon typesofhand tool andpowertools.
Wrenches:
Choose a wrench that properly fits the fastener that is to be turned. Using the correct size
reduces the chances of wrench slippage.
Avoid using a length of pipe or other extension to improve the leverage of a wrench.
Manufacturers design wrenches so that the amount of leverage obtained with the handle is the
maximum safe application.
Use socket wrenches for hard-to-reach areas.
Always try to pull on a wrench (instead of pushing) in case the fastener suddenly loosens.
Inspect wrenches periodically for damage such as cracking, severe wear, or distortion.
Pliers:
Do not increase the handle length of pliers to gain more leverage. Use a larger pair of pliers or
bolt cutters.
Do not substitute pliers for a wrench when turning nuts and bolts. Pliers cannot grip these items
properly and will slip.
Never use pliers as a hammer or hammer on the handles. Such abuse is likely to result in cracks
or breaks.
Cut hardened wire only with pliers designed for that purpose.
Always cut at right angles. Never rock from side to side or bend the wire back and forth against
the cutting edges.
Hammers:
Do not use a hammer if the handle is damaged or loose.
Never weld, heat, or regrind a hammer head.
Remove from service any hammer exhibiting signs of excessive wear such as cracks, chips, or
a mushroomed head.
Match the proper type of hammer to the job it is designed to perform.
Do not strike the surface at an angle. The hammer face should contact the striking surface
squarely. Glancing blows made with a hammer often lead to injury.
Screwdrivers:
Never use a screwdriver as a pry bar, chisel, punch, stirrer, or scraper.
Always use a screwdriver tip that properly fits the slot of the screw.
Throw away screwdrivers with broken or worn handles.
Use magnetic or screw-holding screwdrivers to start fasteners in tight areas.
Never use pliers on a screwdriver for extra leverage. Only use a wrench on screw drivers
specifically designed to accept them.
Utility Knives/Blades:
Always use a sharp blade. Dull blades require more force and thus are more likely to slip.
Replace the blade when it starts to tear instead of cut.
Never leave a knife unattended with the blade exposed. Consider using a selfretracting knife
with a spring-loaded blade. (The blade will retract when pressure on the knife is released).
Keep your free hand away from the line of the cut.
Dont bend or apply side loads to blades by using them to open cans or pry loose objects.
Blades are brittle and can snap easily.
Be aware of all power lines and electrical circuits, water pipes, and other mechanical
hazards in your work area, particularly those below the work surface, hidden from the
operator's view, that may be contacted.
ii. Wear proper apparel. Do not wear loose clothing, dangling objects or jewelry. Long hair
must be restrained. Gloves should not be worn when operating certain power tools.
Check appropriate tool manuals.
General Safety Guidelines for Power Tools
i.
ii.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
All observers should be kept at a safe distance away from the work area.
Secure work with clamps or a vise, freeing both hands to operate the tool.
Avoid accidental starting. Workers should not hold a finger on the switch button while
carrying a plugged-in tool.
General Safety Guidelines for Power Tools
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Tools should be maintained with care. They should be kept sharp and clean for the best
performance. Follow instructions in the user's manual for lubricating and changing
accessories.
Be sure to keep good footing and maintain good balance.
The proper apparel should be worn. Loose clothing, ties, or jewelry can become caught in
moving parts.
All portable electric tools that are damaged shall be removed from use and tagged "Do
Not Use."
LUBRICATION
Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this chapter, students should be able to:1. Understandlubrication principle.
2. Understandfluidmanagement.
3. Identifylubricatingdevicesandsystem.
4. Determinelubricatingprogram
1
INTRODUCTION
The three major types of lubricants in use in industrial are LUBRICATING OILS,
GREASES, and SOLID LUBRICANTS. The selection of a lubricant type is
dependent on the type of machinery to be lubricated, the complexity of the
lubricating system allowed by machinery design, and the frequency of lubrication
required.
LUBRICATING OILS
Lubricating oils are used for the majority of applications. They may be classified
according to their viscosities and any special properties imparted to them by
additives. Oils whose base stocks are derived primarily from crude oil refining are
called mineral or petroleum oils. Petroleum oils may be further classified as being
paraffinic or naphthenic based on the types of hydrocarbons comprising the base
stock. Oils that have been manufactured by chemical synthesis such as
polymerization are called synthetic oils. Additives may be blended into the base
stock to impart special properties to the finished product. A list of commonly used
lubricant additives is provided in Table 2.1
Table 2.1
GREASES
Greases are typically used in situations where sufficient lube oil cannot be
effectively maintained on machinery surfaces, or when a simplistic lubricating
system is desired or required. Greases essentially consist of a semisolid mixture of
oil and thickening agent. The oil may be either petroleum or synthetic base.
Thickening agents are typically alkali soaps or clay (bentonite) materials. Critical
grease properties, such as hardness and water washout, are dependent on the
selection of base oil and thickening agent. For example, sodium-soap greases
exhibit poor water resistance; lithium-soap greases have good water resistance and
are excellent general purpose lubricants.
Grease Application
Grease may be applied through grease cups or through hydraulic lubrication
fittings. Hydraulic lubrication fittings form a readily installed and convenient means
for lubricating numerous low-speeds, lightly loaded, or widely separated bearings.
These fittings are not acceptable for use on electric motors or generators because of
the danger of grease being forced out of the bearing and onto windings (refer to
NSTM Chapter 310, Electric Power Generators and Conversion Equipment,
for further discussion). A grease gun or other pressure device shall be used for
applying grease through hydraulic type fittings. When grease is applied through
hydraulic lubrication fittings, pressure should be applied until grease seeps out
around the edges of the bearings. In bearings fitted with felt or other seals, care
shall be exercised to avoid breaking the seals by the application of too much
pressure. If not, the bearing will fail due to a lack of lubrication. The type of fitting
should be identified and carbon steel fittings which are corroded should be replaced
with Corrosion Resistant Steel (CRES) or Monel fittings.
SOLID LUBRICANTS
Solid lubricants are typically used in situations where unusual temperature or
environmental conditions preclude the use of conventional fluid lubricants, or when
the application of a fluid lubricant is difficult. Solid lubricants form an essentially
dry lubricating film between adjacent surfaces. The lubricant may be applied
directly in powdered form, or as a colloidal suspension in a vehicle such as
isopropanol. Evaporation of the vehicle leaves a thin film of the lubricant on
machinery surfaces. The two most commonly used solid lubricants are powdered
graphite and molybdenum disulfide (MoS2). Other materials such as powdered zinc
dust and red lead suspended in petrolatum or mineral oil may also be used. Specific
solid lubricant applications are as follows:
2.1.1
2.1.2
State several term and principle to understand and select proper lubrication.
There are ten (10) terms and principals as stated below:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
a)
Viscosity
Cloud point and pour point
Flash point and fire point
Neutralization number
Total base number
Water content
Demulsibility
Hardness
Water washout
Load carrying ability
Viscosity.
The most important physical property of a lubricant is its viscosity. Viscosity,
which may be defined as a fluids resistance to flow, is the characteristic most
frequently stipulated by equipment manufacturers when making lubricant
recommendations. The selection of proper lubricant viscosity is often a compromise
between selecting one high enough to prevent metal to metal (wear) contact, and
one low enough to allow sufficient heat dissipation. In the past, viscosity was
measured in such units as Saybolt Universal Seconds (SUS),Redwood No. 1
Seconds, and Engler Degrees. The preferred unit of measurement for the U.S.
Navy is the centistokes (cSt). Kinematic viscosity in centistokes is obtained by
measuring the time required for a specified volume of fluid to flow through a
calibrated capillary tube at a specified temperature. Various industry standards exist
for the characterization of lubricant viscosity. The most familiar of these is the
Society of Automotive Engineers (S.A.E.) classification of automotive engine and
gear case oils. (Table 2.2) This system grades lubricants according to their viscosity
characteristics at either -18C (0F) or 100C (212F). Oils meeting low
temperature viscosity requirements are assigned a Wafter the grade number (for
example, SAE grade 10W). Oils meeting high temperature requirements are
assigned a grade number such as SAE grade 30. Multi grade oils may be formulated
to meet both low and high temperature requirements (for example, SAE grade
10W-30). However, these viscosity designations are applicable primarily for the
lubrication of internal combustion engines. By international agreement, all nations
now recognize a universally applicable system of viscosity classification termed the
International Standards Organization (ISO)/American Society of Testing and
Materials (ASTM) Viscosity System for Industrial Lubricants. This system assigns
viscosity grades from ISO VG2 through VG1500, where the number indicates the
midpoint viscosity in centistokes of the lubricant at 40C (104F).
Table 2.1
b
)
V
i
s
c
o
s
i
t
y
I
n
d
e
x
The effect of temperature on a lubricants viscosity is a measurement of its
Viscosity Index (VI). When the VI scale was introduced in 1929, a reference
paraffinic base stock was assigned a VI of 100, and a naphthenic base stock
a VI of 0. Most naval oils of paraffinic base stock have VIs in the 95-100
range. Naval oils prepared from synthetic stock, and multi grade engine oils
typically have VIs in excess of 100. (Synthetic and paraffinic stocks are
discussed further in detail in paragraph (Table 2.3). The higher the VI, the
less a given lubricants viscosity will change with a subsequent change in
temperature.
Table 2.3
c)
occurs is called the cloud point of the lubricant. If the product is further
cooled, a point will be reached at which the lubricant will no longer flow or
be efficiently pumped. The temperature at which this occurs is termed the
pour point of the lubricant. Both properties are related to the wax content of
the base stock. The pour points of high-wax lubricants may be depressed by
the addition of pour point depressant additives. Pour point behavior
becomes important in applications such as refrigerant compressor
lubrication where the oil is subjected to low temperatures.
d)
e)
Neutralization Number
As petroleum products are subjected to elevated temperatures, the process of
oxidation occurs. Oxidation leads to the formation of organic acids in the
lubricant. This increase in acidity reduces the water-separating ability of
certain oils, and may also prove corrosive to certain alloys. The
neutralization number measures the amount of acidity present in the
lubricant. It is quantitatively defined as the amount of potassium hydroxide
(KOH) required neutralizing the acid present in one gram of sample. This
quantity is also referred to as the Total Acid Number (TAN).
f)
g)
Water Content
The most common contaminant in Naval lubricating systems is water.
Common sources of water include lube oil cooler leaks, condensation, steam
turbine gland seal leaks, and diesel engine piston blow-by and jacket water
h)
Demulsibility
Demulsibility refers to a lubricants ability to readily separate from water.
Oils used in force-feed lubrication systems should possess good water
reparability to prevent emulsification.
i)
Hardness
Greases are classified according to a hardness scale developed by the
National Lubricating Grease Institute (NLGI). According to this system,
softer greases are assigned a low NLGI number, and stiffer greases a high
NLGI number (see Table 2.4). The penetration numbers refer to the depth,
in tenths of millimeters, that a weighted cone penetrates the grease. Most
Naval greases have NLGI numbers from 1 to 2, and are classified as
medium consistency greases.
j)
Dropping Point
Greases exist in an essentially semi-solid form. The temperature at which
grease changes from a semi-solid to a liquid is termed its dropping point.
Dropping point provides some indication of the high temperature
characteristics of grease.
k)
Water Washout
Greases subjected to splashing or impinging water must possess good water
washout resistance. Greases with good resistance will maintain an adequate
lubricating film under excessive water contamination conditions.
l)
2.2
a)
c)
d)
Refortification techniques
Lubricant maintenance is closely associated with the monitoring program.
When used oil test results exceed the condemning limits, corrective action
needs to be taken. Such action could include filtration to remove particulate
matter and in some cases oxidation products and/or dehydration. This
processing can be done either on site or at a recycle station. Additive
replenishment for depleted inhibitors may be feasible for some products in
some applications. Since additive replenishment requires a considerable
amount of technical expertise, the lubricant supplier should be contacted to
provide information and service to reclaim and refortify used lubricants.
e)
2.3
2.3.1
a)
b)
FIGURE 2.1
c)
Lighting
This relates to good records. The lubrication and maintenance departments
can function most effectively when they have complete records as to
lubricant consumption per machine per area. This requires careful inventory
(monthly) and recording of amounts of oil and grease issued. Lighting plays
an important part. If the storeroom is painted gloss white, if light outlets are
well located to obviate glare, and if a comfortable record desk is installed,
personnel will keep more careful records.
d)
Bulk Storage
Bulk storage can be an investment that provides benefits in improved
efficiency, reduced handling costs, reduced risk of contamination, and
simplified inventory. Each product requires its own dedicated bulk storage
system, including tank, pump, and receiving line. The tank should be
equipped with a water draw-off line, sampling line, and entry to permit
periodic tank cleaning. If tanks are equipped with electric heating coils or
steam lines, precautions must be taken to prevent overheating and thermal
degradation of the lubricant. Bulk shipments may be supplied in tank cars,
tank trucks, or tote bins. Upon arrival of bulk shipments, each product
should be inspected visually for clarity and cleanliness and checked for
viscosity with a handheld viscometer. Prior to unloading, each tank should
be gauged to ensure sufficient room. Tank lines and valves should be
checked to ensure that the product is being unloaded into the correct tank. If
dedicated lines and pumps are not being used, the system should be flushed
with one to three times the volume of the lines to prevent crosscontamination of products. Samples should be obtained from the tank after
unloading and labeled with product name, date, invoice number, and batch
number. The samples should be stored for at least 6 months.
e)
2.3
Fire Protection
The possibility of fire in a well-planned lubricant storage area is remote,
assuming that no-smoking rules are observed, that casual visits from other
plant personnel are prohibited, that oil drip is prevented or cleaned up
promptly, that waste or wiping rags are stored in metal containers and in
minimum quantity, and that sparking or arcing tools are used only under
conditions of good ventilation. Even so, insurance regulations will require
installation of suitable fire-extinguishing equipment and possibly a sprinkler
system. The accepted foam-type device for smothering is best. In a small
storeroom, one or two hand units may suffice. In a larger area, a multiplegallon foam cart with adequate hose may be required.
LUBRICANT SELECTION
When choosing a lubricant for a particular piece of equipment, the equipment
manufacturers operation and maintenance manual should be consulted. The
operation and maintenance manual will usually outline the required
characteristics of the lubricants as well as a recommended schedule for
replacement or filtering. If the maintenance manual is not available, or is vague
in its recommendations, lubricant manufacturers and distributors are other
sources of information. All the pertinent information on the equipment, such as
operating speed, frequency of operation, operating temperature, and any other
special or unusual conditions, should be provided to the lubricant manufacturer
or distributor so that a lubricant with the proper characteristics can be chosen.
Some discretion should be used when dealing with a lubricant salesperson to
prevent purchasing an expensive lubricant with capabilities in excess of what is
required.
Whenever possible, lubricants should be purchased that can be used in several
applications. By limiting the number of lubricants onsite, the chance of mixing
different lubricants or using the wrong lubricant is minimized.
LUBRICANT STANDARDS
There are a number of tests and standards that have been developed to define
and measure the properties of lubricants. Most of these tests have been
standardized by ASTM. The properties determined by these tests can be very
Manual Devices
Drop-feed Devices
Splash or bath lubrication
Ring, chain, collar oilers
Pad - and waste-type devices
Positive force feed lubricators
Air oil devices
Pressure circulating systems
Centralized lubricating systems
Built-in-lubrication
A. Manual Devices
Lubricating methods may require human action in one form or another. The
term manual lubrication applies to methods in which the operator is directly
responsible for quantity of lubricant and interval of lubrication. Although the
initial cost of manual lubrication is low, the maintenance costs can be high.
Reliability may be owing to considerable dependence on human action. The
lubricant is quite prone in contamination. Generally speaking, manual
lubrication is satisfactory only for lightly loaded or low speed bearings, typical
applications include open gears, chains, wire rope, etc.
B. Drop-feed Devices
Drop feed devices are gravity-flow lubricators. They are employed to deliver
lubricant drop-by-drop to individual bearings and other machine elements.
They give the best advantage when lubricant points are readily accessible. Their
cost is relatively low. Maintenance cost depends on type of service and location
depending on the lubricator, lubricant flow may or may not be stopped and
started automatically. Automatic operation increase reliability. Typical service
applications include journal and roller bearings, gears, chains, engine guides,
pumps and compressors.
C. Splash or Bath Lubrication
This type of lubrication is commonly used for machinery having high speed
moving parts. These dip into oil and splash it on to the bearings or other
machine elements. The splash system requires enclosing the mechanism to be
lubricated. Initial cost of splash system depends on the expense incurred in
enclosing the mechanism. Maintenance costs are low. A splash system is
reliable, prevents contamination. Typical applications include internalcombustion engines, chain drives and enclosed gear sets.
2.4
lubricant.
b.
the power source and follow through each power train, identifying couplings,
reducers, bearings, and wear surfaces.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Lubricant Analysis
1.
2.
3.
4.
Establish the objectives of the analysis program, that is, monitor and track wear
and lubricant quality to detect problems caused by adhesion, friction, and
corrosion before there is major component damage and to determine when
lubricant should be filtered, replaced, and/or fortified with additives.
Select the plant equipment to be included in the analysis program. Equipment
selection is usually based on the importance of the equipment to continuity of
plant operations.
Determine the sampling frequencies for each component.
Design the testing packages to meet the selected objectives. Typical tests for gear
reducer lubricants include :
Select a lubricant testing laboratory that can accurately test the parameters chosen
and report the results in a comprehensive manner on a timely basis.
Determine the cost of the analysis program.
Develop the sampling procedures and modify equipment as necessary to extract
representative samples while the equipment is in operation.
Establish sampling, testing, and reporting schedules.
Develop procedures and lines of communication to report results and to initiate
actions dictated by the test results.
Establish a program review schedule.
Note: A close liaison should be maintained between the lubricant analysis program and other
predictive maintenance activities.
b.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Lubrication Analysis
Establish the objectives of the analysis program, that is, monitor and track wear
and lubricant quality to detect problems caused by adhesion, friction, and
corrosion before there is major component damage and to determine when
lubricant should be filtered, replaced, and/or fortified with additives.
Select the plant equipment to be included in the analysis program. Equipment
selection is usually based on the importance of the equipment to continuity of
plant operations.
Determine the sampling frequencies for each component.
Design the testing packages to meet the selected objectives. Typical tests for gear
reducer lubricants Include Wear particle analysiswear metals; contaminate
metals, and additive metals
Total solids percentage volumecontamination leaks or environmental
conditions Viscosityfluidity of the lubricant
Infrared analysisoxidation/nitration (general lube degradation)
Neutralization numberreserve alkalinity (Total base number [TBN]) or total
acidity (Total acid number [TAN])
Select a lubricant testing laboratory that can accurately test the parameters chosen
and report the results in a comprehensive manner on a timely basis.
Determine the cost of the analysis program.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Note: A close liaison should be maintained between the lubricant analysis program and
other predictive maintenance activities.
References
Asseff, P.A., Lubrication Theory and Practice, The Lubrizol Corporation.
Bloch, H.P., Practical Lubrication for Industrial Facilities, Fairmont Press, 2000
Conoco Inc., Lubrication Manual, 1981.
Ehrlich, M. (Ed), Lubricating Grease Guide, National Lubricating Grease Institute, 1st Edition,
Kansas City, Missouri, 1984.
Exxon Corporation, Proving Ground, 1988.
Fein, R.S., and F.J. Villforth, Lubrication Fundamentals, LUBRICATION, vol. 59, OctoberDecember 1973.
Pirro, D.M., A.A. Wessol, Lubricant Fundamentals, 2nd Edition, Marcel Dekker, Inc., 2001.
Rein, S.W., Viscosity-I, LUBRICATION, vol. 64, No. 1, 1978.
Standard Guide for Cleaning, Flushing, and Purification of Steam, Gas and Hydroelectric Turbine
Lubrication Systems, ASTM Standard No.D6439-99.
Troyer, D., and J. Fitch, Oil Analysis Basics, Noria Corporation, 2001.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Lubricants and Hydraulic Fluids, Engineering Manual 1110-21424, 1999.
POWERTRANSMISSIO
Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this chapter, students should be able to:1. Describethedrivemechanismintheprocessoftransformingpower fromone
pointtotheother.
2. Describegear in powertransmissionsystem.
3. Definebeltdrives inpower transmissionsystem
4. Understandchain drive.
5. Implementcoupledshaftalignment orvariable-speed drives
POWERTRANSMISSION
INTRODUCTION
Power transmission is the movement of energy from its place of generation to a location where
it is applied to performing useful work.Power is defined formally as units of energy per
unit time.
3.1 Describethedrivemechanismintheprocessoftransformingpower from one pointtotheother.
Mechanical power may be transmitted directly using a component such
as driveshaft,transmission gears, belt drives, chain drives and arm connectors.
3.1.1 Classifytypesof drivemechanismsbeltdrive, chaindrive and gear drive
i.
Belt Drive
A belt is a loop of flexible material used to link two or more rotating shafts mechanically.
Chain passing over a pair of sprocket, with the teeth of the sprocket meshing with the holes in
the links of the chain.Drive chains are most often made of metalwell-made chains may prove
stronger than belts.
iii.
Gear Drive
A gear is a rotatingmachine part having cut teeth, or cogs, which mesh with another toothed part
in order to transmit torque. The most common situation gears are meshing each other. However a
gear can also mesh a non-rotating toothed parts. The gears in a transmission are analogous to the
wheels in a pulley. An advantage of gears is that the teeth of a gear prevent slipping. When two
gears of unequal number of teeth are combined a mechanical advantage is produced, with both
the rotational speeds and the torques of the two gears differing in a simple relationship.
3.2 Describegear in powertransmissionsystem.
3.2.1 Listapplicationofgear.
i. Transmission
Two or more gears working in tandem are called atransmission and produce a mechanical
advantagethrough a gear ratio and thus may be considered a simple machine. In transmissions
which offer multiple gear ratios, such as bicycles and cars, the term gear, as in first gear, refers
to a gear ratio rather than an actual physical gear. The term is used to describe similar devices
even when gear ratio is continuous rather than discrete, or when the device does not actually
contain any gears, as in a continuously variable transmission.
ii. Direction
Geared devices can change the speed, magnitude, and direction of a power source.
A system called a rack and pinion, when circular motion is changed into linear motion. If the
pinion rotates in a fixed position and non-rotating toothed part the rack moves in a linear motion,
therebyproducing translation. Adjacent gears on a gear train rotate in opposite directions. Notice
that if the driver rotates clockwise then the follower rotates anticlockwise.
iii. Couplings
A coupling is a device used to connect two shafts together at their ends for the purpose of
transmitting power. Couplings do not normally allow disconnection of shafts during operation,
however there are torque limiting couplings which can slip or disconnect when some torque limit
is exceeded.
The primary purpose of couplings is to join two pieces of rotating equipment while permitting
some degree of misalignment or end movement or both. By careful selection, installation and
maintenance of couplings, substantial savings can be made in reduced maintenance costs and
downtime.
i.
Internal gear
An external gear is one with the teeth formed on the outer surface of a cylinder or cone.
Conversely, an internal gear is one with the teeth formed on the inner surface of a cylinder or
cone. For bevel gears, an internal gear is one with the pitch angle exceeding 90 degrees. Internal
gears do not cause output shaft direction reversal.
ii.
Spur
Spur gear
Spur gears or straight-cut gears are the simplest type of gear. They consist of a cylinder or disk
with the teeth projecting radially, and although they are not straight-sided in form, the edge of
each tooth is straight and aligned parallel to the axis of rotation. These gears can be meshed
together correctly only if they are fitted to parallel shafts.
iii.
Helical
Helical gears
Helical or "dry fixed" gears offer a refinement over spur gears. The leading edges of the teeth are
not parallel to the axis of rotation, but are set at an angle. Since the gear is curved, this angling
causes the tooth shape to be a segment of a helix. Helical gears can be meshed in parallel or
crossed orientations. The former refers to when the shafts are parallel to each other; this is the
most common orientation. In the latter, the shafts are non-parallel, and in this configuration the
gears are sometimes known as "skew gears".
The angled teeth engage more gradually than do spur gear teeth, causing them to run more
smoothly and quietly. With parallel helical gears, each pair of teeth first make contact at a single
point at one side of the gear wheel; a moving curve of contact then grows gradually across the
tooth face to a maximum then recedes until the teeth break contact at a single point on the
opposite side. In spur gears, teeth suddenly meet at a line contact across their entire width
causing stress and noise. Spur gears make a characteristic whine at high speeds. Whereas spur
gears are used for low speed applications and those situations where noise control is not a
problem, the use of helical gears is indicated when the application involves high speeds, large
power transmission, or where noise abatement is important. The speed is considered to be high
when the pitch line velocity exceeds 25 m/s.
A disadvantage of helical gears is a resultant thrust along the axis of the gear, which needs to be
accommodated by appropriate thrust bearings, and a greater degree of sliding friction between
the meshing teeth, often addressed with additives in the lubricant.
iv.
Skew gears
For a 'crossed' or 'skew' configuration, the gears must have the same pressure angle and normal
pitch; however, the helix angle and handedness can be different. The relationship between the
two shafts is actually defined by the helix angle(s) of the two shafts and the handedness.
The crossed configuration is less mechanically sound because there is only a point contact
between the gears, whereas in the parallel configuration there is a line contact.
Quite commonly, helical gears are used with the helix angle of one having the negative of the
helix angle of the other; such a pair might also be referred to as having a right-handed helix and a
left-handed helix of equal angles. The two equal but opposite angles add to zero: the angle
between shafts is zero that is, the shafts are parallel. Where the sum or the difference (as
described in the equations above) is not zero the shafts are crossed. For shafts crossed at right
angles, the helix angles are of the same hand because they must add to 90 degrees.
v.
Double helical
vi.
Bevel
Bevel Gear
A bevel gear is shaped like a right circular cone with most of its tip cut off. When two bevel
gears mesh, their imaginary vertices must occupy the same point. Their shaft axes also intersect
at this point, forming an arbitrary non-straight angle between the shafts. The angle between the
shafts can be anything except zero or 180 degrees. Bevel gears with equal numbers of teeth and
shaft axes at 90 degrees are called miter gears.
vii.
Spiral bevels
viii.
Hypoid
Hypoid gear
Hypoid gears resemble spiral bevel gears except the shaft axes do not intersect. The pitch
surfaces appear conical but, to compensate for the offset shaft, are in fact hyperboloids of
revolution. Hypoid gears are almost always designed to operate with shafts at 90 degrees.
Depending on which side the shaft is offset to, relative to the angling of the teeth, contact
between hypoid gear teeth may be even smoother and more gradual than with spiral bevel gear
teeth. Also, the pinion can be designed with fewer teeth than a spiral bevel pinion, with the result
that gear ratios of 60:1 and higher are feasible using a single set of hypoid gears. This style of
gear is most commonly found driving mechanical differentials; which are normally straight cut
bevel gears; in motor vehicle axles.
ix.
Crown
Crown gear
Crown gears or contrate gears are a particular form of bevel gear whose teeth project at right
angles to the plane of the wheel; in their orientation the teeth resemble the points on a crown. A
crown gear can only mesh accurately with another bevel gear, although crown gears are
sometimes seen meshing with spur gears. A crown gear is also sometimes meshed with an
escapement such as found in mechanical clocks.
x.
Worm
Worm gear
In a worm-and-gear set, the worm can always drive the gear. However, if the gear attempts to
drive the worm, it may or may not succeed. Particularly if the lead angle is small, the gear's teeth
may simply lock against the worm's teeth, because the force component circumferential to the
worm is not sufficient to overcome friction. Worm-and-gear sets that do lock are called self
locking, which can be used to advantage, as for instance when it is desired to set the position of a
mechanism by turning the worm and then have the mechanism hold that position. An example is
the machine head found on some types of stringed instruments.
If the gear in a worm-and-gear set is an ordinary helical gear only a single point of contact will
be achieved. If medium to high power transmission is desired, the tooth shape of the gear is
modified to achieve more intimate contact by making both gears partially envelop each other.
This is done by making both concave and joining them at a saddle point; this is called a conedrive or "Double enveloping"
Worm gears can be right or left-handed, following the long-established practice for screw threads
xi.
Non-circular
Non-circular gears
Non-circular gears are designed for special purposes. While a regular gear is optimized to
transmit torque to another engaged member with minimum noise and wear and maximum
efficiency, a non-circular gear's main objective might be ratio variations, axle displacement
oscillations and more. Common applications include textile machines, potentiometers and
continuously variable transmissions.
xii.
xiii.
Epicyclic
Epicyclic gearing
In epicyclic gearing one or more of the gear axes moves. Examples are sun and planet gearing
(see below) and mechanical differentials.
xiv.
Sun and planet gearing was a method of converting reciprocating motion into rotary motion in
steam engines. It was famously used by James Watt on his early steam engines in order to get
around the patent on the crank.
In the illustration, the sun is yellow, the planet red, the reciprocating arm is blue, the flywheel is
green and the driveshaft is grey.
xv.
Harmonic drive
xvi.
Cage gear
3.2.3Identify gearmeshingandbacklash.
In a pair of gears backlash is the amount of clearance between the meshing tooth. Backlash
unavoidable for nearly all reversing mechanical components that are coupled but could be
minimized.
3.2.5Identifygearmaintenancepracticesuchasdailyroutine inspection.
The routine inspection includes of;
a. LUBRICATION
In order for a gear drive to operate at all time, it must be supply with an adequate lubricant.
Check the oil level or grease and change if necessary.
b. VIBRATIONS
In order for a gear drive to operate satisfactory, it must run within safe vibration limits. If the
vibration parameters (amplitude, velocity or acceleration) change with time above a given limit,
it could also means something is wrong.
c. ALIGNMENT
If the alignment of a gear drives to the connected load is not made carefully the coupling may
fail. The coupling can then transmits bending moments back into gear drives.
d. BACKLASH
Check the backlash of a gear drives using filler gauge, dial test indicator or sheet materials.
e. GEAR TOOTH WEAR
Check for tooth surface deterioration and tooth breakage by visual inspection.
f. TOOTH CONTACT
The most satisfactory way of checking tooth contact is to apply a very thin coating of engineers
marking blue or other marking medium. The tooth contact will indicate the proper gears mesh of
a gear drives to rotate smoothly.
station.
ATTACHMENT
POLITEKNIK
IBRAHIMSULTANFACULTYOFMECHANICALENGINEE
RING
DIPLOMA INMECHANICALENGINEERING
REPORT
JJ615 MECHANICALCOMPONENTS & MAINTENANCE (GEAR
DRIVES)
CLO:
1. Assemble
correctly
mechanical
component
base
on
service
maintenancebygroup.(P5)
2. Organize properly maintenance procedure base on standard operation
procedure.(A4)
1.
NAME:
REGISTERATIONNO:
PROGRAMME
SESSION:
manual
PRACTICAL DATE
SUBMITTED DATE
LECTURER
RUBRICS
LearningDomain (LD1)Knowledge
PREPAREDBY:
Tools
NOR HISHAM BIN SUHADI
5@3@1/5 (x4)
Procedure/Sketches
5@3@1/5 (x5)
Maintenance Procedure
5@3@1/ 5(x5)
Discussion/Conclusion
5@3@1/ 5(x3)
CHECKEDBY:
(HEADOFDEPARTMENT/HEADOFPROGRAM
ME)
/100 x 30% =
1.3 Practice safety procedures correctly in the working workshop according to the workshop
safety regulation to create a secure practical team work (A3).
2.0 OBJECTIVES
2.1 Producemaintenanceprocedure for a gear drives drives.
2.2 Assembleanddisassembleagear drives system as a practical.As an
examplescomponentcanbe
use is gear station unit.
3.0 APPARATUS/EQUIPMENT
3.1
Gear Station
3.2 Hand Tools
3.3 Power Tools
3.4 Lubricant
3.4 Solvent
3.5 Air Compressor
4.0 SAFETY AND HEALTH
It is the individuals responsibility to practice the following general safety guidelines at all times
and keep your workspace reasonably tidy.
4.1 Always know the hazards associated with the equipment/materials that are being utilized in
the workshop.
4.2 Always wear appropriate protective clothing and equipment.
4.3 Confine long hair and loose clothing. Do not wear high-heeled shoes, open-toed shoes,
sandals
or shoes made of woven material.
4.4 Be familiar with the location of emergency equipment such as fire alarm and fire
extinguisher.
Know the appropriate emergency response procedures.
5.0 INTRODUCTION
A gear is a rotatingmachine part having cut teeth, or cogs, which mesh with another
toothed part in order to transmit torque. Two or more gears working in tandem are
called a transmission and can produce a mechanical advantage through a gear ratio
and thus may be considered a simple machine. Geared devices can change the speed,
magnitude, and direction of a power source. The most common situation is for a gear to
mesh with another gear, however a gear can also mesh a non-rotating toothed part,
called a rack, thereby producing translation instead of rotation.
The gears in a transmission are analogous to the wheels in a pulley. An advantage of
gears is that the teeth of a gear prevent slipping.
When two gears of unequal number of teeth are combined a mechanical advantage is
produced, with both the rotational speeds and the torques of the two gears differing in a
simple relationship.
In transmissions which offer multiple gear ratios, such as bicycles and cars, the term
gear, as in first gear, refers to a gear ratio rather than an actual physical gear. The term
is used to describe similar devices even when gear ratio is continuous rather than
discrete.
6.0 TOOLS:
NO
TOOLS DESCRIPTION
TOOLS USAGE
NO
1
EXPLANATION
FIGURES/SKETCHES
ETC
1. PRACTICLE RUBRIC
RUBRIC FOR COMBINE GEAR DRIVE SYSTEM PRACTICLE
Generic
Student
Attributes
(GSA) /
Learning
Domain
(LD)
Skills /
Aspects
Excellent
Very
Good
Good
Fair
Unsatisfactory
LD 2 /
Practical
Skills Gear
Drives
A)
Demonstrate
the proper
use of various
types of hand
tool and
power tools.
Able to select/choose
various types of hand
tools and power
tools. Able to use
various types of hand
tools and power
tools with the proper
function of the tools.
Able to use
various types
of hand tools
and power
tools with the
proper
function of
the tools.
Unable to use
various types of
hand tools and
power tools with
the proper
function of the
tools.
B) Assemble
and
disassemble
of gear drive
system
Able to select /
choose various types
of hand tool and
power tools to
assemble and
disassemble belt
drive system. Able to
use various types of
hand tools and
power tools with the
proper function of
the tools to assemble
and disassemble belt
drive system.
Able to use
various types
of hand tools
and power
tools with the
proper
function of
the tools to
assemble and
disassemble
belt drive
system.
Unable to use
various types of
hand tools and
power tools with
the proper
function of the
tools to assemble
and disassemble
of belt drive
system.
c) Alignment
of gear drive.
Able to select /
choose the tool for
shafts and gears
alignment. Able to
use tools for shafts
and gears alignment.
Able to use
tools for
shafts and
gears
alignment.
Unable to use
tools for shafts
and gears
alignment.
Transmit Power
A combination of mechanical components to change the speed or torque of
mechanical energy. Transmit power is achieved by specially designed belts and
pulleys. One or both of the pulleys are powered to moving the belt. The powered
pulley is called the drive pulley while the unpowered pulley is called the idler.
3.3.2
Automotive
Blenders
Converting
Conveyors
Farming
Feeder Drives
Food Processing
Electrical generators
Robotics
Medical
Mixers
Movie Animation
Office Machines
Packaging
Electrical generators
Power Transmission
Distributors
Material Handling
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Belt tension
The ideal belt is that of the lowest tension which does not slip in high loads.
Belt tensions should also be adjusted to belt type, size, speed, and pulley
diameters.
Belt tension is determined by measuring the force to deflect the belt a given
distance per inch of pulley.
Timing belts need only adequate tension to keep the belt in contact with the
pulley.
Angular misalignment.
Parallel misalignment.
3.3.4
There are several things need to be addressed before performing maintenance is charged
which is:
SYMPTOMS
PROBABLE CAUSE
1.Under-designed drive
Broken belt
SOLUTION
1. Redesign using Drive
Design Manual.
2. Use drive take up when
installing.
3. Provide adequate guard or
drive protection.
4. Redesign to accommodate
shock load.
1. Redesign using Drive
Design Manual
2. Follow correct installation
procedure.
3. Check for groove wear.
Replace as needed.
4. Check drive for centre
distance movement during
operation.
1. Check and correct
alignment.
2. Follow installation
procedure.
1. Check and design, replace
with larger pulleys.
2. lncrease back idler to
acceptable diameter.
1.Belt slip
Wear on belt bottom corners
2.Misalignment
3.Worn pulleys
4.lncorrect belt
SYMPTOMS
PROBABLE CAUSE
4.lmproper storage
1.Belt slip
Burn or hardening on bottom
or sidewall
2. Worn pulleys
3. Under-designed drive
4. Shaft movement
SOLUTION
1. Use correct belt-to-pulley
combination.
2. Replace pulleys.
1. Use correct belt/pulley
match.
2. Replace pulleys.
3. Clean pulleys.
1. Use larger diameter
pulleys.
2. Retension.
3. Use larger diameter back
idler.
4. Do not coil belt too tightly,
kink or bend. Avoid heat and
direct sunlight.
1. Retension until slipping
stops.
2. Replace pulleys.
3. Redesign using drive
Design Manual
4. Check for centre distance
changes
1.Oil or chemical
contamination
SYMPTOMS
PROBABLE CAUSE
1.Worn pulleys
Tie-band separation
1.Debris in pulleys
1.Misalignment
2. Under tensioned
SOLUTION
1. Replace pulleys.
2. Use standard groove
pulleys
1. Check guard.
2. Repair' or replace back
idler.
1. Clean grooves. Use single
belts to prevent debris from
being trapped in grooves.
1. Realign drive.
2. Retension.
SYMPTOMS
Squeal or "chirp"
Slapping noise
PROBABLE CAUSE
1.Belt slip
2. Contamination
1.Loose belts
2. Mismatched set
3. Misalignment
Rubbing sound
Guard interference
Grinding sound
Damaged bearings
1.Incorrect belt
Unusually loud drive
2.Worn pulleys
3. Debris in pulleys
Excessive vibration in drive
system
1.Incorrect belt
2. Poor machine or
equipment design
3. Pulley out of round
4. Loose drive components
SOLUTION
1. Retension.
2.Clean belts and pulleys
1. Retension.
2. Install matched belt set.
3. Realign pulleys so all belts
share load equally
1. Repair, replace or redesign
guard.
Replace, align and lubricate
1. Unusually loud drive23Use
correct belt size. Use correct
belt tooth profile for
sprockets on synchronous
drive.
2. Replace pulleys.
3. Clean pulleys, improve
shielding, and remove rust,
paint or dirt from grooves.
1. Use correct belt crosssection in pulley.
2. Check structure and
brackets for adequate
strength.
3. Replace pulley.
4. Check machine
SYMPTOMS
PROBABLE CAUSE
1.Misaligned drive
2. Debris in pulleys
3. Broken tensile member or
cord damaged
4. Mismatched belt set
1.Insufficient takeup
allowance
SOLUTION
1. Realign and retension
drive.
2. Clean pulleys.
3. Replace all belts, install
properly.
4. Install matched belt set
1. Check takeup. Use
allowance specified in Drive
Design Manual.
2. Redesign drive.
3.Replace belt, install
properly
SYMPTOMS
PROBABLE CAUSE
1.Shock loading or vibration
2. Foreign material in
grooves
3. Misaligned pulleys Worn
pulley grooves
4. Worn pulley grooves
SOLUTION
1. Check drive design.
2. Shield grooves and drive.
3. Realign pulleys.
4. Replace pulleys.
5. Use correct installation and
belt storage procedure.
6. Carefully place flat idler on
slack side of drive as close as
possible to driver pulleys.
7. Replace with new set of
matched belts. Do not mix old
and new belts
Roller chains are used in low- to mid-speed drives at around 600 to 800 feet per minute
2.
A bicycle chain is a form of roller chain. Bicycle chains may have a master link, or may
require a chain tool for removal and installation. A similar but larger and thus stronger chain is
used on most motorcycles
3.
In automobile engines, roller chains would drive the camshaft(s) off the crankshaft,
generating less noise than a gear drive as used in very high performance engines, and more
durable than timing belts.
4.
Chains are also used in forklifts using hydraulic rams as a pulley to raise and lower the
carriage; however, these chains are not considered roller chains, but are classified as lift or leaf
chains.
5.
Chainsawcutting chains superficially resemble roller chains but are more closely related
to leaf chains. They are driven by projecting drive links which also serve to locate the chain onto
the bar.
6. Silent Chains are used for the camshaft drive of the mid- to large-size engines. Transfer-case
drive in four-wheel-drive vehicle.The primary drive between the engine and transmission, as
well as in other high-speed applications.
Sprockets
Sprockets types.
The three bacis sprockets types are identified by their hub arrangement.
Type A sprockets sometimes called plate sprockets, have no hubs and are used for mounting on
flanges, hubs or other devices . They are made from bar stock or hot-rolled plate in either solid or
split construction with plain, countersunk, or tapped holes. Holes sizes and bolt circle for which
jigs are available are indicated in the thye D sprocket .
Type B sprockets have a hub on one side only. Small and medium size sprockets are usually
furnised in type B and are turned from bar stock or forgings, or are made by welding a bar stock
hub to a hot-rolled plate sprocket. If required, large diameter type B sprockets can be furnished.
They can be welded hub construction or machined from gray iron castings.
Type C sprockets have hubs on both sides. Large diameter sprockets are furnised in type C, with
hub projections equidistant from the centerline of the sprockets. With this hub arrangement the
line of action due to chain pull reacts through the center of the hub, proving stability and assuring
an even distribution of stress on shafts and key. Offset hubs can be furnished.Type C sprockets
are normally machined from gray iron castings, but can be cast steel or welded hub construction.
Multiple width sprockets have a row of theeth to engage each strand of chain. They are made in
the same types as single width sprockets. That is smaller diameter sprockets are reguarly
furnished as type B and the larger sizes as type C.Mandrel bore sprockets are made in broad
range of sizesfor single and multiple strand chain.They are stocked
with mandrel bores for remaining to suit specification.
Finished bore sprockets are available for most widely used single strand chain. These ready to
use sprockets are made in type B only and are stocked in a range of popular bores , complete
with keyseats and set screw.
Taper lock sprockets are ideal where a positive, full compression grip on the shaft is desired.
They are available in a wide range of sizes for single and double strand chains. Bushing are
stocked in with bore increment, complete with key seat.
Special purpose sprockets. Type C split sprockets are used to facillate the installation or
replacement of sprockets locate where accessibility is difficuilt. They have a special split hub
and rim construction design for bolting the sprocket halves securely together.
Type D double duty sprockets offer convenience and economy when occasional drive ratio
change are necessary. They consists of a Type A plate sprocket bolted to a gray iron hub .
Shear pin sprockets are used to protect chain Drives and machinery from damage overloads.
They consists of a modified Type sprocket mounted on a gray iron hub and connected by a
shear pin. Many stock sizes are available.
Carrier rollers
Sprockets for the C-2000 series chain can roller are cut with space cutters or standard halve for
the American Standard Roller chain of the same diameter. Each sprocket tooth meshes with these
chains. Double sprockets cannot made for double pitch chain with Carrier Rollers. For drives of
31 teeth or more we recommend using Standard sprockets with series C2000 series chain. All
altered double pitch sprockets requiring all way will be furnished with key way on center of
tooth unless otherwise specified.
3.4.3 Installation.
To obtain maximum chain and sprocket life accurate alignment, proper chain tension , and good
lubrication are required. A drive is easy to install provided that precautions common to sound
judgement and good workmanship are followed. Poor installation eventually becomes evident in
the resulting reduction of chain life- more so on a high speed drive than on a low speed drive.
Simple precautions are sometimes forgotten, but they are essentialAll parts of the drive must be rigidly and securely mounted so that vibration cannot work them
loose.
1.The chain must be clean and free from grit and dirt before it is installed. Korosene is highly
effective cleaning agent.
2.The chain should articute freely. Make sure that parts are not damaged or bent and that
sprockets and shafts operate freely.
3.The drive must have adequate clearance . If chain case lubrication is used the drive must be
positioned correctly for chain clearance and the oil spray pipe adjusted properly.
During the start up of the drive , make certain that all parts work smoothly and lubrication is
being properly applied to the chain.
To Install.
1. Select the sprocket and bushing required and slide the bushing into the sprocket.
Be sure that all holes match up.
2. Place screws in threaded engagement with sprocket and free in bushing holes.
Slip assembled sprocket and bushing on shaft.
3. Tighten screws to force tapered bushing into the taper-bored hub . This wedges
the bushing between the shaft and sprocket assuring the fit that is as tight as a
shrunk fit.
To removed
1. Removed the screws completely . Using one of them as a jackscrew, insert in hole threaded
on bushing so that it engages the bushing and is free of the hub. Tighten the jackscrew.
2. As the jackscrew is tightened , the sprocket will become disengaged from the bushing
and the complete assembly may be easily slipped of the shaft.
1.Check lubrication On slow speed drives, where manual lubrication is used, be sure the lubrication schedule is
being followed. If the chain is covered with dirt and debris, clean the chain with kerosene and
relubricate it.
WARNING! NEVER USE GASOLINE OR OTHER FLAMMABLE SOLVENTS TO CLEAN
A CHAIN. A FIRE MAY RESULT.
If drip lubrication is used, check for adequate oil flow and proper application to the chain. With
bath or pump lubrication, check oil level and add oil if needed. Check oil for contamination and
change oil if needed. Change oil after the first 100 hours of operation and each 500 hours
thereafter. If pump lubrication is used, check each orifice to be sure it is clear and is directing
oil onto the chain properly.
2. Check Chain Tension Check chain tension and adjust as needed to maintain the proper sag in the slack span. If
elongation exceeds the available adjustment, remove two pitches and reconnect the chain.
3. Check Chain Wear Measure the chain wear elongation and if elongation exceeds functional limits or is greater than
3% (.36 inches in one foot) replace the entire chain. Do not connect a new section of chain to a
worn chain because it may run rough and damage the drive. Do not continue to run a chain
worn beyond 3% elongation because the chain will not engage the sprockets properly and it
may damage the sprockets.
4. Check Sprocket Tooth Wear Check for roughness or binding when the chain engages or disengages from the sprocket.
Inspect the sprocket teeth for reduced tooth section and hooked tooth tips.
If these conditions are present, the sprocket teeth are excessively worn and the sprocket should
be replaced. Do not run new chain on worn sprockets as it will cause the new chain
to wear rapidly. Conversely, do not run a worn chain on new sprockets as it will cause the new
sprockets to wear rapidly.
5. Check Sprocket Alignment If there is noticeable wear on the inside surface of the chain roller link plates, the sprockets may
be misaligned. Realign the sprockets as outlined in the installation instructions to prevent further
abnormal chain and sprocket wear.
6. Check for Drive Interference Check for interference between the drive and other parts of the equipment. If there is any, correct
it immediately. Interference can cause abnormal and potentially destructive wear on the chain or
the interfering part. If the edges of the chain link plates impact against a rigid part, link plate
fatigue and chain failure can result.
Check for and eliminate any buildup of debris or foreign material between the chain and
sprockets.
A shaft is a rotating member, usually of circular cross section used to transmit torque and
rotation, to connect other components
Types Of Misalignment
Angular Misalignment
Combination Misalignment
it is possible to measure the alignment with dial gauges or feeler gages using various
mechanical setups.
it is recommended to take care of bracket sag, parallax error while reading the values.
it is very convenient to use laser shaft alignment technique to perform the alignment task
within highest accuracy.
it is required to align the machine better, the laser shaft alignment tool can help to show
the required moves at the feet positions.
it should transmit the full power from one shaft to other without losses.
it does allow some misalignment between the two adjacent shaft rotation axis.
A transmission that can change steplessly through an infinite number of effective gear
The flexibility of a CVT allows the input shaft to maintain a constant angular
velocity over a range of output velocities.
Types Of CVT
Ratcheting CVT
Hydrostatic CVTs
Cone CVTs
Planetary CVT
LAB SHEET
REPORT
JJ615 MECHANICALCOMPONENTS &
MAINTENANCE
CLO:
1. Assemble
correctly
mechanical
component
base
on
service
maintenancebygroup.(P5)
2. Organize properly maintenance procedure base on standard operation
procedure.(A4)
2.
NAME:
REGISTERATIONNO:
SESSION:
PROGRAMME
PRACTICAL DATE
SUBMITTED DATE
LECTURER
PREPAREDBY:
RUBRICS
LearningDomain (LD1)Knowledge
manual
Introduction
5@3@1/5 (x4)
Procedure/Tools
5@3@1/5 (x5)
Maintenance Procedure
5@3@1/ 5(x5)
Discussion/Conclusion
5@3@1/ 5(x3)
CHECKEDBY:
Neatness/Teamwork
(HEADOFDEPARTMENT/HEADOFPR
OGRAMME)
TOTALMARKS
5@3@1/ 5(x3)
/100 x 30% =
1.3 Practice safety procedures correctly in the working workshop according to the workshop
safety
regulation to create a secure practical team work (A3).
6.0 OBJECTIVES
2.1 Demonstratetheuseof thereversedialindicatormethodsto correct shaft misalignment.
2.2 Assembleanddisassembleofmechanicaldrivesystemasa practical.Asanexamples
apparatuscanbeusearegear assemblyforcombined drivesandalignment of drives, chain
drives and belt drives.
7.0 APPARATUS/EQUIPMENT
3.1 Chain Drive system
3.2 Hand Tools
3.3 Power Tools
3.4 Lubricant
3.4 Solvent
3.6 Air Compressor
4.0 SAFETY AND HEALTH
It is the individuals responsibility to practice the following general safety guidelines at all times
and keep your workspace reasonably tidy.
4.1 Always know the hazards associated with the equipment/materials that are being utilized in
the workshop.
4.3 Always wear appropriate protective clothing and equipment.
4.3 Confine long hair and loose clothing. Do not wear high-heeled shoes, open-toed shoes,
sandals
INTRODUCTION
A shaft is a rotating member, usually of circular cross section used to transmit torque
and rotation, to connect other components of a drive train that cannot be connected
directly because of distance or the need to allow for relative movement between them.
It provides the axis of rotation, or oscillation of elements such as gears, pulleys,
sprockets, flywheels and the like and controls the geometry of their motion.
Shafts are carriers of torque: they are subject to torsion and shear stress, equivalent to
the difference between the input torque and the load. They must therefore be strong
enough to bear the stress, whilst avoiding too much additional weight as that would in
turn increase their inertia.
The designing of shaft must be studied from the following point of view:
1- Deflection and rigidity
a. Torsional deflection
b. Slope at bearings and shaft supported elements
c. Shear deflection due to transverse loading of short shafts
2- Stress and strength
a. Static strength
b. fatigue strength
c. Reliability
Chain drive is a way of transmitting mechanical power from one place to another. It is
often used to convey power to the wheels of a vehicle, particularly bicycles and
motorcycles. It is also used in a wide variety of machines besides vehicles.
Most often, the power is conveyed by a roller chain, known as the drive chain or
transmission chain, passing over a sprocket gear, with the teeth of the gear meshing
with the holes in the links of the chain. The gear is turned, and this pulls the chain
putting mechanical force into the system.
Sometimes the power is output by simply rotating the chain, which can be used to lift or
drag objects. In other situations, a second gear is placed and the power is recovered by
attaching shafts or hubs to this gear. Though drive chains are often simple oval loops,
they can also go around corners by placing more than two gears along the chain; gears
that do not put power into the system or transmit it out are generally known as idlerwheels. By varying the diameter of the input and output gears with respect to each
other, the gear ratio can be altered.
11.0
NO
1
FIGURES/SKETCHES
ETC
TOOLS
BEARING
Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this chapter, students should be able to:1.
2.
3.
4.
Understandbearingconcepts.
Understandfriction, temperature andlubrication.
Describe mountinganddismountingofbearing.
Understandbearingdamage.
4.0 BEARING
4.1 Bearing Concepts
4.1.1 Application of bearings
A bearing is a machine element that constrains relative motion between moving parts to
only the desired motion.
The design of the bearing may provide for free linear movement of the moving part or for
free rotation around a fixed axis or, it may prevent a motion by controlling the vectors of
normal forces that bear on the moving parts.
Bearings are classified broadly according to the type of operation, the motions allowed,
or to the directions of the loads (forces) applied to the parts.
Bearing are used to support rotating shaft and are classified according to the direction of
the main load. (see figure 4.1.1)
axial bearing are design to withstand axial thrust
Radial bearings are designed to withstand radial load
Combination of both
Figure 4.1.1
4.1.2
A bearing is constituted by an inner and an outer ring. Between them a series of rolling
element is found
Something a fourth element (cage) is present to keep the rolling elements in their
position.
Rolling elements can be spheres (ball bearing) or cylinders (cylinder roller bearings).
Types of bearing and characteristic of bearings
The bearings are classified broadly into two (2) categories based on the type of contact
they have between the rotating and the stationary member
a. Rolling Element Bearings
Rolling element bearing also called an antifriction bearing because the created by
this bearing is rolling friction rather than sliding friction creared by the plain
bearings.The rolling element bearing is a cylinder containing a moving inner ring of
stell balls or rollers.
Rolling element bearings have balls or roller for increase efficiency. Rolling friction
is always less than sliding friction.The following are the three basic types of rolling
element bearings.
i.
ii.
iii.
Ball bearings
Roller bearings.
Needle Bearings.
Different designs of ball and roller bearings can handle radial, axial and combination
loads. Needle bearings are used only for radial or axial loads.
Class I
Bearing systems are lubricated from an outside sources
ii.
Class II
Bearing systems have internal lubrication .
iii.
Class III
Bearing systems have graphite , PTFE ( Teflon) or plastic bearings that
require no lubricant
Plain/journal/sliding bearing
Description
Friction
Stiffness
Speed
Life
Notes
Depends on materials
Good, provided
and construction,
depends upon
some slack is
application and
in some applications.
the
of friction ~0.05-0.35,
normally present
lubrication
added
element bearings.
Rolling coefficient of
friction with steel can
be ~0.005 (adding
resistance due to seals,
packed grease, preload
and misalignment can
increase friction to as
much as 0.125)
Moderate to high
Moderate to high
slack is usually
(often requires
(depends on
present
cooling)
lubrication, often
friction
requires
maintenance)
d = Inside diameter
D = Outside diameter
B/T = Width diameter
Basic life or L10 as defined in ISO and ABMA standards is the life that 90% of a sufficiently large
group of apparently identical bearings can be expected to reach or exceed. The median or average
life, sometimes called Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF), is about five times the calculated
basic rating life. Service life is the life of a bearing under actual operating conditions before it fails
or needs to be replaced for whatever reason. The so called specification life is generally a requisite
L10 basic rating life and reflects a manufacturer's requirement based on experience with similar
applications.
4.1.4.1 Calculating Loads
Engineers typically employ rolling-contact fatigue models that compare bearing load
ratings to applied dynamic and static loads as they impact service life and reliability. The basic
dynamic load rating covers dynamically stressed bearings that rotate under load. This rating,
defined in ISO 281, is the bearing load that results in a basic rating life or L10 of 1 million
revolutions. Dynamic loads should include a representative duty cycle or spectrum of load
conditions and any peak loads.
The basic static load rating applies to bearings that rotate at speeds less than 10 rpm, slowly
oscillate, or remain stationary under load over certain periods. Be sure to include loads of
extremely short duration (shock) because they may plastically deform contact surfaces and
compromise bearing integrity.
Basic catalog or simplified calculations typically ignore elastic deformations in the bearing,
housing, or machine frame, as well as moments produced in the bearing by shaft deflection. Such
calculations may assume loads are constant in magnitude and direction and act radially on a radial
bearing, or axially and centrically on a thrust bearing. Oftentimes, bearings in actual service see
simultaneous radial and axial loads. When the resultant of radial and axial loads is constant in
magnitude and direction, calculate an equivalent dynamic bearing load from:
P = XFr + YFa
where P = equivalent dynamic bearing load, lb; Fr = actual radial bearing load, lb; Fa = actual axial
bearing load, lb; X = radial load factor for the bearing; and Y = axial load factor for the bearing.
For single-row radial bearings, axial load influences P only when the ratio Fa Fr exceeds a
certain limiting value. Conversely, even light axial loads are significant for double-row radial
bearings. The above equation also applies to spherical thrust bearings and other thrust types that
handle both axial and radial loads. Be sure to consult manufacturer catalogs for axial-radial thrust
bearings because designs can vary widely. For thrust ball bearings and other types that carry pure
axial loads, the equation simplifies to P = Fa, provided the load acts centrically.
Service life represents bearing life in real-world conditions, where field failures can result from
root causes other than bearing fatigue. Examples of root causes include contamination, wear,
misalignment, corrosion, mounting damage, poor lubrication, or faulty sealing systems.
On going advances in bearing technology and manufacturing processes continue to extend bearing
life and reduce sensitivity to severe operating conditions. Standard ISO 281 has developed in step
with these advances to predict service life more accurately. The latest version expands coverage to
include bearing material fatigue stress limits, and a factor for solid contamination effects on
bearing life when using various lubrication systems such as grease, circulating oil, and oil bath.
The equation calculates modified rating life at n% reliability Lnm in millions of revolutions at
constant speed by:
Lnm= a1aISOL10
where a1 = life-adjustment factor for reliability (1.0 for 90% reliability); and a ISO = manufacturer
life modification factor according to ISO 281.
Finding a ISO involves the use of a contamination factor that considers the lubrication system type,
cleanliness class, bearing size, and lubrication operating conditions as defined in ISO 4406. This
contamination factor, along with the ratio of the bearing fatigue load limit to the bearing equivalent
load limit, and the lubrication condition, determine a ISO. In general, better lubricant conditions
and lower equivalent loads lessen bearing life sensitivity to contamination levels. Conversely, high
loads and poor lubricant conditions raise bearing life sensitivity to contamination.
4.2
Influencing factor
Magnitude of load
Magnitude and direction of load
Seal friction
Although the dynamic friction coefficient for rolling bearings varies with the type of bearings,
load, lubrication, speed, and other factors; for normal operating conditions, the approximate
friction coefficients for various bearing types are listed in Table 10.1.
4.2.2.2 Temperature rise
Almost all friction loss in a bearing is transformed into heat within the bearing itself and
causes the temperature of the bearing to rise. Bearing operating temperature is determined by the
equilibrium or balance between the amount of heat generated by the bearing and the amount of
heat conducted away from the bearing. In most cases the temperature rises sharply during initial
operation, then increases slowly until it reaches a stable condition and then remains constant. The
time it takes to reach this stable state depends on the amount of heat produced, heat
capacity/diffusion of the shaft and bearing housing, amount of lubricant and method of lubrication.
If the temperature continues to rise and does not become constant, it must be assumed that there is
some improper function.
Possible causes of abnormal temperature include bearing misalignment (due to moment
load or incorrect installation), insufficient internal clearance, excessive preload, too much or too
little lubricant, or heat produced from sealed units. Check the mechanical equipment, and if
necessary, remove and inspect the bear
specifically contain special plastic flinger wheels which randomly scatter oil around the interior of
the mechanism.
Uses
Mounting
Dismounting
Dismounting
Induction Heaters
ultrasonic inspection
Eddy current testing
magnetic particle inspection
resonant inspection
can be taken.
4.4.1.1 Flaking
Flaking is damage where material is removed in flakes from a surface layer of the
bearing raceways or rolling elements due to rolling fatigue. This failure mode is generally
attributed to the approaching end of bearing service life. However, if flaking occurs at
early stages of bearing service life, it is necessary to determine causes and adopt
preventive measures.
4.4.2.1 Flaking
4.4.2.5 Smearing
4.4.2.8 Fretting
4.4.2.11 Seizure
x. After the bearing has been removed and cleaned, all markings and part numbers should be
recorded.
xi. If a bearing is to be returned to the manufacturer for analysis, do not clean the lubricant
from the bearing.
xii.
The general condition of the bearing should be noted and recorded, with specific
attention to the condition of the rolling elements and raceways.
xiii.
If further analysis of the bearing damage is required or a metallurgical check may be
needed, a preservative oil should be applied to the bearing prior to repackaging and
shipment.
xiv.
Question
1. Identify THREE (3) thermal methods and THREE (3) mechanical methods of mounting
bearings.
2. Identify FOUR (4) common causes for bearing failure.
References
.
1. Riccardo Manzini, Alberto Regattieri (2010) Maintenance For Industrial Systems,
Springer Dordrecht Heildelberg London, New York, ISBN978-1-84882-574-1
CLUTCHES AND
BRAKES
Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this chapter, students should be able to:1. Describe clutches and brakes principle.
2. Develop clutches and brakes maintenance procedure
5.1
Brakes are actually clutches with one side locked down so when the
clutch/brake engages the rotating shaft stops.
5.1.2
Types of clutches:
a.
b.
c.
Mechanical
Electrical
Hydraulic
a.
Mechanical clutches
i.
-
Friction Clutches
Widely used in industry (i.e. automotive industry).
Can be actuated or operated manually, pneumatically or hydraulically.
ii.
-
iii.
iv.
-
v.
-
vi.
-
Use a lined metal of fibrous metal mounted between two steel plates as a
means of transferring motion between two mechanical components.
Transferring of motion occur when the separate plates are bought into
contact with each other.
The travel of the friction plates is very small compared to the jaw clutches.
The driven portion of a friction clutch is frequently supported by bearings on
the driving hub.
Jaw Clutches
Usually used on slow speed applications.
Motion for engaging and disengaging the clutch is accomplished with a
shifting arm.
The shifting arm are usually has the fulcrum or pivot point located at one
end of the arm with the operating handle located at the other end.
Centrifugal Clutches
Friction type centrifugal clutches are commonly found in applications where
it is desirable to have either no load starting or protection against overload.
Can also function as couplings or can be mounted directly to V-belt.
In operation, centrifugal clutches start from a disengaged or at rest position.
Centrifugal clutches become positively engaged at no time during operation.
Overrunning Clutches
Also known as one-way clutches.
Frequently used on machine where the driving motor or media requires
protection.
Prevent overspeeding of the drive by allowing free rotation of the drive
component.
Designed to permit rotation of the driving force in the forward direction
only.
To accomplish this overrunning action, two common type of mechanism are
used rollers and sprags.
Rollers running on flat surface inside round housing while sprags positioned
between two circular surfaces. Sprags are irregular or can shaped pieces.
During operation, sprags are wedged between the inner and outer hubs.
b.
Hydraulic Clutches
i.
-
Fluid Clutches
Widely used in industry because of their ability to start under heavy
loads and absorb shock loads.
Also used to provide a smooth flow of power to the driven side of a
machine. (Also known as fluid coupling).
The driven half of a fluid coupling is actuated by the hydraulic fluid.
The driving half (pump/impeller) and driven half (turbine) will
rotate at the same speed during operation.
c.
-
Electric Clutches
Used where intermittent motion is required especially to start and
stop the drive motor on short time cycles.
A magnet or coil is mounted on a driven component or machine
while an armature plate is mounted on the driving motor or shaft.
When the two parts are de-energized, no contact or action takes
place between them, even though the motor the motor may be
running.
When an electric current is introduced into the magnet or coil, a
magnetic field is set up causing the armature and the coil to draw
together.
This action then couples the two halves electrically and physically
causing them to rotate as one piece.
i.
Note: The pressure plate assembly and clutch disk remain on the
flywheel when you remove the engine. The clutch release
(throw-out) bearing and related parts stay in the transmission.
ii.
iii.
Hold the pressure plate securely and completely, then loosen the
pressure plate-to-flywheel bolts by turning each bolt only a little
at a time. Work in a criss-cross pattern until all spring pressure
is relieved. Then remove the bolts, followed by the pressure
plate and the clutch disc.
v.
vi.
Shake the pressure plate assembly and verify that the diaphragm
spring, which should be under tension, does not rattle. If the
pressure plate is defective in any way, replace it.
vii.
ix.
Inspect the lining on the clutch disk for wear. There should be at
least 2mm of friction material remaining above the rivet heads.
x.
Check the clutch disk for loose rivets, distortion, cracks, broken
springs and other obvious damage.
Carefully inspect the splines inside the hub of the clutch disk
and the splines on the transmission input shaft. They must not be
broken or distorted. Lubricate the splines in the disk hub and the
splines on the input shaft with graphite or molybdenum disu lfide
powder (Rob's last replacement clutch plate came with a tiny
tube of special "spline" grease to be smeared sparingly on the
splines).
xii.
Verify that the clutch disk slides freely on the drive shaft splines
without excessive radial play. If the clutch disk is in any way
unserviceable, replace it.
Note: You're probably replacing the clutch disk anyway, but if the
splines on the input shaft are damaged, you'll have to replace the
input shaft as well.
Note: If you are replacing the main oil seal, remove the flywheel at this
point and replace the clutch after the flywheel has been
reinstalled.
b.
Reassemble:
i.
ii.
Position the clutch disk and pressure plate against the flywheel
with the clutch held in place with an alignment tool (the best
alignment tool is an old input shaft, or there is a commerciallyavailable inexpensive one made of plastic).
Note: Clutch Pilot Tool - Using the clutch alignment tool can take a lot
of the headache out of installing an engine. Instead of eyeballing
to see if the clutch is centered, simply install the clutch
alignment tool into clutch disc, and tighten the pressure plate (a
turn per bolt, rotate around). The tool will keep the clutch disc
centered so the engine goes onto the transmission easier. After
you are finished, simply pull the tool out, clean, and save for the
next time you need it!
Note: Lacking a centering tool, you can just get down to flywheel
height and "eyeball" it. The worst that can happen if it's not
exactly centered is that the last inch or so of engine installation
might take a little more shoving.
iv.
v.
If you're reusing the old pressure plate, make sure the marks you
made on the pressure plate and the flywheel are matched up.
vi.
Install a clutch alignment tool into the center of the clutch disc
you intend to use. With the clutch disc on the alignment tool,
install the tool into the end of the crankshaft. Make sure that the
alignment tool extends through the splined hub and into the
needle bearing in the gland nut. Wiggle the tool up -down and/or
side-to-side as needed to bottom the tool into the gland nut.
vii.
Make sure that the clutch disc is against the flywheel, then install
the pressure plate.
viii. Loosely start the six mounting bolts in the flywheel. Tighten
them "crosswise", back and forth across the plate to prevent
distorting the cover. After all the bolts are snug, torque them first
to about 10 ft-lbs and finally to 18 ft-lbs.
ix.
x.
xi.
xii.
xiii. Adjust the clutch pedal free play in accordance with our Clutch
Cable Adjustment Procedure.
5.2
ii.
iii.
Worn out friction components: Check the components to see if they are
within tolerances. Replace them if necessary.
iv.
v.
Too much torque: This may be because an increased load exceeds design
capacity or because of poor initial selection of a clutch or brake. Check the
machine to determine if the increased load is temporary or permanent.
Repairing or servicing a machine may reduce torque to acceptable levels. If
not, the clutch or brake should be replaced with one designed for the
increased torque loads required.
vi.
With any type of clutch or brake, the following are generally recommended:
i.
The clutch or brake should always be the correct size for the application.
ii.
Heat dissipation should always be adequate to ensure long life and low
maintenance.
iii.
iv.
v.
Clutches and brakes should be kept clean and free from debris whenever
possible.
PUMPS,VALVESAND
COMPRESSOR
Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this chapter, students should be able to:1. Understandpumpsconcepts.
2. Understand valve concepts
3. Understandcompressor concepts.
6.0
PUMPS,VALVESANDCOMPRESSOR
6.1
Understand pumps concepts.
Irrigation pumps lift water from an existing source, such as surface or groundwater to a higher
level.
They have to overcome friction losses during transport of the water and provide pressure for
sprinkler and drip irrigation
Irrigation pumps are mechanical devices which use energy from electrical or combustion motors
to increase the potential and (or) kinetic energy of the irrigation water.
Pumps are used in irrigation systems to impart a head to the water so it may be distributed to
different locations on the farm and used effectively in application systems.
The key requirement in pump selection and design of pump systems for typical irrigation
installations is that there is a correspondence between the requirements of the irrigation system
and the maximum operating efficiency of the pump
6.1.1 List application of pumps.
Pumps are used throughout society for a variety of purposes. Early applications includes the use
of the windmill or watermill to pump water. Today, the pump is used for irrigation, water supply,
gasoline supply, air conditioning systems, refrigeration (usually called a compressor), chemical
movement, sewage movement, flood control, marine services, etc.
Classify types of pumps based on its principle.
iv.
Positive displacement
v.
Rotor dynamic
i.
A Positive Displacement Pump has an expanding cavity on the suction side of
the pump and a decreasing cavity on the discharge side. Liquid is allowed to flow
into the pump as the cavity on the suction side expands and the liquid is forced out
of the discharge as the cavity collapses. This principle applies to all types of
Positive Displacement Pumps whether the pump is a rotary lobe, gear within a
gear, piston, diaphragm, screw, progressing cavity, etc.
There are three main classifications of Positive Displacement Pumps
6.1.2
ii.
6.1.4 Developed check list pumps maintenance, symptoms and record observations for
preventive maintenance.
Pump Maintenance Concept
Poor maintenance can cause undue wear and tear of fast moving parts, and premature failure of
the equipment. Such premature failure or breakdown causes immense hardship to the consumers
and staff, and avoidable increase in repair cost. The shortcomings in maintenance can also result
in increase in hydraulic and power losses and low efficiency. Inefficient running of the pump
increases burden of power cost. Importance of preventive maintenance, therefore, need not be
overstressed.
Appropriate maintenance schedule and procedure need to be prescribed for all electrical and
mechanical equipment based on manufacturers recommendations, characteristics of the
equipment, site and environment conditions i.e. temperature, humidity, dust condition, etc. The
maintenance schedule also needs to be reviewed and revised in the light of experience and
analysis of failures and breakdown at the pumping station. The preventive maintenance schedule
shall detail the maintenance to be carried out at regular intervals i.e. daily, monthly, quarterly, half
yearly, annually etc. or operation hours. The schedule shall also include inspections and tests to
be performed at appropriate interval or periodicity.
Check List Pump Maintenance, Symptoms and Record Observation
For Preventive Maintenance
Monthly Maintenance
i.
Check free movement of the gland of the stuffing box, check gland packing
and replace if necessary.
ii. Clean and apply oil to the gland bolts.
iii. Inspect the mechanical seal for wear and replacement if necessary.
iv. Check condition of bearing oil and replace or top up if necessary.
Quarterly Maintenance
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Check alignment of the pump and the drive. The pump and motor shall be
decoupled while correcting alignment, and both pump and motor shafts
shall be pushed to either side to eliminate effect of end play in bearings.
Clean oil lubricated bearings and replenish with fresh oil. If bearings are
grease lubricated, the condition of the grease should be checked and
replaced/replenished to the correct quantity. An anti-friction bearing should
have its housing so packed with grease that the void space in the bearing
housing should be between one third to half. A fully packed housing will
overheat the bearing and will result in reduction of life of the bearing.
Tighten the foundation bolts and holding down bolts of pump and motor
mounting on base plate or frame.
Check vibration level with instruments if available; otherwise by observation.
Clean flow indicator, other instruments and appurtenances in the pump
house.
Ball valve
Butterfly valve
Gate valve
Globe valve
Ball valve, for on/off control without pressure drop, and ideal for quick shut-off, since a 90 turn
offers complete shut-off angle, compared to multiple turns required on most manual valves.
Gate valve, mainly for on/off control, with low pressure drop.
Characteristic of valve.
Ball Valve
Ball valves are devices use a ball to stop and start the flow of fluid. As the valve stem turns to the open
position, the ball rotates to a point where part or the entire hole machined through the ball is in line with
the valve-body inlet and outlet. This allows fluid to pass through the valve. Ball rotates so that the hole is
perpendicular to the flow path, the flow stops. Most ball valves are quick-acting and require a 90-degree
turn of the actuator lever to fully open or close the valve.
Figure
6.2.5 Butterfly valve function.
The butterfly valve (figure 6.2.6) has a disk that rotates about a central shaft or stem. When the valve is
closed, the disk face is across the pipe and blocks the flow. Butterfly valve seat consist of a bonded
resilient liner, a mechanically fastened resilient liner, an insert-type reinforced resilient liner, or an integral
metal seat with an O-ring inserted around the edge of the disk.As shown in Figure 13.4, both the full open
and the throttled positions permit almost unrestricted flow. Therefore, this valve does not induce
turbulent flow in the partially closed position. While the design does not permit exact flow-control
capabilities, a butterfly valve can be used for throttling flow through the valve. In addition, these valves
have the lowest pressure drop of all the conventional types.
Gate valve
Gate valves are used straight line, laminar fluid flow, and minimum restrictions are needed. These valves
use a wedge-shaped sliding plate in the valve body to stop, throttle, or permit full flow of fluids through
the valve. When the valve is wide open, the gate is completely inside the valve bonnet. This leaves the
flow passage through the valve fully open with no flow restrictions, allowing little or no pressure drop
through the valve. Gate valves are not suitable for throttling the flow volume unless specifically authorized
for this application by the manufacturer. They generally are not suitable because the flow of fluid through
a partially open gate can cause extensive damage to the valve.
Globe valve
A disk attached to the valve stem controls flow in a globe valve. Turning the valve stem until the disk is
seated closes the valve. The edge of the disk and the seat are very accurately machined to provide a tight
seal. It is important for globe valves to be installed with the pressure against the disk face to protect the
stem packing from system pressure when the valve is shut. While type of valve is commonly used in the
fully open or fully closed position, it also may be used for throttling.
Butterfly Valve
Following proper directions and instructions is and will always be a nice thing to do, even in installing a
butterfly valve inside the house. No kidding. This valve is widely used in day-to-day life such as in the
carburettor of a car. These valves are mainly used in controlling a certain object, in the case of a
carburettor, and then the entrance of air in the car is being decreased or increased through the use of the
valve. Simply put, this is used to regulate the flow which in this case, is the air. Due to this high end
function, proper and constant maintenance of this valve is a must. This valve is operated similar to that of
a ball valve.
Gate valve
The proper maintenance of a gate valve, or any valve for that matter, is important in ensuring that it will
last for many years and work as efficiently as it should. Thinking that it can simply be installed and left
alone afterwards is the beginning of the end since the time will definitely come that the valve will either
have to be repaired or totally replaced due to lack of maintenance. So, if you want to spare yourself a few
headaches and several dollars in repair or replacement costs, learn how to maintain your gate valves
effectively.
6.2.4 Developed check list valve maintenance symptoms and record observation for preventive
maintenance.
UnitNo._
PlantName:
Source/sofdata:
ValveManufacturer:
SizeofValve:
_Age ofValve:
___
SizeofPenstock
SystemPressure(PSI):
Control/Shut-OffValveDescription:_
Maintenance History/MajorRepairsDescription:
Control/Shut-OffValve:
ValveManufacturer/Model:
RatedOperatingPressure:
Additionspecificationdata:
__
Valve Operator:
Make:_
Model:
Additionspecificationdata:
Control/Shut-OffValveCheck List
Topic
Yes
No
N/A Comments/Details
Maintenance&MajorRepairHistory
Arethereplantpreventivemaintenanceprocedures for the
Control/Shut-off Valve? Aretheyroutinelycarriedout?
Has theValvebeenrebuilt?
Haveallplantrecords regardingvalverepairs,operating
conditions, etc. beenrequested/gathered?
CantheinterioroftheValvebeaccessed?
Aredifferentialpressureindicatorsortransmitterspresent?
Aredifferentialpressureindicatorsortransmitters
operational?
Yes
No
N/A
Comments/Details
Doesthevalvepositionindicatorfunctioncorrectly?
Localand/or remote?
Doesthevalvehavepackingleaks?
Doesthevalvehaveflange gasketleaks?
Isthevalveinsulated?
Ifso, doestheinsulationcontainasbestos fiber?
Yes
No
N/A
Comments/Details
Control/ShutoffValveDataCollectionSheet
Topic
DataInput
REASON
ACTION
REASON
ACTION
REASON
ACTION
ries
COMPRESSOR
Dynamic
Positive
Displacement
Centrifugal
Rotary
Reciprocating
Dynamic
This type of compressors uses the phenomenon of velocity to generate energy. It happens
by creating high speed energy through a rapidly moving piece. This fast moving piece then
propels the basic unit of the air compressor to generate power which is then used for mechanical
purposes. The dynamic compressor is characterized by rotating impeller to add velocity and
pressure to fluid. Compare to positive displacement type compressor, dynamic compressor are
much smaller in size and produce much less vibration. Although the dynamic air compressors are
very useful they are not as common as the positive displacement compressors and their use is
mostly restricted to various industries and is not used at homes. It is widely used in chemical
and petroleum refinery industry for specifies services. They are also used in other industries such
as the iron and steel industry, pipeline booster, and on offshore platforms for reinjection
compressors.
a) Centrifugal Compressor
Advantages
a)
b)
c)
d)
Reliable
Compact
Robust
High reliability, eliminating the need for multiple compressors and installed standby
capacity.
e) For the same operating conditions, machine prices are lower for high volume flow rates.
f) Less plot area for installation for a given flow rate.
g) Machine is small and light weight with respect to its flow rate capacity.
h) Installation costs are lower due to smaller size
i) Low total maintenance costs
j) When a turbine is selected as a driver, the centrifugal compressor's speed level allows
direct drive thereby minimizing equipment cost, reducing power requirements, and
increasing unit reliability.
k) Flow control is simple, continuous, and efficient over a relatively wide flow range.
l) No lube oil contamination of process gas.
m) Absence of any pressure pulsation above surge point.
n) Can reach pressure up to 1200 psi.
o) Completely package for plant or instrument air up through 500 hp.
p) Does not require special foundations
Disadvantages
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
Lower efficiency than most positive displacement types for the same flow rate and
pressure ratio.
Due to recycle not efficient below the surge point.
Very sensitive to changes in gas properties, especially molecular weight
Not effective for low molecular weight gases. The pressure ratio capability per stage is
low, tending to require a large number of machine stages, hence mechanical complexity.
High initial cost
Complicated monitoring and control systems
High rotational speed require special bearings and sophisticated vibration and clearance
monitoring
Specialized maintenance considerations
ii)
Positive displacement compressors types deliver a fixed volume of air at high pressures
condition. It can be divided into two types which are rotary compressors and reciprocating
compressors. In this type of compressor a certain inlet volume of gas is confined in a given space
and subsequently compressed by reducing this confined space or volume. At this elevated
pressure, the gas is expelled into discharge piping or vessel system.
a)
Rotary Compressor
which reduce the volume when the impeller rotates around an axis eccentric to the casing as
show in the figure 6.3.4 below:
Simple design
Low to medium initial and maintenance cost
Two-stages design provide good efficiencies
Easy to install
Few moving parts
Disadvantages
a)
b)
c)
d)
b)
Reciprocating compressor
Disadvantages
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
6.3.4 CompressorMaintenanceConcept
In order to maintain an air compressor system it requires well care of the equipment,
paying attention to changes and trends, and responding promptly to maintain operating reliability
and efficiency. To assure the maximum performance and service life of your compressor, a
routine maintenance schedule should be developed. Proper maintenance requires daily, weekly,
monthly, quarterly, semi-annual, and annual procedures. Monitoring operating conditions on a
daily or shift change base is good practice. It allows the operators to become familiar with a
smooth running machine which will lead to early detection of potential problems. Excellent
maintenance is the key to good reliability of a compressed air system; reduced energy costs are
an important and measurable by product. The benefits of good maintenance far outweigh the
costs and efforts involved. Good maintenance can save time, reduce operating costs, and improve
plant manufacturing efficiency and product quality
Just as with any other type of machinery, compressors are subject to operational changes
from environmental conditions, wear, or neglect. A plugged condensate drain, unusual noises,
temperature or vibration increases, discolored oil, and/or fluid leaks are some examples of
operational changes that may signal beginning of potential problems. Recognizing any changes
in operation and appropriately responding to those changes can prevent undesirable
consequences such as unscheduled shutdown and/or the expense of unanticipated repairs.
6.3.5 Maintenance Check List, Compressors Failure Symptom and Preventive Maintenance
Observation
Maintenance Check List
Daily inspection
A daily inspection takes only a short time, but it will allow the operator to develop a
definite sense of the appearance, sounds, and other operating conditions of a smoothly
performing compressor. Any changes can be investigated and be given attention before major
problems develop.
Setpoints recorded
Gearcase(high surface temperatures)
External surfaces wiped clean
No unusual noise or vibrations
No oil leaks
No water leaks
No frayed or worn electrical cables
Intercoolers and aftercooler(pressurized air, high surface temperatures)
External surfaces wiped clean
Condensate drains functioning properly
No cooling water leaks
No air leaks
Lubrication system (high voltages at heater, pump motor)
External surfaces wiped clean
Proper oil level in oil reservoir
Proper oil color
No mist from ejector system
No oil cooler water leaks
No oil leaks
No frayed or worn electrical cables
Compressor drive motor (inspect visually onlyhigh voltages, temperatures)
External surfaces wiped clean
Properly ventilated
No erratic or noisy operation
No frayed or worn electrical cables
Inspected in accordance with manufacturers recommendations
Table 6.3.1 Example of Daily Operator Inspection Checklist
Scheduled maintenance
Table 1-2 below lists suggested intervals for prescribed scheduled maintenance
procedures such as those involving filters, lubrication, and other inspections and/or adjustments.
Bear in mind, however, that these intervals may vary with operating conditions and/or actual
hours of machine operation. Some items may require attention more or less frequently as
circumstances dictate.
Scheduled maintenance procedures
() Weekly:
(or after about 150 hours of operation)
Inlet air filter elements inspected, replaced if required
Oil reservoir venting system filter elements inspected, replaced if required
Bypass valve filter checked (if supplied)
CAUSE
Sump lubricant low.
Clogged or varnished heat
exchanger/oil cooler.
High
Discharge
Temperature
Premature
Lubricant
Breakdown
CORRECTION
Fill lubricant.
Inspect lubricant lines for
blocks.
Analyze lubricant.
If varnish is present, flush with
cleaner.
Rebuild or replace by-pass valve.
Remove restrictions.
Check location and make sure there
is no restriction of cool fresh air.
Replace oil filter elements
See corrections for high discharge
temperature.
Review plant/operations/makeup air.
Analyze oil and correct inlet air
source as needed.
Periodically drain receiver
condensate.
Failure To
Start
High Power
Consumption
Excessive
Lubricant
Consumption
1. Foundation
Annual. Examine concrete for cracks and spalling.
2. Frame
Annual. Examine metal for corrosion and cracks. Clean and paint if required.
3. Compressor Drive
Weekly. Check v-belts for slippage, chains for looseness, and shaft couplings for excessive run
out or vibration. Dress or tighten v-belts if required. Tighten coupling bolts and lubricate
coupling if required.
Annual. Check v-belts for signs of wear or aging and replace as needed. Check shaft run out of
direct coupled machines with dial indicator and check shaft alignment if run out is excessive.
4. Cooling System
Weekly. Check flow of water or coolant through compressor and after cooler.
Check for accumulation of dirt and lint on cooling fins of air-cooled compressors and radiators
or water-cooled compressors.
Annual. Check for corrosion and scale buildup and clean or flush as required.
Thoroughly clean cooling fins of air-cooled compressors and radiators of
water-cooled compressors.
5. Air Intake
Weekly. Check condition of filter and intake for obstructions. Replace filter as required.
6. Piping and Valves
Annual. Check piping for corrosion. Clean and repaint or replace piping as required. Repack and
reseat valves as required.
7. Aftercoolers
Not Scheduled. Check for leaks and for adequate water flow. Disassemble and check for internal
corrosion and scale buildup. Clean as required.
8. Separators
Not Scheduled. Check for leaks. Disassemble and check for corrosion and scale buildup. Clean
as required.
9. Traps
Weekly. Operate manual drains.
Annual. Check automatic traps for leaks and proper operation. Clean strainer and check for
corrosion or scale buildup.
10. Dryers
Annual. Replace dryer elements as required on deliquescent dryers. Check operation of
refrigerated and desiccant types.
REFERENCE
1. R. Keith Mobley (2008). Maintenance Engineering Handbook 7th.Ed.McGraw-Hill,
USA. ISBN 978-0-07-154646-1
2. R. Keith Mobley (2004). Maintenance Fundamentals. Elsevier ButterworthHeinemann, Oxford, U.K. ISBN 0-07-026005-2
3. Hanlon P.C., ed. (2001). Compressor Handbook McGraw Hill, Two Penn Plaza, New
York. ISBN 0-07-026005-2
4. Ling. A. L. and ViskaMulyandasari (2011) .Compressor Selection and Sizing
(Engineering Design Guidelines) KLM Technology Group, Johor Bharu.
5. Roger Cline, John Germann and Bill McStraw(2009). Maintenance Scheduling for
Mechanical Equipment Facilities Instructions, Standards and Techniques, Volume 4-1A
Revised 2009, U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver,
Colorado.
6. Air Compressor Maintenance. Industrial Power Air, Muskego, WI, USA.
7. Glenn K. Moore. (2009) Field Service Notes (Why Compressors Fail), Danfoss Ltd.
Denmark.
8. R. Keith Mobley (2008). Maintenance Engineering Handbook 7th.Ed.McGraw-Hill,
USA. ISBN 978-0-07-154646-1
9. R. Keith Mobley (2004). Maintenance Fundamentals. Elsevier ButterworthHeinemann, Oxford, U.K. ISBN 0-07-026005-2
REFERENCES
Main:
BenjaminsBlanchard,DineshVerma(1994).Maintainablebilityakeytoeffective
serviceabilityandmaintenancemanagement.,Johnwiley&Sons.INC, USA.
LarryChastain(2004).IndustrialMechanicsandMaintenance,Pearson Prentice
HallNewJersey.ISBN 0-13-047469-x.
MichaelE.Brumbach (2003).IndustrialMaintenance.Thomson ,DelmarLearning, USA.
R.KeithMobley(2008).MaintenanceEngineering Handbook(7th)McGraw-Hill,USA.
ISBN 978-0-07-154646-1.
S.Chand(2009).MaintenanceEngineeringandManagement,RajendraRavinda
Printeds(Pvt.Ltd),NewDelhi ,India.
ThomasKissell(1999).Eletricity,FluidPower andMechanicalSystemforIndustrial
maintenance.Printice-Hall,Inc, USA.ISBN0-13-896473-4.