ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES

Lab Manual
Submitted TO
Prof. Dr. Imran Hashmi

Submitted BY
Abid Hameed

IESE NUST
Islamabad

Some important lab. safety rules

DO:
..

Assume any unfamiliar substance is hazardous.

Assume that any mixture is as hazardous as its most hazardous component.

Keep only currently needed chemicals in the lab, and restricts lab work to the lab.

Wear assigned protective clothing and equipment.

Wear sturdy shoes that fully cover the feet.

Know where to go and what to do in an emergency.

Know how to use emergency eyewash, safety shower, and fire extinguisher.

Clean up spills and broken glass immediately.

Keep hazardous substances in unbreakable containers.

If breakable containers must be used, keep them in chemical resistant trays.

Carry chemicals in trays or racks, not your hands.

Keep chemicals out of drains, sewers, and general refuse.

Keep hazardous substances in a separate, identified area, ventilated and

away from heat and sun.

Dispose of hazardous substances properly and safely, following small quantity

generator rules if applicable.

Keep food, food containers, or drinking glasses out of areas or refrigerators that
contain chemicals.

Keep storage areas and labs neat and clean.

Wash thoroughly when leaving the lab and before eating, drinking, smoking,
chewing gum, or applying makeup.

Post signs to warn others of hazards in the lab.

DON'T:

Work alone in the lab.

Eat, drink, smoke, chew gum, or apply makeup in the lab.

Drink from lab glasses.

Sniff or taste chemicals.

Suction with the mouth.

Wear contact lenses.

Wear contaminated clothing outside the lab.

Use damaged glassware.

Store chemicals on hoods, bench tops, or floors.

Leave operating equipment unattended.

Signature: _________________

Experiment No 1
Title:
Determination of alkalinity ?
Introduction:
Capacity of water to neutralize acid is called alkalinity. There are three types of
alkalinity which can be classified due to the presence of hydroxyl, carbonate and
bicarbonate ions.
i.

OH- or caustic alkalinity (due to the presence of OH- ions)

ii.

CO3-2 or phenolphthalein alkalinity (due to the presence of CO3-2 ions)

iii.

Total alkalinity (due to the presence of HCO3- ions)

Principle of alkalinity is acid base titration in which standard (H2SO4 of 0.02N) acid is
used for titration. Phenolphthalein and methyl orange are used as indicator in this
regard.
Alkalinity of water may be due to the presence of carbonates, hydrogen carbonates,
silicates, borates, phosphates and hydroxyl ions in Free State. The primary source of
alkalinity in drinking water is due to carbonate containing rocks which come from lands
and mountains due to the erosion and weathering processes of rocks. Runoff of water
from agricultural land where lime is also applied contains carbonate which can cause
alkalinity in water. Phosphates and silicates are rarely found in natural supplies in
concentrations significant in the home.
Moderate concentration of alkalinity in water is also desirable so that corrosion of water
pipelines can be prevented and water can be prevented from contamination of copper
and lead because low alkalinity causes corrosion of pipelines. While high alkalinity
produces soda like taste in water. Water with low alkalinity is also not fit for bathing
purpose because it can remove too much oil from skin and causes dryness.
Alkalinity can be removed by reverse osmosis, distillation and softening.

Reagents:

Standard H2SO4 Solution (0.02N)

Phenolphthalein indicator
Methyl Orange indicator
Water sample

Procedure:
1. Take 50ml of sample in a flask.
2. Add 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator.
3. If a pink color appears titrate with 0.02 N H2SO4 until pink color disappears it will
give us phenolphthalein alkalinity.
4. Add 2-3 drops of methyl orange and titrate until yellow color changes to pink.
This is total alkalinity.

Observation and Calculations:

Mean Volume of Acid used for calculation of Phenolphthalein Alkalinity = 1.22 ml
Mean Volume of Acid used for calculation of Methyl Orange Alkalinity = 12.72ml
As we know that sample provided to us was having pH less than 10 and greater than
8.3 so following formulas will be used.
V x N x 50,000
Phenolphthalein alkalinity
=
Volume of Sample (ml)

So ,
Phenolphthalein Alkalinity = Volume of Acid used X Normality X 50000
Vol. of sample

= 1.2 X .02 X 50000

50
= 24mg / L as CaCo3

Methyl Orange Alkalinity = Volume of Acid used X Normality X 50000

Ml of sample
= 12.72 X .02 X 50000
50
= 250 mg / L as CaCo3
Total Alkalinity = Methyl Orange Alkalinity + Phenolphthalein Alkalinity
= 250 + 24 = 274 mg / L as CaCo3
[Co3 2-] = 2P
= 2 X 24 = 48
[Hco3-] = T 2P
= 274 2(24)
= 226
Discussion:
The desirable limit of alkalinity is 200 mg/l whereas permissible limit is 600 mg/l beyond
this limit taste become unpleasant but our sample value is well in range. So our
sample is suitable for use.
References:
http://science.kennesaw.edu/~jdirnber/limno/alkalinity_introduction.pdf
http://freedrinkingwater.com/water-education2/74-alkalinity-water.htm
http://www.ehow.com/facts_5001958_effects-of-alkalinity.html

Experiment No 2
Title:
Determination of hardness in tap water.
Objectives:
To find out hardness in tap water.

Introduction:
Water having divalent (Ca+2, Mg+2, Fe+2, Mn+2 etc.) and trivalent (Al+3 etc.) cations is
called hard water. Major hardness is due to the presence of Ca +2 and Mg+2 ions. Rain
water is soft naturally but when falls on ground picks up natural hardness minerals like
calcium and magnesium and converts into hard water.
Principle:
Hardness of water is determined by using titrimitric method in which sample is titrated
against chelating agent Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetic Acid (EDTA) while Eriochrome
Black Tea (EBT) is used as an indicator. Ca+2 and Mg+2 ions are chelated by EDTA and
complex componds are formed.
Impacts of Hardness (Draw backs):
Hard water causes scaling (CaCO3 & Mg(OH)2) in hot water systems, kettles, electric
irons and domestic appliances. Scaling of heating elements shortens their life and
makes appliances less efficient because high fuel/electricity is required to heat them.
Scaling also results the blockage of pipes which may cause huge security hazards.
Ca+2 + 2HCO3- CaCO3 + H2O +CO2

(scales)
Hard water produces less lather from soap, washing up liquid and washing powders. It
also leaves spots on basins, sinks, baths and toilets.
2C17H35COONa + Ca+2 (C17H35COO)2Ca + 2Na+
(water soluble)

(insoluble ppt)

Health Impacts:
Hard watre is not hazardous for health. Actually, hard water contributes a small amount
of Ca and Mg human dietry needs. In this regard, well known brands of bottled water
supplier maintain hardness of water upto some extant and this characteristic is also
important for the bright appearance of water as well.
Hardness Scale:
A scale is also developed known as hardness scale which is given below:
Hardness Description

Hardness mg/l
CaCO3

Soft

0-50

Moderately Soft

50-100

Slightly Hard

100-150

Moderately Hard

150-200

Hard

>200

Very Hard

>300

Reagents

Standard EDTA solution (0.01M)

Buffer Solution
Eriochrome Black T Indicator
Water Samples

Procedure

Fill burette with 0.01M STD EDTA.

Add 2ml buffer solutions.
Add 2 Drops of Eri-chrome Black T. Red wine color appears if Ca & Mg ions are
present.
Titrate against STD EDTA.
Titrate until blue color appears.
Take 50 ml distilled as blank and proceed as above.

Observations & Calculations

Volume of EDTA used for Tap water Sample

Sr.No

Initial reading Final

reading Volume

ml

ml

ml

17.5

17.5

17.5

33.2

15.7

16.2

16.2

Mean volume of EDTA used for Tap water sample is 16.3 ml.

Volume of EDTA used for Distilled water Sample

Used Mean Volume

ml

16.3

Sr.No

Initial reading Final

reading Volume

ml

ml

ml

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.2

0.1

0.2

0,3

0.1

Used Mean Volume

ml

0.1

Mean volume of EDTA used for Distilled water sample is 0.1 ml.

Formula
Hardness of water as mg/l CaCO3 = A B 1000 / Volume of Sample (ml)
Where,
A= Mean volume of EDTA used for Tap water sample
B= Mean volume of EDTA used for Distilled water sample

So by putting values
= (16.3 0.1) X 1 X 1000
50
= 324 mg / L
Result
So the hardness in tap water is 324 mg / L.
Discussion:
Above calculations show that tap water sample is hard water but may be used for
drinking purpose because National Standards for Drinking Water Quality (NSDWQ) for

Pakistan provides maximum limit of 500mg/l as CaCO3 for drinking water. So, water is
not hazardous for human health.

Our results show that water is hard.

Reference:
http://dwi.defra.gov.uk/consumers/advice-leaflets/hardness.pdf
http://www.environment.gov.pk/act-rules/DWQStd-MAY2007.pdf
http://www.water-research.net/hardness.htm
National Standards for Drinking Water Quality (NSDWQ), June, 2008, Government of
Pakistan, Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency.

Experiment No 3
Title:
Determination of Total Chlorine in Water Sample.
Objectives:
Core objective of the analysis is to find out the concentration of total chlorine in water
sample and recommend some mitigation measures to reduce excessive amount of free
chlorine in sample. Importance of free chlorine for disinfection of water will also be
explored.
Introduction:
Chlorine is one of the most widely used disinfectants for water. It is very effective for the
deactivation of pathogenic organisms and makes water fit for human consumption. This
process is also known as chlorination. It is also used for disinfection of pathogens in
swimming pools.
Chlorine forms hypochloric acid on dissolution in water which further dissociates into
HCl and nascent oxygen. Nascent oxygen is a strong oxidizing agent as well as a
disinfectant.
Cl2 + H2O HOCl + HCl
HOCl HCl + [O]
Mainly chlorine gas and hypochlorites (NaOCl and Ca(OCl)2) are used for chlorination in
water.
NaOCl + H2O OCl- + Na+
Ca(OCl)2 + H2O 2OCl- + Ca+2
Different forms of chlorine in water:
Free Chlorine
Free chlorine may be available in water in three forms at different pH (Cl2 at pH < 5,
HOCl and OCl- at pH 5-8, OCl- at pH > 10). Best pH range for disinfection is 5-6.
Combined Chlorine

Chlorine combines with organic compounds and forms chlorinated organic compounds
like in the case of alkyl, amine etc. Chloramines are produced when NH3 and
corresponding chloramines react with HOCl.
NH3 + HOCl H2O + NH2Cl (Monochloramine)
NH2Cl+ HOCl H2O + NHCl2 (Dichloramine)
NHCl2 + HOCl H2O + NCl3 (Trichloramine)
Principle:
Total chlorine is determined by using titrimetric method where sample is titrated against
Sodium Thiosulphate (Na2S2O3) of 0.01 Normality. Starch solution is used as an
indicator.

Advantages:
Highly effective against most pathogens.
Provides a residual to protect against recontamination and to reduce bio-film
growth in the distribution system.
Easily applied, controlled, and monitored.
Strong oxidant meeting most pre-oxidation objectives.
Operationally the most reliable.
The most cost-effective disinfectant.

Limitations:
Byproduct formation (THMs, HAAs) which are toxic for aquatic life.
Will oxidize bromide to bromine, forming brominated organic byproducts.
Not effective against Cryptosporidium.
Requires transport and storage of chemicals.

Reagents

Acetic acid, conc. (glacial).

Potassium iodide, KI, crystals.
Standard Sodium Thiosulfate Solution: 0.01N
Potassium dichromate solution: 0.01N
Starch solution
Standard Iodine Solution

Procedure
1. Take 5 ml of conc. Acetic acid in conical flask.
2. Add one gram of Potassium iodide in a conical flask.
3. Add 100 ml water sample in conical flask yellow or brown color will appear if cl2
is present.
4. Titrate against STD Na2SO3 (0.01M) Solution.
5. Titrate until yellow color becomes light yellow.
6. Add 1 ml of starch solution. The solution will become blue.
7. Titrate until blue color disappears. Take total volume of Na2SO3.

Observations & calculations

Total chlorine =

(A+B) N35450
Vol of sample

Titration for sample

Initial reading

Final reading

Difference

1.1

1.1

Initial reading

Final reading

Difference

1.1

1.5

0.4

Titration for blank

Total chlorine= (1.1+0.4) 0.0135450

100
=5.31 mg/liter

Discussion:
Result from above calculation show that sample contain 5.31 mg/l total chlorine which is
beyond limit as prescribed in National Standards for Drinking Water Quality, Pakistan.
As mentioned in NSDWQ that concentration of chlorine at consumers end should be
0.5-0.2 ppm while at source concentration of chlorine in drinking water should be 1.50.5 ppm. As mentioned earlier, concentration of chlorine in sample is beyond limit so it
has to be lowered within prescribed limits so that no health hazard can occur. For this
purpose aeration has to be done to lower the value of chlorine.

References:

http://www.lenntech.com/processes/disinfection/chemical/disinfectants-chlorine.htm
http://www.waterandhealth.org/drinkingwater/wp.html
Chemistry for Environmental Engineers by Dr. Ishtiaq A. Qazi
National Standards for Drinking Water Quality (June, 2008), Ministry of Environment,
Pakistan.

Experiment:
Determination of Total Dissolved and Suspended Solids in Water
Objective
To characterize the water sample with respect to total solids, total dissolved solids and
suspended solids in the given water samples
Introduction
The total dissolved solids are defined as solids that are filterable in nature and are completely
dissolved in water. After evaporation of filterable sample the residue left is termed as Dissolved
Solids.
Suspended Solids are non-filterable in nature and are not dissolved in water. It is residue of
non-filterable sample upon evaporation.
Principle
A properly mixed sample is filtered through a Glass Fiber Filter paper. Filtrate is dried in a
weighted porcelain china dish to constant weight at 179-181 0C in the oven or on the burner.
Weigh the china dish, increase in weight represents the Dissolved Solids.
A properly mixed sample is weighted through a preweighted glass fiber and the residue
retained on filter paper is dried at constant weight 103-105 0C. The increase in the weight of
filter represents the weight of Suspended Solids.
A properly mixed sample is added in pre weighted china dish. It is evaporated in water bath
and dried in oven 103-105 0C for one hour. Weigh the china dish, increase in weight represents
Total Solids
Sample Handling and Preservation
Sample preservation is necessary because biological activity will continue after collection of
sample and changes may occur during handling and storage. These things may change the
characteristics of amount of solids.
To avoid the change certain measures are taken which are as follows

Preserving the samples at 40C

Do not freeze samples
Analysis should be carried out as soon as possible

Precautions
Water or waste water samples which contain high amount of chlorides, magnesium
or sulfate rapidly absorbs moisture from air. Therefore, samples are kept in
desiccators to achieve reasonable constant weight
Samples with high concentration of bicarbonates need additional drying at 180 0C to
ensure all bicarbonates to carbonates
Prolong drying may lose constituents from samples particularly nitrates or chlorides

Observations and Calculations

Tabulation for Total Dissolved Solids
Weight of clean porcelain dish (g) W1 (ECTL04) = 56.5855mg/l
Weight of Dish and the residue (g) W2 = 56.6162mg/l
Weight of residue W2 W1 = W= 0.0307mg/l
(W2-W1) * 1000 * 1000/ volume of sample = 614 mg/l
Tabulation for Total Suspended Solids
Weight of clean glass fiber disc (g) W1 = 0.0891mg/l
Weight of filter paper and residue (g) W2 = 0.1069 mg/l
Weight or residue (g) W2 W1 =

0.0178mg/l

(W2-W1) * 1000 *1000 / volume of sample = 356mg/l

Tabulation for Total Solids
Weight of clean porcelain dish (g) W1 (ECTL05) = 55.2180mg/l
Weight of dish and residue (g) W2 = 55.2582mg/l
Weight of residue W2 W1 = W = 0.0402mg/l

(W2-W1) * 1000 * 1000 / volume of sample = 804mg/l

Discussion

The Total Dissolved Solids of the given sample (614mg/l) is under the permissible limit of the
National Environmental Quality Standards (1000mg/l). There are no available quality
standards for Total Suspended Solids and Total solids in National Environmental Quality
Standards and World Health Organizations. Reliable data on possible health effects associated
with the ingestion of TDS in drinking water are not available. The results of early
epidemiological studies suggest that even low concentrations of TDS in drinking-water may
have beneficial effects, although adverse effects have been reported in two limited
investigations.
Water containing TDS concentrations below 1000 mg/liter is usually acceptable to consumers,
although acceptability may vary according to circumstances. However, the presence of high
levels of TDS in water may be objectionable to consumers owing to the resulting taste and to
excessive scaling in water pipes, heaters, boilers, and household appliances. Water with low
concentration of TDS is also unacceptable for consumers because of its flat and insipid taste

Environmental Significance

Dissolved mineral , gases and organic constituents may produce displeasing taste,
odor or color
Dissolved organic chemicals may deplete the dissolved oxygen in receiving water
and may be inert to biological oxidation
High concentration of dissolved solids may produce distress in livestock.
Estimation of total dissolved solids is useful to determine the quality of drinking
water
Suspended organic solids which are degraded anaerobically may release obnoxious
odor
Biological active suspended solids may include disease causing organisms as well as
organisms such as toxic producing strains of algae
Suspended solids exclude light, thus reducing growth of oxygen producing plants

References

Hydrology project; World Band and Government of Netherlands funded. 1999. How to
measure dissolved suspended and total solids. Training module. New Delhi. India
APHA Standard Methods of Examination for water and waste water- 20th Edition.
Method 2540 C and 2540 D
Tihansky DP. Economic damages from residential use of mineralized water supply.
Water resources research, 1974, 10(2):145
International Organization for Standardization. Water qualitydetermination of
electrical conductivity. Geneva, 1985 (ISO 7888:1985).

Determination of Chemical Oxygen Demand

Objective
To determine the organic strength of synthetic waste water sample in terms of COD by
Closed Reflux Method.

Introduction
COD test is widely used to measure the organic strength of domestic & industrial
wastewater [1]. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is defined as a measure of the oxygen
equivalent of the organic matter content of a sample that is susceptible to oxidation by a
strong chemical oxidant [2]. COD, which can indicate the level of pollution for water
contaminated by reductive pollutants, is the main determinant used to assess organic
pollution in aqueous systems and is one of the most important parameters in water
monitoring.

Observations and Calculations

Blank

Synthetic Waste
Water Sample

Volume of Sample (ml)

Volume of FAS used (ml)

2.5

1.4

2.5

0.9

2.5

0.92

2.5

0.9

Mean Volume of FAS used to titrate waste water sample =

0.9 + 0.95 + 0.9

3

COD as mgL-1 O2 = [(A-B) x N x 8000] / Volume of sample (ml)

Where
A = Volume of FAS used to titrate the blank (ml)
B= Volume of FAS used to titrate the sample (ml)

= 0.9

N= Normality of standardized FAS solution = 0.10 N

COD as mgL-1 of O2 = (1.4 - 0.9) 0.10 8000 / 2.5
COD as mgL-1 of O2 = 160 mg/L

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

According to the Revised National Environmental Quality Standards for Municipal and
Liquid Industrial Effluents Water the COD standard for sewage treatment is 400 mg/L
[3]. Synthetic waste water sample analyzed had a value of 160 mg/ L which is under the
permissible limit of standard. As the result suggest that the COD of waste water sample
is lower than the standard so it is not necessary to be treated. In case the COD value
exceeds the permissible limit of 400 mg l1 then it is necessary to be treated before
discharging it to any water body. The COD value determines the level of organic matter
present which when exceeds the standard limit can cause damage to the aquatic life if
discharged without treatment.
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is one of the most relevant chemical parameters for
the management of wastewater treatment facilities including the control of the quality of
an effluent. The adequacy of decisions based on COD values relies on the quality of the
measurements. The effect of interfering substances on the determination of COD has
the following aspect. Chloride ions present in waste water cause very high results in the
COD test. As with the standard reflux method, interference occurred because of the
oxidation of some reducible substances, mainly halides, during the digestion. The
difficulties caused by the oxidation of halides can be overcome largely, though not
completely, by complexing with mercury (II) sulfate before refluxing.

REFERENCES
1- Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. (1989),
American Public Health Association, Washington, DC, 17th Edition, p. 510.
2- Alexandra M.E. Viana da Silva, Ricardo J.N. Bettencourt da Silva, M. Filomena,
G.F.C. Camoes. (2011), Optimization of the determination of chemical oxygen
demand in wastewaters, Analytica Chimica Acta.

3- Revised National Environmental Quality Standards for Municipal and Liquid

Industrial Effluents Water. (1999) Pakistan Environmental Legislation And the
NEQS, Government of Pakistan, p. 4-5.

BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER BY MEMBRANE

FILTRATION TECHNIQUE

OBJECTIVE
Determination of number of colonies of E.coli present in tap water sample by using Membrane
Filtration Technique.
INTRODUCTION
Escherichia coli, also referred to as E. coli, is a type of fecal coliform bacteria that is found in the
intestines of healthy warm-blooded animals and humans. Most E. coli strains are harmless and
serve a useful function in the body by stopping the growth of harmful bacteria species and by
making necessary vitamins. However, some strains can be opportunistic pathogens, while others
can cause gastrointestinal illness in healthy humans when ingested. An opportunistic pathogen is
an organism that normally lives inside a host without causing injury, but can cause infection in
people with weakened immune systems. E. coli is present in the large intestine, so it will be
present in fecal matter from humans and animals. If recent contamination of water sources with
sewage or animal waste has occurred, E. coli will be present [1].
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
Calculate the number of E.coli count (CFU) per 100ml of sample according to the following
general rule.
Total number of E.coli colonies found: 10
E.coli/100ml = Number of E.coli colonies 100
Volume of sample filtered (ml)
= 10 100
100
= 10 E.coli/100 ml

DISCUSSION

The discharge of municipal wastes is one of the most important water quality issues world-wide
that results in contamination of drinking water. The sewage contains human feces and water
contaminated with these effluents may contain pathogenic organisms which are hazardous to
human health if used as drinking-water or in food preparation. Fecal contamination of water is
routinely detected by microbiological analysis. For this purpose membrane filter technique is
used for the analysis of water samples. It gives a direct count of total coliforms and fecal
coliforms present in a given sample of water. The organisms used most commonly as indicator
organisms for the detection of the recent contamination are E.coli and coliform group (bacteria
having fecal origin) as whole, as they are easy to detect. By using membrane filtration technique,
10 E.coli colonies per 100ml are found in the tap water sample.
According to National Standards for Drinking Water Quality (NSDWQ) the number of colonies
should be zero per 100ml of the water so that it could be fit and safe for drinking water [2].
Similarly World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines give the same standard for drinking
water [3]. It shows that the sample we have tested is not fit for the drinking purpose as it contains
10 E.coli per 100ml of water which is far exceeding the standard value. The presence of E.coli in
water sample is a strong indication of recent sewage or animal waste contamination. Some E.coli
outbreaks are also caused by some lakes and private wells. These bacteria are capable of causing
illness. The presence of total coliform bacteria may also indicate a breakdown in the treatment
process, or growth in the distribution system. So it is important to discover and remove the
source of pollution for safe drinking water purpose. That is why tap water contains chlorine and
has undergone ozone or ultraviolet treatment [4] .
REFRENCES
1. http://www.safewater.org/PDFS/resourcesknowthefacts/Detailed_Escherichia_Coli.
pdf
2. National Standards for Drinking Water Quality. (2008), Pakistan Environmental
Protection Agency (Ministry of Environment), Government of Pakistan.
3. European standards for drinking water, second edition, World Health Organization
Geneva, 1970.
4. "What Is E. Coli? (Escherichia Coli)." Medical News Today. MediLexicon, Intl., 8 Jun.
2011. Web.

X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) Spectroscopy.

Objective:
Find out the elements present in the soil sample to check the feasibility of soil for plant growth.
Principle:
The sample is irradiated by an intense X-ray beam which knocks out inner shell electrons. Then
outer shell electrons move towards inner shells to fill the vacant space due to which photons of
specific characteristic are emitted known as fluorescent X-rays. Fluorescent X-ray is a
characteristic of the element from which it is emitted.
Observation:

Discussion:

Elements

Percentage

Si

66.02

3.69

Ca

16.06

Ti

1.34

0.036

Cr

0.0425

Mn

0.2478

Fe

12.3651

Rb

0.0373

Sr

0.0572

Zr

0.0866

There are 16 nutrient elements required to grow plants.

Three essential nutrients carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are taken up from atmospheric carbon
dioxide and water while other 13 nutrients are taken up from the soil and are usually grouped as:
primary nutrients , secondary nutrients , micronutrients
The primary nutrients N, P and potassium K are commonly found in soil. Primary nutrients are
needed in larger amounts by crops, and therefore, are required at higher rates than secondary
nutrients and micronutrients.
The secondary nutrients Ca, Mg and S are required in smaller amounts than the primary
nutrients..
Micronutrients Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, B and Mo are required in even smaller amounts than secondary
nutrients.
Elemental analysis of soil sample shows that this soil sample dont have phosphorus (P) and
nitrogen (N) and only primary nutrient present is potassium (K) having 3.69% While, among
secondary plant nutrients Ca (16%) is present but not in sufficient amount. This shows that this
soil sample is deficient of primary and secondary plant nutrients. To grow plants or crops some
fertilizers (having these nutrients) has to apply on this soil.
References:
Libranza, A. K. (2012). SOIL and LEAF Sampling and Analysis more.
M. Ray Tucker, (October, 1999), Essential Plant Nutrients.
Tandon, H. L. S. (2005). Methods of analysis of soils, plants, waters, fertilisers & organic
manures. Fertiliser Development and Consultation Organisation.