Dendrobium Orchids

A manual for smallholder production in Fiji

South Sea Orchids

Funded by CTA

%A

Dendrobium Orchids.' A Manual for Small Holder Production in Fiji

Table on Contents

Preface
Orchids

Types of orchids
A brief botany of orchids
Orchids in Fiji
Growing orchids commercially
"Uniwai" dendrobium- the plant and its capability
Getting started

Orchids ready for planting

Locating your shade house
Shade house design
Media and potting requirement
Planting
Spacing
Replanting

Repotting and dividing

Fertilizer and fertilizing

Fertiliser application
Detecting nutrient disorders
Watering requirements
The management ofpest and diseases

Cultural control practices

Chemical control measures
Control of specific pests
Diseases
Harvesting and postharvest handling
Markets and marketing

Tourism sector
Local non-tourist market
Marketing arrangements
Growing orchids as a small business

Start-up cost
Production
Prices
Cash flow projections
Financing and paying off your loan
Glossary ofterms
References

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12
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Dendrobium Orchids: A Manual for Small Holder Production in Fiji

Preface

We at South Sea Orchids (SSO) have a vision that Fiji can develop a world class
floriculture industry that makes a significant contribution to the livelihoods of our people.
This can be achieved because we are blessed with a climate that enables us to grow a
wide range of tropical flowers and leaves; our favourable pest and disease status
compared with other flower growing countries; a fast growing local market for
floriculture products; Fiji's strategic location with respect to overseas markets; and most
importantly the skill and motivation of our women growers.
Dendrobium orchids are the most highly prized cut flower in Fiji. Their delicate beauty,
multiple colours and long vase life mean they are highly sought after by the tourism
industry and local people alike. We need to meet the demands of this market.
Our small project currently has some forty dendrobium orchid growers - ranging in size
from 200 to 6,000 flowering plants. SSO provides a market outlet and technical support
services for these growers. This manual will enable us to better serve our growers. It
will be the core resource material for our workshops and provide a ready reference for the
grower's book shelf. It is hoped that our growers with greater knowledge and skill will
increase their income by producing more quality flowers and better use of inputs.
Andrew McGregor coordinated the production of this manual, with assistance from Don
Bumess. I would like to give special thanks to Emeritus Professor Yoneo Sagawa from
the University of Hawaii for his detailed comments on an earlier draft of this manual.
Our growers extend a hearty vinaka vakalevu to CTA for providing funding for the
manual.

Aileen Bumess
Project Manager

\4,U

Cover
Clockwise: UHDendrobium "Nellie Sugii "; Dendrobium growing at Nasau near Nadi; growers
enjoy hands- on participation at a SSO workshop

li

Dendrobium Orchids: A Manual for Small Holder Production in Fiji

Orchids
l.
The orchid family (Orchidaceae) is the world's
largest flowering plant family. Orchids can be found
naturally in environments right across the globe - ranging
from the seashore to the high alpine zone. However,
most of this species are found between the tropics of
Capricorn and Cancer. There are some 25,000 to 30,000
orchid species, divided into around 1,000 genera.
Dendrobium is a large genus containing over a 1,000
species, found over a wide geographical area ranging from Japan to New Zealand,
through South East Asia to India (McConnell and Cruz p, 18). In addition to the large
number of species, there are some 100,000 man made hybrids (crosses) the number of
which is continually increasing.
Types of orchids
2.
There are broadly three different types of orchids, classified in terms of where
they grow:
Epiphytes (Air plants. Orchids that have evolved to live upon trees, taking
advantage of the aeration and light that this provides. Epiphytes obtain their
nutrients from the air and from debris and mosses collected in the tree. Most
tropical orchids are epiphytes. Thus they need to be potted in materials other than
soil and the medium should be well-drained and provide good aeration).
Dendrobiums are epiphytic and in their natural environment live on rocks and
trees.
Terrestrials (Orchids that grow on the ground in soil or leaf litter. Terrestrial
orchids are characterised by a single leafy stem which rises from one or two
underground tubers. Terrestrial orchids are more common in temperate climates)
Lithophytes (Plants that grow on mossy rocks or rock faces. Orchids that fall
somewhere between being epiphytes and terrestrials. They obtain their nutrients
in similar ways to epiphytes.)
3.
Orchids can be classified into two basic growth habits: sympodial and
monopodial.
4.
The typical sympodial growth habit is shown in the diagram 1 and plate 1.
A sympodial orchid has growth by lateral buds, rising from a creeping rhizome. A new
growth forms at the base of the previous year's growth, which develop during the next
growing cycle. The horizontal rhizome joins the bottom of each of the creeping stems,
with roots emanating from the rhizome. Upright stems are pseudobulbs (canes), which
store water and nutrients. Leaves and flowers emerge from new pseudobulbs. Cattleyas,
dendrobiums and oncidiums are all examples of sympodial orchids.
5.
The typical monopodial growth habit is shown in the diagram 2 and plate 2.
Monopodial orchids have only one vertical stem from which new leaves and flowers are

Dendrobium Orchids: A Manual for Small Holder Production in Fiji

borne. They have aerial roots which attach to surfaces they come in contact with.
Vandas and phalaenopsis are examples of monopodial orchids.

Diagram 1: typical sympodial growth

(source: Pacific Orchid Society of Hawaii)

Dendrobium Orchids.- A Manual for Small Holder Production in Fiji

A brief botany of orchids

An understanding of the basic botany will help you get the most out of your
6.
orchids.
Sympodial orchids produce pseudobulbs or false bulbs (canes). These
7.
are like shortened stems which store water and nutrients. Leaves and flowers
emerge from new pseudobulbs (diagram 1). A new pseudobulb is added each season
along a continually extending rhizome. The pseudobulb comprises fibrous material for
conserving moisture and energy. In its natural environment it enables the orchid to
survive droughts and extended dry seasons when the plant goes into a semi dormant state.
For many orchids pseudobulbs can remain in a dormant state long after leaves have been
shed. Leafless pseudobulbs are known as back bulbs. Healthy evergreen types (eg
cymbidiums and some dendrobiums) usually have most pseudobulbs in leaf. For
deciduous types (those who have a dominant period where they lose their leaves includes some dendrobiums) it is common to have only the leading pseudobulb in leaf.

Pseudobulbs

Dendrobiums tend to produce tall pseudobulb. In the case of some dendfobium

8.
hybrids the pseudobulbs are so elongated that they are referred to as "canes". This is the
case for commercial dendrobiums grown in Fiji.
Leaves

9.
The leaves of sympodial orchids are produced on pseudobulbs. The
leaves contain chlorophyll, which enables the plant to convert sunlight into
energy.

Roots

Root systems of orchids are unique in the plant kingdom. They

10.
consist of a thin inner core, an absorbent outer covering made up of dead cells
(the velamen) and green growing tip at the end. The velamen soaks up water through its
surface. The tips are very vulnerable and can be easily damaged and broken. The roots
attach to any surface they touch. Thus they will attach to the material that is used as the
planting medium. Orchid roots are naturally aerial and will often venture out side any
container in which they are planted. Many orchids are able to photosynthesize through
their roots as well as leaves.
11.
Orchid roots are not permanent structures. New roots are made annually,
sprouting from the base some time after new growth. Roots, as with orchid leaves, die
naturally and are replaced by those from new growth. If roots are killed for some reason,
they will not be replaced until the plant makes new growth. In the mean time the plant
will not be able to take up moisture and the pseudobulbs will shrivel and leaves become
limp or drop off. Sometimes the plant will die but more often it will recover once the
new growth commences.

Dendrobium Orchids: A Manual for Small Holder Production in Fiji

Root rot is often because of excessive wet conditions. Often when roots die the
12.
plant sends out small offshoots ("keikis")
so that it can vegetatively reproduce itself.
This is the telltale sign that the medium is
too wet.
Flowers

The purpose of orchid

13.
flowers is to attract pollinators.
However, commercial orchid growers
don't want pollination to occur as this will
cause the flower to close.
14.
All orchid flowers consist of six
segments. The outer three are sepals and
the inner three are petals. One petal, the
labellum or lip, is usually larger and more
distinctive than the other segments of the
flower. The defining feature of orchids is
the fused column that is located above the
lip. The column is a single finger like structure that contains the reproductive parts of the
orchid. The pollen is found at the end of the column under a protective cap call the
anther. On the underside of the column is a sticky patch called the stigma where insects
deposit pollen from another bloom. When pollination is complete the flowers ovaries
located in the column will swell into a large capsule containing the minute orchid seeds.
A pollinated flower substantially reduces the commercial value of the spray.
Orchids in Fiji
15.

According to Smith there are 171 species of orchids found in Fiji - 164 are
indigenous and 51 endemic (found only in Fiji) (p,
321). All these indigenous species are covered by the
Convention of the International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and cannot
be shipped outside Fiji without a permit.

16.
Most of Fiji orchid species fall into the
dendrobium family (genera). They are mainly found
in the remaining tropical rainforest. There are also
some unique species in higher altitude on the drier side
of Viti Levu where native forest has not been
destroyed. Only a few of Fiji's indigenous orchids
have large and attractive flowers. Most have small or
miniature flowers, with some lasting for a day or less.
A number of Fiji's better known indigenous orchids
are featured in special stamp issues 1997 and 1999 (www.stampsfiji.com/orchids.htm.)
These are:

Dendrobium Orchids: A Manual for Small Holder Production in Fiji

Dendrobium biflorum is only found on Viti Levu and Ovalau in areas of strong
light from sea level up to 900 meters. The plants grow as
epiphytes on trees. The flowers, usually in pairs, are about
3cm across with thin and spidery, pale creamy/yellow
petals and sepals that last only one day.
D. prasinum ("primrose" flower) is one of the most
interesting endemic species. It only occurs at altitudes
from 600 to 1,150 meters. A miniature epiphyte with 4cm
white flowers with green base lip. The orchid is a
collector's item that can be purchased internationally via
tissue culture.
D. dactylodes is only found on Viti Levu in areas from sea level to 900 meters.
This epiphyte grows in humid
forest. Flowers last only one day
and darken in the afternoon
before closing.
Spathoglottis pacifica is a
common terrestrial orchid often
found growing along the roadside
in wetter areas. It is found in
open forest in wet areas and in
Lau, Kadavu and the Yasawas.
The orchid is characterized by 4
or 5 pleated leaves on short pseudobulbs. The inflorescence starts from the base
of the plant and cane is up to 1.5 tall with 10 flowers. The flowers range in colour
from deep pink, mauve to almost white. Yellow and deep purple species are
imported. They can last several days when cut.

17.
Perhaps the most famous of the Fiji orchids is the D. tokai . This orchid, which is
indigenous to Viti Levu's wet zone, is one of the parents of the first Hawaiian hybrid
dendrobium orchid. The other parent is D. phalaenopsis (Cook Town Orchid) from
Queensland Australia.
18.
Numerous species of exotics (overseas) have been imported into Fiji. Many of
these appear to grow naturally in the wild.
Growing orchids commercially in Fiji
19.
None of Fiji indigenous orchids are
grown commercially. There is a range of
commercial orchid types suited to Fiji's
conditions. These include hybrid
dendrobiums, cattleyas, vandas, phalaenopsis,
paphiopedilums, and oncidiums.


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Dendrobium Orchids: A Manual for Small Holder Production in Fiji

20.
The dendrobium
orchids commercially grown in Fiji have been sourced from the
University of Hawaii (UH) (the "Uniwai Series"). These are hybrids largely derived
from combining two species of dendrobium orchids - D. phalaenopsis and D. gouldii
(Leonhardt and Sewake p, 10). A wide range of seed - propagated varieties have been
developed within the Uniwai Series. Seed propagation provides virus-free and affordable
plants.
21.
UH no.
44
232
306
503
507

The main UH cultivars that have been brought into Fiji are:
Name
Jaquelyn Thomas
'Uniwai Blush '
Jaquelyn Thomas
- Uniwai Supreme'
Jaquelvn Thomas
'Uniwai Pearl'
Jaquelvn Thomas
'Uniwai Prince'
Jaquelvn Thomas
'Iiniwai Princess'

Colour
blush

UH no.
800

lavender twotone
white

Colour

1081

Name
Jaquelvn Thomas
"Uniwai Mist'
Uniwai Royal

1233

Nellie Sugii

pink

purple

1276

Tessie Amore

pink

light purple

1426

Jaquelyn Thomas

lavender two-tone

Nrhite

purple

Source: Leonhardt and Sewake p. 10

22.
The range of colours of the UH cutflower cultivars is more limited than what is
available from Singapore or Thailand ' . However, this is compensated for their proven
capability under Fiji conditions and longer vase life. UH colours are very popular in Fiji,
particularly white. The limited colour range could be a problem in future when
competing with Singapore orchids in the Australian and New Zealand markets. Breeding
is now being done using Uniwai Series with some S.E. Asian varieties to increase the
colour range.
23.
UH dendrobiums are perhaps the most sought after cut flower in Fiji, Their
delicate beauty, attractive colours and long vase life mean they are in high demand from
the tourist industry and local people alike. These orchids convey an image of prestige
and a sophisticated life style and take pride of place in wreaths, bouquets and flower
arrangements. Western Viti Levu, with its relatively dry warm conditions and high levels
of solar radiation, are ideally suited to growing orchids. There is heavy flowering from
early summer (November) to late autumn (May). Throughout the remainder of the year
flowering is light with intermittent flushes.

"Uniwai" dendrobium- the plant and its capability

24.
The performance of"Uniwai"dendrobiums if grown under the right conditions
and with the correct care is characterised by (Leonhardt and Sewake p, 11):
vigorous plants with high yields (10 - 20 or more sprays annually);
attractive sprays, 24 to 36 inches long with 15 to 25 or more well spaced flowers;
a vase life of 12 to 18 days; and,
a bud drop of less than 5%.
' Missing from the colour range of the "Uniwai" series are yellow, green, red, candy stripes and art shades.
6

Dendrobium Orchids: A Manual for Small Holder Production in

In western Viti Levu these orchids perform as well as they do in Hawaii. For growers in
the Suva area the performance has been disappointing, with production and spray size
falling well below potential.
25.

26.

The conditions required for optimum dendrobium orchid production are:

bright sunshine a high percentage of the time;
good drainage - native epiphytes in trees dry out within 15 minutes of rain.
warm day temperatures (between 24C and 30 C with night-time lows not
falling below 18C;
low to moderate rainfall not exceeding 10cm monthly;
good air movement but without regular strong winds; and,
a level site with good drainage.
The 3 main principles of orchid production are:
Proper light (dendrobiums for must be grown under shade cloth - 50% in
west and 30% in the Suva area);
Proper planting medium (recommended medium is gravel placed in pots and
plastic bags on benches or coconut fibre); and,
Good ventilation (air movement prevents the onset of fungal diseases)

27.
Dendrobium orchids can only be commercially grown in the dry zone. The Suva
area is too wet without enough sunshine hours for this to be a viable commercial
business. You will not be able to produce enough flowers to cover your costs and make a
profit. By all means grow orchids as a hobby and you might be able to cover some of
your costs by selling some of your flowers and plants.
Getting started
Orchids ready for planting
28.
All dendrobium orchids from Hawaii are germinated in sterile flasks. The small
(approx 1.5 cm) plantlets are removed from the flask and planted together in communities
of 10 to 20 plants (community pots or "compots "). It is as compots that dendrobium
orchids are imported into Fiji from Hawaii. The importer must have an import permit
from Fiji Quarantine, which will specify a registered nursery as the supplier and any
fungicidal dip required. The compots must be accompanied by a United States
Department of Agriculture phytosanitary certificate and are subject to inspection on
arrival by Fiji Quarantine.
29.
The plantlets in the compot are grown to a size of about 4cm before they are ready
to plant in individual pots. During this time they require special care. They should not
be exposed to strong light (80 to 90% shade is initially required, slowly acclimatised to
50%). While the seedlings require a moist environment, they must have good air
ventilation as these young plants are particularly susceptible to fungal disease. Compots
should be placed on wire benches to improve air circulation.

Dendrobium Orchids: A Manual for Small Holder Production in Fiji

30.
During dry periods
new compots need to be misted several times a day. As the
plants develop roots daily hand watering replaces misting. At about 2 weeks dilute foliar
nitrogen fertiliser is applied. The shade is also gradually decreased. At about 4 months
the plantlets (now 4 cm high) are ready for transplanting into small pots or bags (6 cm
diameter). It is at this stage that the SSO outgrowers received their plants.
Locating your shade house
Your shade 31.
house should be located in an open space, which provides for good
air circulation, but if possible protection from strong winds. No trees should be close
enough to cast a shadow on the shade house. There must be access to good quality water.
Shade house design
Your shade 32.
house should provide 50% shade for the orchids, although in Suva
area only 30% shade should be used. The shade is provided by knitted black sarlon
cloth.
33.
Two sized shade houses are
considered in this manual - a
village based micro enterprise (200
orchid plants) and a small
enterprise (2,000 orchid plants) are
presented in this profile. For the
village based micro enterprise it is
assumed that at least 5 micro shade
houses will be built in the location.
These individual micro enterprises
would be expected to share the cost of purchasing a roll of sarlon cloth (385m x 1.5) and
other bulk purchased material such as gravel.
34.
The basic design
of a small scale orchid
Sox 3, ^
house is the same as the
'
1
y

4i `#a
f.
'_ .;
r
orchid house shown in
photograph and plan. A
" loose" construction
design is followed. The
height of shade house is
important in providing
good
aeration - ideally
Orchid house for 2,000 plants
they should be 5m high.
Pots are placed on wire frames benches raised 45cm above the ground and placed on
concrete blocks or on a welded metal frame. The floor of the shade house is covered by
gravel to allow for a high relative humidity. The size of the two shade houses are 4m x
2m x 5m and 30m x 15m x 5m respectively. Such construction will allow for clear
bf#/':L r

,,,

H -OtoSl -.

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Dendrobium Orchids: A Manual for Small Holder Production in Fiji

access to all benches and good aeration. The house is made bird proof by using 1 inch
chicken wire. These houses have sufficient space to hold 400 and 3,000 pots respectively
-- thus there is ample room for future expansion.
35.
These shade houses are sufficiently small for irrigation to be via watering can or
hose. Hand watering will ensure maximum contact with plants facilitating early
detection of pests, diseases and nutrient deficiencies.

Media and potting requirement

36.
The purpose of the planting medium is to provide a healthy environment in which
the roots of the orchid can grow. It is through its roots that plant absorbs most of its
nutrients and moisture. A healthy root system is critical if good flower yields are to be
achieved. The medium used has to provide similar conditions to the natural environment
in which the dendrobium orchid thrives. This orchid is an epiphyte that grows on trees
and on rocks, where drainage and aeration are maximised. They are never found growing
in soil or in forest litter.
37.
In Asia the most common medium is coconut husks. Coconut is readily available
in Fiji and is a low cost alternative for growers to consider. The problem with coconut
husk is that in a few years it begins to partially decompose and restricts drainage and
aeration. In 3 years the coconut husk will starts to compost - anaerobic conditions may
cause root rot and encourage disease. For this reason South East Asian producers only
have a 3 year flowering cycle before the plants are discarded.
38.
Hawaii growers use "blue stone" or "blue metal" (basaltic gravel) as their planting
medium. This doesn't degrade and gives 7 to I 0 years of flowering. Fiji growers have
adopted the same medium (3.8 cm 5.8 cm - no 3 size) blue stone. Blue stone is readily
available in Fiji and reasonably cheap - although more expensive than coconut husks.
This is a highly durable planting medium that can last many cycles of orchid plantings.
However, unlike coconut husks, blue stone has poor nutrient holding capacity.
39.
The advantages and disadvantages of blue rock and coconut husks can be
summarised.
coconut husk
blue rock
Drainage and
Good for the first few years
Excellent indefinitely
aeration
life expectancy
Replanting or new planting
10 years of flowering possible
required within 3 years of
without replanting
flowers
Cost
Available at no cost in most
Necessary to purchase blue stone
locations. However, there
($30015 m) and plastic bags 4c
are the additional cost of
each. Also more fertilizer
replanting or new planting
required due to the absence of
nutrient holding capacity.
However, the cost of replanting
and new planting avoided
9

Dendrobium Orchids: A Manual for Small Holder Production in Fri

Nutrient holding
capacity
Planting

Good - including providing

nutrients in its own right

Very low - requiring additional

fertiliser

40.
Orchids are planted in the shade-house when they are they are 8 to 10 cm tall. In
the Fiji the practice is to plant in blue metal 20mm contained in cut down #5 planter bags
PB (15 cm in diameter). When a plant fills a #5PB, it can be divided or moved up to a #8
PB(20 cm). The blue metal is thoroughly washed in a weak bleach solution (2 caps
(30ml) janola /5 litres). Plastic pots (12 cm diameter) can also be used. These will last
longer but will cost more. It is recommended that extra large holes be added to the sides
of the bags and pots to improve drainage. In Hawaii some growers plant orchids in beds
of medium, instead of individual containers, to reduce costs. However this increases the
possibility of spreading disease between plants. Having plants on the ground also means
workers are continually bending.
Plant spacing
41.the past a spacing of 35,000 plants per acre (bags touching) was
In Hawaii in
used. This maximized the number of plants in the shade-house. However, as the plants
grew the intertwining of canes prevented a good airflow leading to disease problems and
bent sprays. The common practice now in Hawaii is to reduce the plant population to as
low as 12,000 plants per acre (12 inch (30 cm) bags, with the bag centres 18 inches (45
cm) apart). The benches are 1.2 to 1.5 metres apart, with the aisles of at least 1.2 metres.
Plants with adequate space respond with high yields. This plant population should yield
26 sprays during the first 15 months of flowering.
Replanting
42.
From a production
point of view the best time to replant an orchid is when
productivity has started to decline after reaching its peak. This stage should be reached at
about 4 years after planting. However, this might not be the most economical time to
replant because of the cost. There is labour involved in replanting, new plants have to be
purchased and these will yield no income for some 18 months. It is usually worth
keeping plants for at least a few more years after their maximum level of production has
been reached. In Hawaii and Fiji plants are usually kept for 7 to 10 years. A time will be
reached when a plant's production becomes too low to be retained for cut flower
production. You might be able to sell this old plant as a pot plant if it is in flower. Good
record keeping is essential for determining the best time to replant your orchids.
One bench should be completely replanted at one time. New plants should not be
43.
planted among older plants that are in decline or affected by disease or insect infestation.
Remove all the old plants and plant material. The ground under the benches is likely to
be full of fungal spores, bacteria, weed seeds, and insects. Old plant fragments may also
contain viruses. The ground under the bench needs to be sanitised as much as possible by
washing with diluted bleach.

10

Dendrobium Orchids:A Manual for Small Holder Production in Fri

Repotting and dividing

44.
There are two basic reasons for repotting: the plant has outgrown its container, or
the medium has decomposed to the point that it becomes soft (this will not be a problem
when blue metal is used as the medium). The best time to re-pot orchids is in spring
(September- October), when new roots begin to grow. The plant should not be in
flower when it is replanted. The photographs show the steps in repotting.

potting --- new pseudobulbs

pressing against the side of the

Fertilizer and fertilizing

45.

The three main elements in fertilizer are absorbed through the roots and leaves:

11

Dendrobium Orchids: A Manual for Small Holder Production in Fri

Nitrogen (N) (for healthy green leaf growth - this element is required in the
greatest amount)
Phosphorous (P) (for strong roots and stems)
Potash (potassium) (K) (for fruiting and flowering)

A typical soluble NPK fertiliser for dendobiums has the following analysis: 12:5:15 which means it contains 12% nitrogen, 5% phosphorous and 15% potassium.
The plant also requires trace elements in minute quantities: these are iron (Fe),
46.
manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), boron (B), copper (Cu) and molybdenum (Mo). Trace
elements are usually included in slow release formulations. These are also soluble trace
element formulations (eg Yeates Gro-Plus Trace Element Mix) that can be applied on a
quarterly basis.
Chemical (inorganic) fertiliser programs can be supplemented by regular
47.
application of soluble organic fertiliser in the form of seaweed and fish formulations.
This will help stimulate root development, enhance healthy plant growth and flowering
and increase resistance to disease and fungal attack. Organic fertilisers should be a
commercial product (eg Earth Care Seasol). The use of uncomposted chicken, horse or
cow manure can introduce disease into your plants.
Fertiliser application
There are two ways fertilizer is applied: as water soluble to the leaves (foliar
48.
fertiliser) and as pelletised slow release fertilizer to the roots. Standard NPK fertiliser
applied to crops like dalo should not be used for orchids as it will bum the roots.
Foliar fertilizer

The basic principle is to apply a weak solution ( to %2 normal

49.
strength) often. Most growers in Fiji use two formulations of chemical

fertilizer:
F60 Soluble NPK 20:9:17 - plus trace elements (used on a weekly basis on young
plants prior to flowering).
F67 ("booster") Soluble N:P:K 13:12:22 - plus trace elements (used on weekly
basis when flowering commences).
This is usually applied via a 6 litre pressure sprayer. The application rate is 40 ml (4
table spoons/6 litre).
It is recommended that soluble fish or seaweed fertilizer be applied monthly at the
50.
rate of 30 ml of concentrate per 10 litres.
Foliar fertiliser should be supplemented with slow release fertilizer
51.
(e.g. nutricote N-13: P=5.7: K=10.8: Mg=I.2 plus trace elements.) Slow
release fertiliser is applied at the rate of 10 ml ('/2 table spoon) per plant, with the
granules spread evenly around the planting bag. Depending on the formulation, slow
release fertiliser can last 6 to 12 months. However, for dendrobium orchids slow release

Slow release

12

Dendrobium Orchids: A Manual for Small Holder Production in Fiji

should be reapplied somewhat sooner than the interval recommended. Higher

temperatures and rainfall contribute a faster release and the blue metal medium has
virtually no nutrient holding capacity.
Detecting

nutrient disorders

52.
To detect nutrient disorders plants should
be frequently inspected for leaf colour, growth
rate, new shoot activity, root activity and spray
yield and quality. Dendrobium leaves should be
light green for maximum yield. While dark green
leaves and thick canes look healthy, it is an
indication of excess nitrogen and yields are likely
to suffer. Ideally the leaf tissue should be
laboratory tested for nutrient levels. This service
is available at the Koronivia Research Station.
Laboratory leaf analysis would help determine
optimum fertiliser programs and identify possible
nutrient disorders or imbalances.
53.
Some useful practical hints for feeding
orchids:
buy a proven product rather than trying to mix your own feed:
only feed orchids that are actively growing and healthy
apply fertiliser at every second or third watering
never overfeed orchids
Watering requirements
54. must be watered for optimum production particularly in the dry
Dendrobiums
zone. Blue metal is a highly porous medium, which has very low moisture holding
capacity. This is compensated to some extent by the high water holding capacity of the
pseudobulb. In western Viti Levu it is necessary to water dendrobiums twice a week
during the dry season.
55.
A larger grower may wish to install an irrigation system to save on labour cost.
The most appropriate irrigation system is to apply water to the root system, without
wetting the leaves. This can be done with "spitters" mounted on risers 30 cm above the
ground. For smaller growers the capital investment in an irrigation system is not
justified. The water requirements can be readily achieved by a watering can or hose with
a fine nozzle. Hand watering also offers the grower the opportunity to inspect individual
plants for indications of pest disease or nutritional problems.
The management of pest and diseases
There are a 56.
number of pests and diseases that impact on dendrobium orchid in
Fiji. These need to be managed if good commercial l'esuits are to be achieved.
13

Dendrobium Orchids: A Manual for Small Holder Production in Fiji

57.
Most pests and diseases have natural enemies that should be encouraged as part of
an integrated pest management (IPM) approach. IPM is an old concept that is back in
favour with increasing health and environmental concerns from the misuse and over use
of chemical pesticides. Before synthetic chemical pesticides were developed, pests were
managed by various means including:
application of mineral oils, soaps and plant extracts;
use of natural predators, barriers, traps and trap crops;
modifying cultural practices affecting crop environments; and,
utilising sanitation and quarantine (isolation) practices.
58.
Knowing the "enemy" and predicting its occurrence is critical for successful pest
and disease management. Growers should be able to identify potentially damaging
organisms and what effect they have in your crop and be able to relate pest populations to
climatic conditions. Certain fungal diseases thrive in warmer conditions with high
humidity, while others favour cool damp conditions. Sticky yellow cards suspended
above the plants can be used to gauge populations of flying insects such as thrips and
white flies. There should be regular inspection of the plants and their medium for nonflying insects such as aphids, mites, mealy bugs and slugs. Some pests leave tell tale
signs of their presence even if they are not seen. Slugs leave slim trails and sucking and
chewing insects damage leaves in particular ways.
59.

Plants should also be inspected weekly for indicators of diseases, such as:
rotted roots or young leaves;
yellowed or spotted leaves or flowers;
blemishes on the leaf sheafs;
browning of roots; and,
the development of aerial roots.

Cultural control practices

Disease free
planting material

60.
Clean planting material should always be used. Seed propagated
dendrobium cultivars developed by the University of Hawaii are initially free
of all diseases. However, practices must be followed to keep the plants
disease free.

61.
Fiji growers often use "keikeis" (small plants taken from a mature plant) for
replanting. Care must be taken to only plant healthy looking off-shoots with a strong root
system already developing. However, there is no guarantee that these are disease free.
Sanitation

62.
Within the shade house, strict sanitation is critical if disease problems
are to be minimised. The shade house should be kept free of fallen leaves,
flowers, dead and diseased canes, and weeds. There should be a weekly program for
removing all these items as they can be reservoirs for diseases and pests. Once removed
they should be burnt. Try and minimise the entry of people into the shade house as they

14

Dendrobium Orchids: A Manual for Small Holder Production in Fiji

can bring in disease from outside. Workers should wear clean clothes every day and
regularly clean their foot wear.
Chemical control measures
63.
Chemical pesticides have a place when other effective alternatives are not
available. They should be used to the minimum extent necessary to avoid serious plant
losses and used in a way that has the least adverse consequences on beneficial organisms.
It is not worth using insecticides on minor problems that don't have a significant impact
on your production. The insecticide will kill your pest, but it may also kill all the useful
insects. It's a bit like firing a shotgun at night into your chicken house to kill a mongoose
that is somewhere in there! If you are to use chemicals you need to wear protective
clothing, gloves, boots and a face mask
Types of insecticides

64. You need to understand the different types of insecticides:

contact sprays are those that kill the insect when spayed on its exterior
surface;
residual sprays are those that remain active on the plant surface for several
days and provide longer term control of pests; and,
systemic sprays are those that are absorbed by the and kill the insect when
it sucks the sap.

Control of specific pests

Aphids and

thrips

65.
These are the soft bodied insects that multiply rapidly and suck the
juices from plant reducing its vigour. They
can also adversely affect plant health
indirectly by secondary infections. Sooty mould is a
fungal disease that appears as black dusty layer on the
leaves of the plant and reduces photosynthesis. Aphids
excrete a sugar substance known as honeydew, which is
an ideal medium for sooty mold development. Ants feed
off honeydew and spread sooty mould as a result. Ants
will often "herd" aphids, and other insects such as mealy
bugs, as a source of food. If you notice ants travelling up
and down your flower spikes find out what they are doing there -- they might be tending
their aphid " farm". If so the aphids should be removed.

66.
There are beneficial insects that help control aphids and thrips. These include
ladybird beetles. Controlling the ants that herd the aphids will usually significantly
reduce the population. Banding the legs of benches with petroleum jelly or "stickum"
can serve as a barrier to ants.
67.
Because aphids and thrips are soft bodied and slow moving they are relatively
easy to kill. However, they are persistent and they build up into large populations in a
short period of time (less than a week). Thus you need to continually check for them.

15

Dendrobium Orchids:

,4

Manual for Small Holder Production in Fiji

Insecticidal soaps and ultra fine oils (white oil) are effective. For small growers
recycling soapy water used for washing your cloths or dishes can give good results,
particularly if some coconut oil is added. The objective is to suffocate or repel the insect.
This will also help wash the mould off the tree and save water. Another good organic
answer is to spray the plant with some flour mixed in water- this will dry and trap the
insect in batter! Systemic insecticides such as Orthene, can be used to counter large
build ups of aphids and thrips. Make sure your follow the directions on the packet. Two
applications at 10 day intervals are usually necessary to be effective, to account for any
eggs that might have hatched following the first application.
Scales and

mealy bugs

68.

Scale insects are firmly stuck to the plant - they are either armoured

and soft scales. Armoured scales live,

feed and lay their eggs under a hard
protective covering. This cover is
nonliving and is either round or oval
shaped. Soft scale insects have a soft
cover. Adolescent scales attach
themselves to the leaves of the plants,
where it inserts its needle like mouth
part to extract juices. Mealy bugs
cover themselves in white cotton wool

J
p
substance that makes them even easier to detect. These sucking insects that tend to
congregate at the base and axils of dendrobium leaves. They can also be found in the
roots. Scales and mealybugs excrete honeydew and thus are tended by ants leading to
more concentrated infestations.
69.
Severe infestations of these pests weaken, and even kill plants. The leaves may
turn yellow and drop early. Soft scales are easier to control than their protected cousins.
Armoured scaled insects are mainly spread by infected plants. You need to be very
careful in sourcing planting material from other growers - you should inspect closely for
the presence of scales.
70.
Early detection of scales and mealy bug infestations, before they get out of
control, is critical for the management of these pest. Once become established they are
very difficult to manage. You can push them off with your thumb nail. A cotton bud,
soaked with methylated spirits that dissolves the waxy covering, is a good for getting at
mealybugs hidden deep down in the leaf sheaths. All scale insects have to lift their shell
every 15 to 20 minutes to breath and can be suffocated by oily substances. Recycled
washing and dishwashing water with some added coconut oil can work wonders.
Contact insecticides such as Malathion, mixed with an oil spray can be effective against
leaf sucking insects and the ants that herd them. Insecticides are generally ineffective
against those infesting the roots. To counter root infesting pests "Growing Dendrobium
Orchids in Hawaii" suggests (p, 35):
Inspect roots of all orchid plants, including newly purchased plants, by removing
the plant from the pot.

16

Dendrobium Orchids: A Manual for Small Holder Production in Fiji

Mites

Avoid root-bound plants by re-potting; root-bound plants encourage mealy bugs.

Use clean pots and media - used pots should be cleaned with detergent.

71.
Red spider mites is probably the main insect problem for Fiji growers.
These minute sap sucking pests feed off the softer leaves and cause damage to
the stems and
.1r
flowers. They
cause a silvery
white film to
appear on the leaf
where they have
killed the cells.
They spin a
characteristic
silken web. In
time these areas
turn black as the
injured plant
tissue oxidises
and is invaded by infection. A similar pest is the false red spider mite, but they don't
spin the characteristic silken webs of red spider mites.
72.
Early detection of spider mites is critical for effective control. They can be
detected by tiny red specks associated with the silvering of leaves. Natural enemies such
as ladybird beetles can help control mites. However, for large populations it may be
necessary to use a miticide at two weekly intervals sprayed on the underside of the leaves
and flowers. Other pesticides will not help - they will only kill the ladybirds and make
things worse.

Snails and slugs

73.
These pests can turn up at any time and do a lot of damage fast. They
can incur a huge wound in one night. They also spread disease between plants
and feeding wounds provide an entry point for disease.

74.
Snails and slugs are active at night. During the day, they are found hidden in
plants, in plant debris and under rocks and pots. After rain they can be found foraging
during daylight.
Constant vigilance is required to keep snails and slugs under control. The first line of
defence against snails and slugs is sanitation. You need to remove all plant debris from
the vicinity of your shade house and destroy all potential hiding places. Look for them
under pots. Use a torch light to find them at night and to kill them. Mollusc pests are
repelled by any form of copper (a metal or as copper hydroxide). Thus copper bands
around the legs benches can serve as an effective barrier to snails coming up from the
ground.

17

Dendrobium Orchids: A Manual for Small Holder Production in Fiji

75.
Chemical baits (molluscides), such as Slugout, can also be used. It should be
applied immediately after symptoms appear in the affected area, following the
manufacturer's directions.
This is a major pest of dendrobiums in Fiji, particularly during the
summer months. The adult female chews a hole in the cane or leaf and
deposits eggs. The grubs when they hatch hollow out the centre of the cane,
which can totally collapse.

Orchid weevil
borer

76.

The orchid weevil has a long life

cycle of 5 months. Sanitation is the most
important control measure. Plants or parts
of plants with feeding damage and adult
emergence holes should be placed in
rubbish bags and disposed of. If
detection is early and problem plants are
removed immediately the spread of the
weevil can be prevented. Insecticides can
provide some measure of control. Contact
insecticides can be used at the adult stage,
while systemic insecticides can be used at the grub stage.
77.

78.
Birds and bees can inflict serious damage to dendrobiums. A bulbul
inside you shade house can cause havoc in no time devouring all buds in sight.
Don't let them in the first place. Below the shade cloth must be chicken wire
(see shade house design). Make sure the doors are always closed!!

The birds and

the bees

79.
Bees play an important role in pollinating orchids in the wild. However, you
don't want your flowers pollinated - a pollinated flower closes within days. "Unwai"
dendrobiums are not particularly attractive to bees, although they seem to be more so in
Fiji than in Hawaii. Control is difficult. All you can do is not make things too easy for
the bees. Don't keep bee hives in the vicinity of your shade house and don't have plants
that are attractive to bees too near.
Diseases

Warm temperature and high humidity result in the rapid spread of

fungal and bacterial diseases. Fungal diseases cause leaf spots and blights on
the flowers and root and cane rots. Bacterial diseases cause a break down in
plant tissue. Bacterial rots can be identified by small water soaked leaf spots,
which rapidly enlarge into soft spots.

Fungal and
bacterial
diseases

80.

81.
The spores and pathogens that cause these diseases are produced on the surface of
rotted plant parts. They are spread by the splashing of water, plant to plant contact, and
the movement by insects, slugs, snails and people. Control of these diseases requires the
immediate removal of all diseased leaves and canes and the removal of severely diseased
plants.

18


^s-x_^._

: :..-

._

..

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Dendrobium Orchids: A Manual for Small Holder Production in Fiji

82,
Good air movement in your shade house and wider plant spacing helps control the
spread of disease. Avoid irrigation in the afternoon to reduce the incidence of plants
being wet in the evening. Potting media should not be used unless thoroughly washed in
bleach as the spores can remain for months.
83.
The regular spraying of weak bleach solution (20m1 janola/l0 litres water) is
cheap effective way of controlling the spread of fungal diseases. During extended wet
periods twice weekly application of janola is recommended - otherwise once a week is
recommended. Some growers in Fiji regularly (once a week) apply fungicide (eg
Lanosan) to reduce the level fungal diseases. There are no chemical treatments to cure
bacterial diseases. The reason is that the disease become systemic (taken up within the
plant) and are not reached by the chemical. Prevention and good sanitation are the only
remedy.
Viruses

84.
Virus diseases are the most serious for orchids. A virus infections
cause blotch colours on the flowers, distorted leaves and plant vigour. An
obvious indication is darkening of the midvein of the flowers. Once a plant is infected by
a virus it cannot be cured, even with chemicals. The main means of virus spread is
mechanical via secateurs and clippers or via sucking pests. To prevent cross infection it
is important to always sterilise any tool you use. When repotting, knives and scissors
need to be continually sterilized. This can be done by passing them through a flame or
dipping them in bleach or detergent solution. Spikes should be broken off by hand when
harvesting - clippers should not be used. The elimination of sucking pests is important
for virus control.

Harvesting and postharvest handling

85.
The life of cut flower dendrobiums depends on both the conditions prior to
harvesting and how they are handled after harvesting. Healthy Unwai cut flowers, that
are well handled should last two to three weeks before wilting and dropping flowers.
During the hot months their expected life is significantly shorter. A vase life of only a
few days can be expected if sprays are improperly handled after harvesting. The main
cause of premature flower wilt and dropping is due to water absorption disruption along
the stem. This is often caused by microbial contamination of the broken or cut stem ends.
Harvesting

86.
Sprays are generally harvested when there are three or four unopened
buds. If there is very heavy demand for flowers and there is a shortage, then
it might be necessary to harvest with only half the flowers open.

87.
Sprays are harvested by snapping the sprays off by hand. You should wash your
hands with soap and water between rows to reduce the spread of disease. Harvested
sprays should be immediately placed in clean buckets filled with clean water (replaced
daily). The ends of the stems should be submerged 5 to 6 cm. The buckets should be
disinfected weekly with bleach solution. After harvesting buckets should immediately
be taken to a cool shaded area.

19

Dendrobium Orchids: A Manual for Small Holder Production in Fiji

88.

Sprays are graded in terms of size:

Larger> 15 blooms
Medium 10 - 14 blooms
Small > 5 - 9 blooms
Seconds < 4 and where there gaps of more than 2 blooms on the spray.

Tie the bundles with rubber bands, and cut a '/z cm off the bottom of the stem (preferably
under water). Then use a clean pair of cutters and cut at an angle to allow for maximum
water intake.
89.
Customers who receive their flowers by overnight courier should immediately
unpack them. Another V2 cm should be cut from the stems under water. It is advisable
that the whole spray be soaked for 5 minutes. Thereafter regular fine misting with clean
water help maintain freshness.

Markets and marketing

90.
A large and growing local market exists for cut flower orchids and increasingly
for potted orchids. A good tourist carry-on market opportunity currently exists for cut
flowers orchids. A limited niche market is available in New Zealand if the present
quarantine constraint can be removed. For the future a market could be developed in
Australia, once Fiji has an adequate production base and if prices can be reduced.
Tourism sector
91.
Hawaii provides a guide to the demand for flowers that can be generated by a
flower orientated tourism industry. However, to achieve this level of demand would
require the development of flower culture within the hotel sector. Tourist arrivals have
now returned to around 400, 000. Hawaii has also shown the potential of the "carry-on"
trade with departing tourists, particularly from Japan. Orchids are permitted into the
source countries of Fiji tourists, with the current exception of New Zealand. The
lightweight, beauty and long vase life make dendrobium orchids an ideal carry on item.
Japanese visitors in particular are frustrated that they cannot buy suitable gift items.
Local non-tourist market
92.
All communities place a high value on flowers for special occasions and
household
Orchid sales (1999-2002)
beautification. Growth
Sprays
90,000
in the urban middle
60.000
class has seen this
demand has expand
70,000
rapidly. Meeting this
60,000
demand has been
50.000
constrained by the
10,000
absence of a wholesale
1999
2001
2002
2000
market to distribute

20

Dendrabium Orchids: A Manual for Small Holder Production in Fri

production, erratic supply, and high prices. The SSO production and marketing system
is starting to overcome these constraints. The graph shows the strong growth in orchid
sales over the period 1999 to 2002.
It is estimated that the volume of dendrobium orchids sold on the local market
93.
could readily be doubled (some 180,000 sprays) at current prices if the supply was
available. If there is continued strong growth in the economy it is projected that the local
demand dendrobium orchids could exceed 250,000 sprays annually within 5 years.
Marketing arrangements
94.
A major constraint to the
development of the industry was the
absence of a wholesale market, where the
small growers could sell their cut flowers
and the small florists could readily source
their supplies. Both were spending a lot
of time and energy trying to find each
other and there was no market growth. To
overcome this marketing constraint a
wholesale cut flower market (orchids and
anthuriums) was established by SSO in
2001. There are now two SSO wholesale market outlets - one located at Nasau Nadi
(SSO farm) and one situated underneath St Andrews Presbyterian Church Suva.
Growers bring their cut flowers to the wholesale market on their designated day. At the
end of each month the growers are paid for previous month's delivery at predetermined
prices. The florists have standing orders with the wholesale market, which they collect
on their designated day. If supplies are short, flowers that are available are shared prorata amongst the florists. If available supply exceeds standing orders then the surplus is
available on a first come first served basis. A 30 percent margin (difference between the
grower price and the wholesale price) applies to cover the cost of operating the wholesale
market. The wholesale market has meant that orderly marketing has replaced a
previously chaotic marketing situation. The growers can now concentrate their energies
entirely on producing quality cut flowers. The florists can now aggressively promote
their products assured that a dependable supply base at a reasonable price is in place.
Growing orchids as a small business
95.
Simple financial models are presented for a micro dendrobium grower (200
plants) and a small dendrobium grower (2,000 plants). The micro 200 enterprise would
be of sufficient size to provide some supplementary cash income for a village based
grower or for a part-time urban grower. The small enterprise is seen of sufficient scale
to provide a basic income for a household.

21

Dendrobium Orchids: A Manual for Small Holder Production in Fiji

Start-up cost
To establishment cost of the micro denbrobium enterprise is approximately $1,000 and
the small enterprise around $9,000 (table 1). This includes the cost of the shade house,
the plants and inputs for the first year of operation.
Table 1: Establishment cost of micro and small dendrobium orchid enterprise
200 plants
Shade house
Pine posts
#8 wire
Salon cloth (50% Shade)
Gravel for potting and floor
Welded mesh for benches
Concrete 6in blocks for mesh
Clips
Nails
1 inch chicken wire
Labour cost
Total shade house cost
Other capital costs
Orchid plants
Plastic potting bags
1 year fertiliser requirement

Quantity and prices

4posts (4mx.I5)a.$24/post

96.00
9.00
57.75

30 posts

77.00
30.00
19.20
10.00

3.5 m

1/3 of a roll @ $90/roll

4.50
29.70

7.5kgs
2.5 tolls

l skilled supervisor for 2 days

@$40/day(household to supply its own labour)

80.00

5 days

2 kgs @ $4.50/kg
.15 roll (385 m x 1.5m) @ $385
.5 m @ $154/m
4 x 8m @$7.50 each
24 @ Soc
lors $1
l kg @ $4.50/kg

15 kgs
1 roll

30
180
75

200 @$2.90 each

200@ 3.65 c each
3 x 300kg pkt foliar NPK @ $13

I X 50gm pkt Lanosan @ $15

2 x 4.51tr @ $4
Ix5litre @$20

cost($)
720.00
67.50
385.00
539.00
225.00
144.00
75.00
33.75
225.00
200.00
2.614.25

413.15

1 X 50 pkts slow release fert @ $7

1 year fungicide/pesticide req.

bleach (for cleaning gravel and
fungicide
Watering can
Pressure spray
Protective clothing for spraying
chemicals (mask/clothing)
Total other costs
Total capital cost

2.000 plants
Cost (5) Qutmtily mad prices

580.00

2.000

7.30
39.00
7.00
15.00

2,000

8.00

15

23
8
5

5,800.00
73.00
299.00
56.00
75.00
60.00

25.00

40.00
75.00
50.00

701.30
$1,114

6,398.00
$9,142

20.00

I x 5 are

Production
96.
The experience of SSO dendrobium growers in Nadi shows that flowering will
commence in the second year if the correct package of practices is followed. During the
second year three small sprays per plant are expected. This will increase steadily to reach
9 sprays by year 5. The percentage of larger sprays will also increase over time and by
year 5 it is estimated that 50% of the sprays will be large (more than 14 blossoms). The
estimated production profile for the micro and small dendrobium enterprises are
presented in table 2. At full production the micro enterprise is producing 1,800 sprays
annually (of which 900 are large) and the small enterprise is producing 18,000 sprays (of
which 9,000 are large).

22

Dendrobium Orchids.' A Manual for Small Holder Production in Fiji

Table 2: Production projections for dendrobium enterprise models

Year

200

200
2
400
400

200
5
1,000
500

200
9
1,800
450
450
900

200
9
1,800
450
450
900

200
9
1,800
450
450
900

200
9
1,800
450

250
250

200
7
1,400
560
420
420

2,000

2,000

2,000

7
14,000
5,600
4,200

2,000
9
18,000
4,500
4,500

2,000

5
10,000
5,000
2,500

9
18,000
4,500
4,500

2,000
9

2.500

4.200

9,000

9
18,000
4,500
4,500
9.000

Micro enterprise model

Number of plants
Number of spray/plant
Total number of sprays

Small sprays (<8 blossoms)

Medium sprays (8-14 blossoms)
Large sprays (> 14 blossoms)

450
900

Small enterprise model

Number of plants
Number of spray/plant
Total number of sprays

2,000 2,000
2
4,000

Small sprays (<8 blossoms)

4,000

Medium sprays (8-14 blossoms)

Large sprays (> 14 blossoms)

18,000

4,500
4,500
9,000

9,000

Prices
97.
are:

The current (July 2003) SSO orchid grower prices are used in the model. These
Large (> 15 blooms)
Medium (10 - 14 blooms)
Small (4-9 blooms)
Seconds (<4 blooms and spray with large
gaps)

$1.20
0.95
0.50
0.25

Cash flow projections

98.
Eight-year cash flow projections for the two models, not allowing for any debt
servicing, are presented in table 3. Both models achieve a small surplus in the second
year, which reaches a maximum in year 5 of $1,700 and $17,000 respectively. The
average annual gross margin (income after meeting all operating costs) for the two
enterprises are approximately $950 and $9,700 respectively. In both of these models it is
assumed that only household labour is used. The average return per day of this labour is
$15.60 for the micro enterprise and $29.40 for the small enterprise. The difference can
be explained by the greater labour efficiency of the larger shade house.
Table 3: Cash flow projections micro and small dendrobium orchid growing
Year

Small spray #

400

500

560

450

450

Revenue ($) @50clspray)

200

250

280

225

225

450
225

450
225

250
238
250

420

450

450

450

450

399

428

428

428

420

900

900

428
900

Total

Micro enterprise model (200 plants)

Revenue

Medium spray #

Revenue ($) @95clspray

Large spray-

900

23

Dendrobium Orchids: A Manual for Small Holder Production in Fri

300
Revenue ($) @ $120/spray)
200 788
Total revenue (S)
Costs
413
Shade house (from table 3)
580
Plants
52
Other capital items
60
Fertiliser and other agrochemicals
60
60
60
Total costs
1,105
60
140 728
Cash flow
1,105
1.105
Cumulative cash flow
-965 -238
Person days
Labour inputs
2
Gleaning and bagging gravel
1
Planting
50
50
Daily husbandry (watering, fertilising ect.)
50
3
Harvesting and grading
7
53
57
Total labour input
53
947
Av. annual gross margin (S)
Av. return per day of family labour
15.60

504
1,183

1,080
1,733

1,080
1,733

1.080
1,733

1,080
1,733

60
60
1,123
886

60
60
60
60
1,673 1,673
2,558 4,231

60
60
1,673
5,903

60
60
1,673
7,576

50
15
65

50
15
65

50
15
65

50
15
65

5,600 4,500
2,800 2,250

4,500
2,250

4,500

4,500

2,250

2,250

50
10
60

9,101

7,576

485

Small enterprise model (2,000 plants)

Revenue
4,000 5,000

Small spray #
Revenue ($) @50cspray)
Medium spray #
Revenue ($) @95 c/spray
Large spray #
Revenue($) @ $1.20/spray)
Total revenue (S)
Costs
Shade house (from table 2)
Plants
Other capital items
Fertiliser and other agrochemicals
Total costs
Cash flow
Cumulative cash flow
Labour inputs
Gleaning and bagging gravel
Planting
Daily husbandry (watering, fertilising ect.)
Harvesting and grading
Total labour input
Av. annual gross margin ($)
Av. return per day of family labour(s)

2,000 2,500
2,500
2,375
2,500
3,000
2,000 7,875

4,200 4,500 4,500 4,500 4,500

3,990 4,275 4,275 4,275 4,275
4,200 9,000 9,000 9,000 9,000
5,040 10,800 10,800 10,800 10,800
11,830 17,325 17,325 17,325 17,325 91,005

2,614
5,800
238
600
9,252
-9,252
-9,252

600
600
600
600 600
600
600
600
600
600
600
600 600
600
1,400 7,275 11,230 16,725 16,725 16,725 16,725 77,553
-7,852 -577 10,653 27,378 44,103 60,828 77,553
Person days

7
3
300
310
9,694
29.40

300
12
312

300
24
324

300
30
330

300
40
340

300
40
340

300
40
340

300
40
340

2636

24

Dendrobium Orchids: A Manual for Small Holder Production in Fiji

Financing and paying off your loan

99.
The start-up capital requirements were estimated at $1,000 and $9,000 for the
micro and small enterprise respectively. Table 5 shows cash flow projections after debt
servicing if these funds are borrowed. Two interest rates are applied: 8% (the subsidized
rate for indigenous Fijian) and 13.5% (the current FDB rate for commercial loans). It is
assumed that loan repayment commence in year 3 and are repaid over 7 years. Both
these enterprises could service these loans with little difficulty.
Table 4: Cash flow projections for dendrobium enterprises after debt serving
1
Micro enterprise model
Cash flow before debt servicing
Repayment on $1,000 loan (@8%)
Cash flow after debt servicing
Repayment on $1,000 loan (@13.5%)
Cash flow after debt servicing
Small enterprise model
Cash flow before debt servicing
Repayment on $9,000 loan (@8%)
Cash flow after debt servicing
Repayment on $1,000 loan (@13.5%)
Cash flow after debt servicing

-1,105
-1,105
-1,105

10

Total

140 728 1,123 1,673 1,673 1,673 1,673 1,676 1,676 10,930
224 224 224
224 224 224 224 224 1,792
140 504 899 1,449 1,449 1,449 1,449 1,452 1,452 9,138
268 268 268 268 268 268 268 268 2,144
140 460 855 1,405 1,405 1,405 1,405 1,408 1,408 8,786

-9.252 1,4007,275
2,016
-9,252 1,4005,259
2,662
-9,252 1,4004,613

11,230 16,725
2,016 2,016
9,214 14,709
2,662 2,662
8,568 14,063

16,725 16,725
2,016 2,016
14,70914,709
2.662 2,662
14,063 14,063

16,725 16,725 16,725

2,016 2,016 2,016
14,709 14,70914,709
2,662 2,662 2,662
14,063 14,063 14,063

111,003
16,128
94,875
18,634
89,707

25

Dendrobium Orchids: A Manual for Small Holder Production in Fiji

Glossary of Terms
anaerobic conditions

Anaerobic composting is the break down of organic materials in the

absence of oxygen. The carbon content of the material is released as
methane or biogas which can be damaging to roots.

back bulbs

Leafless pseudobulbs

cash flow

The difference between money received and money spent

canes

Elongated pseudobulbs

CITES

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild

Fauna and Flora

community pot/ " compots"

A pot that usually contains 10 or 20 small plants

column

The single, finger like structure at the centre of any orchid flower that
contains both the male and female reproductive parts

contact insecticides

Are those that kill the insect when sprayed on its exterior surface

deciduous types

Those who have a dormant period where they lose their leaves

debt servicing

The ability to replay a loan taken to establish the enterprise

epiphytes (air plants)

Orchids that have evolved to live upon trees, taking advantage of the
aeration and light that this provides

endemic species

Found only in Fiji

evergreen types

Those that always have leaves

foliar fertilizer

Fertilizer applied through the leaves

genus(singular); genera (plural)

A division in the plant family which groups together similar species.

gross margin

Income after meeting all operating costs.

keikis

Small offshoots from a plant.

inorganic fertilizer

Manufactured chemical fertilizer.

Integrated Pest Management

(IPM)
labellum

Pest control that emphasizes non-chemical measures

The lip or third petal of an orchid flower.

lithophytes

Plants that grow on mossy rocks or rock faces.

26

Dendrob ium Orchids: A Manual for Small Holder Production in Fri

medium

Material in which orchids are planted

monopodial

Growth by a single terminal bud. which continues continuing upwards.

molluscides

Chemical baits for killing slugs and snails.

organic fertilizer

Based on natural material eg sea weed, manure.

node

The part of a stem that is jointed and produces leaves or buds.

petal

The inner whorl (swirl) of an orchid flower is made up of three petals.

two lateral petals, and the lip.

photosynthesis

How plants convert sunlight into energy.

pseudobulbs

A swollen stem used for water storage above ground.

residual insecticides

soluble fertilizer

Those that remain active on the plant surface for several days and
provide longer term control of pests.
The outer whorl (swirl) of modified leaves that surrounds the petals of
an orchid flower.
Fertilizer that is dissol ved in water before it is applied.

stamen

The male part of the flower. which carries the pollen.

stigma, style and ovary

The female parts of the flower. The part of the plant that receives the
pollen. It is found beneath the column in the flower.

sympodial

Growth by lateral buds. rising from creeping rhizomes.

systemic insecticide
terrestrials

Those that are absorbed by the plant and kill the insect when it sucks
the sap.
Orchids that grow on the ground in soil or leaf litter.

velamen

The white. absorbent outer layer that covers the roots.

UH

University of Hawaii

Uniwai

A series of hybrid dendrobium bred by the University of Hawaii

Wholesale market

A market where businesses buy and sell (not for general public)

sepal

27

Dendrobium Orchids: A Manual for Small Holder Production in Fiji

References
Leonhardt Ken and Sewake Kelvin
Growing Dendrobium Orchids in Hawaii: Production and Pest
1999
Management Guide. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human
Resources.
McConnell James and Cruz Frank
1996
Growing Orchids on Guam. Guam Cooperative Extension. College of
Agriculture & Life Sciences, University of Guam.
Johnson Paul J.
2000
Scale Insects on Orchids. Newsletter of the South Dakota Orchid Society.
http:l/nathist.sdstate.edu/orchids/pests/scales.htm
Pacific Orchid Society of Hawaii.
Beginner's Handbook for Orchid Growing in Hawaii (Revised).
1998
Honolulu
Rittershausen Brian and Wilma
The Practical Encyclopedia of Orchids: A Complete Guide to Orchids and
2002
their Cultivation. Hermes House Press.
Smith Albert C.
Flora Vitiensis Nova, A New Floria (Spermatophyte only) Volume 5.
National Botanical Gardens, Hawaii.

28