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Aerobatics
Precision maneuvers, such as barrel rolls, loops, hammerhead stalls, spins, and Cuban eights.
Often performed at airshows and competitions, many of these maneuvers are also part of a military
pilots training and can be used in aerial combat. In fact, many basic aerobatic maneuvers evolved
from air-combat tactics invented during World War I.
Aerobatics is also defined in Federal Aviation Regulation 91.303, which describes restrictions on
aerobatic flight. In that section, aerobatic flight means any intentional maneuver involving an
abrupt change in an aircrafts attitude, an abnormal attitude, or abnormal acceleration, not
necessary for normal flight.
Ailerons
Movable control surfaces, usually located near the wing tips, that control the rolling motion of an
aircraft. The pilot deflects the ailerons by moving the control yoke or stick left and right. The
ailerons move simultaneously in opposite directions. For example, when the pilot moves the yoke
or stick left, the aileron on the left wing moves up, decreasing the lift on the left wing. At the same
time, the right aileron moves down, increasing the lift on the right wing. The word derives from the
French word aile, meaning wing.
Ceiling
The altitude at which an aircrafts best rate of climb drops to 100 feet per minute under standard
conditions.
Climb Out
The portion of a flight between takeoff and the initial cruising altitude.
Cruise Speed
The average speed of an aircraft during straight-and-level flight at normal power settings.
Drag
The resistance of an object to movement through a fluid. With respect to aircraft, drag is one of the
four fundamental forces in flight. It opposes thrust. There are two basic types of drag. Parasite drag
is caused by friction. The airplane surface, antennas, landing gear, and other appendages all
cause parasite drag, which increases in proportion to the square of the aircrafts velocity. Induced
drag is a byproduct of lift. At the tip of a wing, air moves from the high-pressure area below the
wing to the low-pressure area above. The energy used to create these vortexes manifests itself as
induced drag, which increases as airspeed drops.
Elevator
A movable control surface located on the horizontal stabilizer of an aircrafts tail. Although its name
implies that the elevator makes the airplane climb or descend, it actually controls only the aircrafts
pitch attitude, that is, the angle of the nose above or below the horizon. The pilot moves the
elevator by applying forward pressure on the control to decrease pitch attitude and by applying
back pressure to increase the pitch attitude.
Fixed-Wing Aircraft
An aircraft with stable wings that deflect air current to create lift.
Flaps
A hinged portion of an airplanes wing, generally on the trailing edge, that can be lowered during
takeoff and landing to increase the lift and drag of the wings. When partially extended, a flap adds
lift by increasing the curvature of the wing. Because flaps extend into the oncoming air, they also
increase drag, helping an aircraft descend steeply without building up speed. Often confused with
ailerons, flaps are not the primary control surfaces of an airplane.
Flare
To level off and establish the correct landing attitude just above the runway prior to landing. A pilot
flares by applying back pressure to the control yoke or stick, which raises the nose of the aircraft.
When done properly, the flare is a smooth, continuous transition from a nose-low, descending flight
path to a nose-high attitude that almost stops the aircrafts descent.
Gs
A measurement of the load factor, or apparent gravity, experienced by an aircraft during flight. One
G represents the force of gravity exerted on a body at rest. When an aircraft climbs, turns, or
accelerates, positive G forces act upon it. When it descends or decelerates, negative G forces act
upon it.
Glide Ratio
Ratio of horizontal distance traveled per unit of descent. For example, a sailplane with a 60:1 glide
ratio travels 60 meters forward for every 1 meter it descends. A typical single-engine aircraft has a
glide ratio of about 10:1.
Glide Speed (VBG)
A V-speed indicating the optimal speed for gliding as far as possible with the engine off.
Glide Slope
The electronic approach path projected as part of an instrument landing system (ILS). Glide slope
transmitters, located near the end of a runway, send out radio signals to form the proper descent
path to the runway. The angle of the glide slope is usually set at about 3 degrees to the horizontal.
GUMPS
An acronym pilots use to remember a typical pre-landing checklist. GUMPS stands for Gas,
Undercarriage, Mixture, Propeller, Seat Belts, and Switches.
Heading
The direction in which the aircraft is pointed, usually in reference to magnetic north. Because wind
pushes an airplane in flight, heading does not necessarily correspond to the aircrafts path over the
ground, that is, its track. For example, if you want to fly due east with respect to the ground and the
wind is blowing from the north, you must turn the aircraft slightly into the wind to correct for drift.
Taildragger
An aircraft that has its main wheels mounted ahead of the center of gravity and a small pivoting or
steerable wheel supporting the back end of the fuselage. There is no nose wheel, as with tricyclegear aircraft. Taildraggers were the norm during the early years of aviation and are sometimes
referred to as conventional-gear aircraft. They are trickier to handle on the ground than tricyclegear aircraft and require special training and skill.
Takeoff Run
The distance from the takeoff point to where the wheels lift off the runway. Pilots often fly into the
direction of the wind to reduce the ground speed and distance needed to lift off the runway.
Throttle
The cockpit control that most directly determines the power output of the engine. In a piston
engine, the throttle actually controls the amount of air entering the carburetor or induction system.
The carburetor, or fuel metering system, mixes the appropriate amount of fuel with the air to create
a combustible mixture. When fully open, the throttle allows the maximum amount of air to enter
the system to produce maximum power. When the throttle is closed, only a small amount of air
enters the system and the engine produces minimum power.
Touch-and-Go
A landing operation where the pilot lands the aircraft on the runway
and takes off again without coming to a full stop.
Trim
To adjust a movable tab on a control surface, usually the elevator, to relieve pressure on the flight
controls. Trim is necessary because, as an aircraft changes speed, the amount of air flowing over
the control surfaces varies. Without trim, a pilot would have to hold forward or back pressure on the
yoke or column to maintain a specific airspeed or pitch attitude. Larger aircraft also have aileron
and rudder trim.
Trainer Aircraft
A type of aircraft used in flight instruction. Trainers are often two seaters with tandem controls and
simplified instrument panels.
Velocity Speeds (V-Speeds)
A set of suggested velocity speed settings to optimize performance under a variety of different
circumstances.
V1
Takeoff decision speed. The speed at which it may not be possible to stop the aircraft on the
runway in case of a rejected takeoff (RTO).
V2
Minimum takeoff safety speed for a multi-engine aircraft. The minimum safe flying speed should an
engine fail immediately after takeoff.