Science Half-Yearly Notes (FINAL)

Science Half Yearly Notes: Topic 1 The Periodic Table
Syllabus Outcomes:
1.
2.
Define atoms, molecules, compounds and ions.

Atoms are smaller-than-microscopic particles that are the basic building blocks of all matter, and are the smallest part of
an element that can exist alone and retain the properties of that element. An atom consists of a dense atomic nucleus
containing protons (positively charged) and neutrons (electrically neutral), surrounded by a much larger electron cloud
containing negatively charged electrons
Molecules are a chemical combination of two or more elements bonded/joined together chemically. They are
electrically neutral and contain at least two atoms in a definite arrangement held by strong bonds.
Compounds are substances formed when different elements chemically combine. It can be many identical molecules or
a lattice, with the atoms of the different elements held together by chemical bonds that are difficult to break and cannot
be separated mechanically. Bonds form as a result of exchanging electrons among the atoms.
Ions are atoms which have changed the number of electrons that they have. If they have lost electrons, they can be
referred to as a positive ion. If they have gained electrons, they can be referred to as a negative ion.
Draw a simple diagram of an atom showing protons, neutrons and electrons.
3.
Define atomic number and mass number.
Atomic number refers to the number of protons in an atom. Since atoms are electrically neutral and must have the same
number of electrons and protons, the atomic number is equal to both the number of protons and the number of electrons. The total
number of particles in the nucleus of an atom (the neutrons and protons) is called the mass number. Neutrons do not add any charge
to an atom so there is no rule connecting them with protons or electrons. These numbers can he shown as in the following notation:
From this notation, we can work out that the atom is fluorine and contains 9 protons, 9 electrons and 10 neutrons.
4.
Use atomic number to identify elements.
Each element has a unique atomic number, which can be used to identify an element. The Periodic Table of Elements shows
the atomic number of each element. The periodic table of elements is displayed on the next page.
5.
Describe the way in which electrons are arranged in atoms.
Electrons orbit around the atom in shells or energy shells, which are numbered. The first shell is closest to the nucleus, with
the first shell sitting inside the second shell, which sits inside the third shell, which sits inside the fourth shell. Electrons repel
each other, and thus stay as far away as they can from each other, due to the fact that they all have a negative charge. Only two
electrons fit on the first shell, eight electrons fit on the second shell, eighteen electrons fit on the third shell (although it is happy
to have eight electrons), and the fourth shell holds thirty-two electrons (although it is happy to have 8 electrons). The
arrangement of electrons in the shells is called the atoms electronic configuration.
Science Half-Yearly Notes 2013

Compiled by Brendan Gu, Joshua Yuan, Jessie Sun, Katherine Yu, Susanna Li, Jessica Li and Sriganesh Thavalingam
Revised by Brendan Gu twice, revised by Sriganesh Thavalingam again, not to be distributed freely please
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6.
Construct a timeline of the history of the model of the atom.
about 350 BC The ancient Greeks believe that atoms are solid balls of matter
1808 John Dalton (an English chemist) supports the idea of atoms as solid balls.
1897 Sir Joseph John Thomson (Great Britain) discovers electrons. The electron is the first know particle that is smaller than an
atom.
1903 Sir Joseph John Thomson proposes the plum pudding model of a positively charged dough with negatively charged
electrons embedded in it.
1908 New Zealand born physicist and student of Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, wins the Nobel prize for chemistry for investigations
into the disintegration of the elements, and the chemistry of radioactive substances.
1911 Ernest Rutherford proposes a nuclear model in which negatively charged electrons orbit a positive nucleus, with most of the
atom being empty space. This was discovered in his famous gold foil experiment.
1913 Ernest Rutherford discovers that hydrogen is the smallest atom. Niels Bohr, a Danish physicist and assistant to Rutherford,
extends Rutherfords model to include electron shells regions in which a given number of electrons may move.
1914 Ernest Rutherford discovers the proton, although he did not name it until 1920.
1920 Ernest Rutherford proposes the existence of a neutron.
1922 Niels Bohr was Nobel Prize for Physics for investigations of the structure of the atoms and their radiation.
1932 James Chadwick (Great Britain) discovers neutrons.
Order of scientists: Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford, Bohr, Chadwick
7.
Distinguish between element and compound, atom and molecule, atom and ion, compounds and mixtures.
Elements are the basic building blocks of all matter and each element is made up of only one type of atom.
Compounds are formed when different elements chemically combine. So, they contain more than one type of atom.
A molecule is a group of atoms bonded or joined together.
An atom is (obviously) just one type of atom, and the basic building blocks of matter.
Ions are formed when the number of electrons changes in an atom. This means it becomes electrically charged.
Atoms are electrically neutral (i.e. they have the same number of protons and electrons). We also should keep in mind that
only electrons, which orbit around the centre, or nucleus of the atom, can move around from atom to atom.
Compounds are chemically bonded, and can have a chemical formula. (e.g. H2O)
Mixtures can be separated by simple physical techniques, such as evaporation and filtration. They are simply different
elements or compounds thrown together, e.g. soft drink, salt water, soil, blood.

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8.
Prepare a compound like CO2.
The following is a diagram showing the apparatus required for an experiment which involves preparing the compound of
carbon dioxide:
Carbon dioxide can be prepared through the reaction of hydrochloric acid and
marble chips (calcium carbonate). This reaction could be illustrated through the
following equations:
CaCO3 + 2HCl CO2 + H2O + CaCl2
Calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid Carbon dioxide + water + carbon chloride
Carbon dioxide presence was confirmed through the limewater turning
milky. The carbon dioxide from the above reaction was transferred through the
rubber hose, and making contact with the limewater, caused this reaction:
CO2 + Ca(OH)2 CaCO3 + H2O
Carbon dioxide + calcium hydroxide calcium carbonate + water
9.
Compare the amount of CO2 in different soft drinks.

The following method can be used to compare the amount of carbon dioxide in different soft drinks:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
Record the weight of the unopened can of soft drink.

Find the mass of the empty beaker.
Pour the entire can into the measuring cylinder and record the actual volume.
Empty the drink into beaker and stir it until it becomes flat.
Find the mass of the beaker and flat drink.
Repeat the previous methods for various soft drinks.
Calculating the weight of the drink itself, then subtracting the weight of the flat drink itself gives the amount of carbon
dioxide present in the soft drink.
10. Construct a timeline for the history of the periodic table.
In 1864, the English chemist John Newlands arranged the sixty or so known elements in order of increasing atomic mass.
When placed in columns of seven, similar elements tended to be in the same horizontal rows. Unfortunately, the rows of his table
also contained some dissimilar elements, but this was a start.
In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev arranged the known elements in atomic mass, putting the known families into vertical columns.
To do this, he needed to leave gaps in the table, predicting that these were elements not yet discovered. Using family likeness,
Mendeleev predicted what chemical properties these unknown elements could have. When eventually these elements were
discovered, their properties closely matched his predictions.
In 1868-69, German chemist Lother Meyer constructed a similar table to that of Mendeleev by comparing the physical
properties of elements with atomic mass. He did not leave gaps for undiscovered elements and went into print in 1870, one year
after Mendeleev. Despite losing the race to be first, Meyer (whose work was independent to that of Mendeleev) is acknowledged as a
joint father of the periodic table. The present periodic table is very much like the later table designed by Meyer, and the final
modern periodic table was the result of work by a young English physicist, Henry Moseley, in 1913. He suggested that the physical
and chemical properties were related to the atomic number, rather than mass. He refined the previous periodic tables to come up
with a more accurate one with fewer errors and fewer missing elements.
Order of scientists: Newlands, Mendeleev, Meyer, Moseley
11. Outline the features (location and main characteristics) of the periodic table: groups, periods, metals, non-metals,
transition metals, inert gases, alkali metals, semi metals, halogens.
Groups are the vertical columns of elements in the periodic table. The group number is the same as the number of outer
shell electrons, with helium (He) being an exception. If two atoms are in the same group, they have the same number of
outer shell electrons and will have similar properties. As we move down a group, more shells are used. The atoms get bigger
and slight differences in properties can be expected.
Periods are the horizontal rows of elements in the periodic table. There are 7 periods in the periodic table; the number of
shells used by an atom is the same as the period number. As we go across a period, the atoms become less metallic, with the
atomic number increasing from left to right. There are generally no significant similarities in elements of the same period.
Metals are found mostly on the left-hand side and the middle of the periodic table. Metals are excellent conductors of heat
and electricity, lustrous (shiny when polished or freshly cut), malleable, ductile, solid at normal room temperature (except
for mercury), have high densities and atoms that form lattices. About 80% of the elements in the periodic table are metallic,
with metals found in Groups I, II, III, IV and V, and all periods except for period 1.

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Non-metals (apart from hydrogen) are found on the right hand side of the periodic table. All non-metals (except carbon) are
either poor conductors of electricity or do not conduct electricity at all (insulators). They have low melting and boiling points
and are usually liquid or gas at room temperature. They are dull and brittle. Group VIII elements can exist as single atoms,
while most other non-metallic atoms form molecules containing two atoms. Some have more than this and a few form
lattices. Non-metallic elements are found in Groups I, IV, V, VI, VII and VIII.
Transition metals are found in the middle of the periodic table and do not have a group number. Transition metals include
iron, copper, zinc, gold and silver, and are colourful and usually valuable metals. Transition metals have similar properties
(e.g. Period 4 metals iron, cobalt and nickel are magnetic). Transition metals tend to be relatively hard and most have similar,
high melting points.
Semi-metals are found on the right end of the periodic table and separate the metals and non-metals. Semi-metals are also
known as metalloids. They are a set of elements that have some metallic as well as non-metallic properties. They are like
non-metals most ways, except they can conduct electricity. Semi-metals include boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic,
antimony, tellurium, polonium and astatine.
Alkali metals are the Group I elements and so are on the very left of the periodic table. They form +1 ions and are very
reactive far too reactive to be found in nature, and are thus found in mineral salts. They have typical metallic properties.
They have chemically extreme behaviours. For example, lithium, sodium and potassium are light enough to float on water
and soft enough to be cut with a knife, all burn in chlorine has (and in other halogens) and produce similar white salts, and
also all react violently with water, producing an alkaline (basic) solution and hydrogen gas, which often ignites due to the
heat produced. Alkali metals include lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium and francium.
2Li + Cl2 2LiCl
2Na + Cl2 2NaCl
2K + Cl2 2KCl
2Na + H2O 2NaOH + H2
Alkaline earth metals are the Group II elements (and appear on the left end of the periodic table), and all react similar to all
metals except these are less reactive that Group I elements. These elements include beryllium, magnesium, calcium,
strontium, barium and radium.
Group IV elements are near the middle of the periodic table and begin with non-metals, then to semi-metals then to metals.
They include carbon, silicon, germanium, tin and lead. Carbon has many allotropes with various uses; silicon is found as
silicon dioxide and metal silicates (75% of the Earths crust) e.g. sand, clay, asbestos, quartz, gold, silver, glass; germanium is
used as a catalyst in fluorescent lights and some of its oxides are used in optical microscopes. Silicon and germanium are
semi-conductive and are therefore used in electronic components. Tin and lead are typical metals.
Halogens appear on the right end of the periodic table. Halogens are Group VII elements, and form -1 ions. They are never
found in pure form in nature, existing as salts including sea salt. They have coloured and poisonous vapours. They all form
molecules, each being made up of two atoms. As we move down the group, atoms get bigger and less reactive, with melting
and boiling points also increasing. The elements include fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and astatine.
Inert gases appear on the right end of the periodic table. Inert gases, also known as noble gases, are of Group VIII in the
periodic table. They are colourless gases, occurring naturally in the atmosphere. They are stable, and very rarely react, due
to the fact that all used electron shells are full so the atom is not trying to gain or lose any electrons. Helium is safe enough
to be used in balloons and airships. Atoms get bigger, denser and heavier as we go down the group. Therefore, balloons of
the noble gases get progressively heavier. Mass and density both increase. The noble gases include helium, neon, argon,
krypton and xenon.
(Use periodic table from Point 4 as reference for locations.)
12. Explain why members of a family of elements are similar.
Members of a group of elements are similar due to the fact that they have the same number of outer shell electrons,
meaning that they will react similarly to each other. This is because they will lose or gain electrons with the same force. So, for
example, halogens all give their electrons much easier than group 4 elements.
13. Examine the physical properties of elements and compounds.
The physical properties of a substance include its appearance, texture, colour, melting and boiling point, density and lustre
(whether shiny or dull after polishing). Generally, metals were hard, shiny when polished, had high melting points, boiling points and
densities. Non-metallic elements were soft, dull, had low melting points, boiling points and densities.

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14. Identify elements by the flame tests.

Solution
Compound
formula
Colour of flame
Metallic element
in solution
Distilled Water
Barium Chloride
Strontium Chloride
Copper Chloride
Sodium Chloride
Potassium Chloride
Lithium Chloride
Calcium Chloride
H2O
BaCl2
SrCl2
CuCl2
NaCl2
KCl2
LiCl2
CaCl2
No change
Apple green
Bright red to orange
Bright green or blue
Yellow or orange
Purple / pink
Magenta
Fiery red
Ba
Sr
Cu
Na
K
Li
Ca
Non-metallic
element in
solution
H
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
Note: Chloride compounds were used because when heated, chlorine does not produce its own colour, thus not interfering with the
colours or results of any flame tests.
15. Research the discovery of elements over time.
By 1808, John Dalton had provided a solid scientific basis for an atomic theory of matter, stating that:
All matter was composed of tiny particles called atoms.
Atoms could not be broken into smaller particles.
Atoms of the same element are alike.
Atoms join together in different rations.
We now know that Dalton wasnt completely correct, because it was shown to be possible to break down atoms into
protons, neutrons and electrons.
Dalton had benefited from the ideas and studies of many who came before him:
The Church had originally adopted Aristotles idea that matter was composed of the four elements: earth, air, fire and water.
However it opposed atomism and equated atoms with godlessness due to the original suggestion by Democritus that
there was no end to the universe since it had not been created by any outside power.
In 1649, Frenchman Gassendi suggested that atoms existed and moved dei gratia (as a gift of God), allowing the atomic view
to gain eventual acceptance by the Church.
Alchemists based their ideas on Aristotles four elements, and although they didnt succeed in their aim to transmute, or
change base metals into gold, they provided a lot of useful information about other materials composition and properties. French
chemist Laviosier (1743 1794) clearly established chemistry as a modern science, and also suggested that matter was composed of
elemental atoms. Towards the end of the eighteenth century, the list of known elements grew rapidly.
Alessandro Volta developed the electrochemical cell (battery), providing a continual source of electricity for experimental
use. It wasnt long before electrolysis was used to break up water into hydrogen and oxygen. The use of electricity significantly
improved the understanding of elements over the next few years. New quantitative ways of measuring elements were developed,
and newly discovered elements were studied and many scientists identified patterns between elements.
Ultimately, this led to the development of a periodic table by Mendeleev. The search for the missing predicted elements by
Mendeleev led to eventually all but a few elements with atomic number less than 92 being found. As a greater understanding of
atomic structure was developed, particularly knowledge about the nucleus and nuclear forces, it became obvious that the missing
elements would not exist naturally. In order to complete the missing gaps, humans have used nuclear reactions to artificially create,
or synthesise, the missing elements, including promethium (61) and technetium (43). The use of nuclear reactors and the explosion of
nuclear weapons have added the known elements. A number of new artificial (synthetic) elements have been created that have an
atomic number greater than 92, uranium. The table on the next page shows the order of the discovery of elements.

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Discovery Period
Elements in order of discovery
ancients
C, S, Au, Cu, Ag, Fe, Pb, Sn, Hg
alchemists
Sb, As, Zn, Bi, P
1735 1745
Co, Pt
1745 1755
Ni
1755 1765
None discovered
1765 1775
H, N, O, Cl, Mn, F
1775 1785
Mo, Te, W
1785 1795
U, Zr, Sr, Ti, Y
1795 1805
Cr, Be, V, Nb, Ta, Ce, Pb, Rh, Os, Ir
1805 1815
K, Na, Ba, Ca, Mg, B, I
1815 1825
Li, Cd, Se, Si
1825 1835
Al, Br, Th
1835 1845
La, Tb, Er, Ru
1845 1855
None discovered
1855 1865
Cs, Rb, Ti, In
1865 1875
None discovered
1875 1885
Ga, Yb, Sn, Sc, Ho, Tm
1885 1895
Pr, Nd, Gd, Dy, Ge, Ar
1895 1905
He, Eu, Kr, Ne, Xe, Po, Ra, Ac, Rn
1905 1915
Lu
1915 1925
Hf, Pa
1925 1935
Re
1935 1945
Tc, Fr, At, Np, Pu, Cm
1945 1955
Am, Pm, Bk, Cf, Ex, Fm
1955 1965
Md, No, Lr
1965 1999
Db, Rf, Sg, Bh, Hs, Mt, Uun, Uuu, Uub
16. Identify the allotropes of carbon.
Total number known

9
14
16
17
17
23
26
31
41
48
52
55
59
59
63
63
69
75
84
85
87
88
94
100
103
112
These are the main allotropes of carbon:

Amorphous carbon - black powder on top of burnt toast, charcoal and coal.
Diamond - hardest known natural substance. It does not conduct electricity. Over 80% are not gem-grade, but are used in
electric motors, and can also be used in dentist drills, glass, metals and crushed to make abrasives.
Graphite - soft solid which conducts electricity. It is slippery, and can be used as a lubricant, in batteries, brushes in electric
motors, mixed with clay for leads in pencils.
Science Half Yearly Notes: Topic 2 Chemical Reactions
1.
Recognise the signs of a chemical reaction.
One can say that a chemical reaction has occurred if at least one new substance has been formed. Atoms are not destroyed
or created in chemical reactions. They are merely rearranged. A chemical reaction has definitely occurred if one or more of the
following is observed:
2.
There is a permanent colour change.

A gas is given off.
Energy is produced or absorbed.
Compare physical and chemical changes.
A precipitate (solid) forms from a solution

One metal deposits or forms on another.
A physical change occurs when a substance changes, but no new substance is formed. Physical changes occur when that state
of a substance changes (e.g. melting, evaporation, freezing, condensing) or a substance is crushed, ground or cut into smaller pieces.
Some examples of physical changes include:
A plate is dropped and shatters.
Ice melts, or water boils.
Milo dissolves into hot milk.
Grass is mown.
Branches of a tree are mulched.

A metal knife is sharpened.
Finger nails are filed down.
Breakfast cereal goes soggy.
A chemical change, or chemical reaction, occurs whenever a new substance forms. Indications include a change in colour, the
production of heat or light or a drop in the temperature of the material.

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The following are examples of chemical change:
3.
Wood burns to form charcoal (carbon).

A green tomato ripens and turns red.
An egg is cooked to become a white and yellow solid.
Vegetable scraps in the compost bin decompose to
produce a rich soil.
Identify the products and reactants in a reaction.
A dead mouse stuck in the wall of a house begins to

smell awful.
A metal panel on a car rusts.
Fireworks explode.
Concrete hardens.
The substances present at the start of a reaction are called the reactants and the new substances formed are called the
products. We can write word equations to represent chemical reactions. These are written in the form:
A+BC+D
reactants products
The arrow shows the direction of the reaction and means react to form. Thus the chemical equation above reads
substances A and B react to form substances C and D. Chemical equations are useful because they provide a quick and easy way to
represent complex reactions.
For example, the reaction of magnesium and copper oxide produces copper and magnesium oxide. This can be written as:
magnesium + copper oxide copper + magnesium oxide
reactants products
Using chemical symbols, the reaction can be written as:
Mg + CuO Cu + MgO
reactants products
We can see from this that the reactants are magnesium (Mg) and copper oxide (CuO) and the products are copper (Cu) and
magnesium oxide (MgO). It can also be observed that the number of each type of atom stays the same on both sides of the equation.
This is because atoms are not destroyed or created in a chemical reaction: they are simply rearranged.
4.
Write word equations for chemical reactions.
To write a word equation, place the reactants on the left side, and place the products on the right side, and place an arrow in
between the reactants and products. This should result in such a format:
A+BC+D
reactants products
For example, the following is a word equation of the reaction of magnesium and copper oxide to form copper and
magnesium oxide.
magnesium + copper oxide copper + magnesium oxide
Note that all reactants and products are written in words, and not in their chemical symbols.
5.
Include the energy term in endothermic and exothermic reactions.
Many reactions produce or absorb energy, usually in the form of heat. For example, if you feel a test tube become colder in a
reaction, the reaction is absorbing energy and is thus endothermic. If the test tube becomes warmer, the reaction is releasing heat
energy to the surroundings and is thus exothermic.
Endothermic reactions: energy + reactants products (absorbs energy makes surroundings colder)
Exothermic reactions: reactants products + energy (releases energy makes surroundings warmer)
Heat is generated when fossil fuels such as coal and oil are built. These are exothermic reactions. The heat produced can be
converted into other forms of energy and then used to produce electricity in power stations, heat homes, make cars move, etc. The
burning of magnesium ribbon is an exothermic reaction that releases both heat and light energy. The burning of metals like
magnesium is used to produce the amazing effects in fireworks. The equation for this reaction is:
magnesium + oxygen magnesium oxide + energy
2Mg + O2 2MgO + energy
An example of an endothermic reaction is photosynthesis. The chlorophyll in plants absorbs energy from the Sun to make
this important reaction occur. The overall chemical equation for this reaction is:
carbon dioxide + water + energy glucose + oxygen
6CO2 + 6H2O + energy C6H12O6 + 6O2
6.
Identify different types of reactions such as precipitation, combustion, decomposition, exothermic / endothermic,
neutralisation, combination (synthesis) and displacement reactions.
a) Precipitation reactions
A solution is made up of a solute (a substance that dissolves) and a solvent (the liquid that the solute dissolves in). Solutions
are clear, and sometimes coloured. When two solutions are mixed, a precipitate may form. A precipitate is an insoluble substance (a
substance that does not dissolve) that forms when two clear solutions are mixed together. The precipitate is observed as cloudiness
or solid particles sinking to the bottom of the test tube.
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Precipitation reactions are chemical reactions that result in an insoluble solid (precipitate) being formed when two clear
solutions are mixed. These reactions can be written as:
soluble salt A + soluble salt B insoluble salt C (the precipitate) + soluble salt D
Note: Subscripts can be used in chemical reactions to show states of substances. (s) shows that it is a solid; (l) shows that it is a liquid;
(g) shows that it is a gas. (aq) is used to show aqueous solutions (these are substances that are dissolved in water).
A precipitate is a solid, insoluble substance and thus it has the subscript (s). For example, the word and chemical equations below
show the formation of silver chloride precipitate when solutions of the soluble salts silver nitrate and sodium chloride are mixed:
silver nitrate + sodium chloride silver chloride + sodium nitrate
AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) AgCl(s) + NaNO3 (aq)
The sodium and nitrate are left dissolved. Solubility rules help us work out which substance in the mixture is precipitating.
For example, it cannot be sodium nitrate because all sodium and nitrate salts are soluble. The table shows the solubility of common
inorganic compounds in water:
Negative ions (anions)
+
Positive ions (cations)
Compounds with solubility

Acetate CH3COO
All
All
All
Chloride Cl
Bromide Br
Iodide I
Hydroxide OH
Nitrate NO3
3Phosphate PO4
2Carbonate CO3
2Sulphate SO4
Sulphide S
2-
All
+
+
+
+
+
Alkali ions, Li , Na , K , Rb , Cs , Fr
+
Ammonium ion NH4
+
Hydrogen ion H (aq)
+
2+
2+
+
+
Ag , Pb , Hg , Cu , Tl
Soluble
Soluble
Soluble
Soluble
Low solubility
All others
+
2+
2+
2+
(aq), NH4 , Sr , Ba , Ra ,
+
Tl
All others
All
+
+
Alkali ions, H (aq), NH4
All others
2+
2+
2+
2+
2+
Ca , Sr , Ba , Pb , Ra
All others
+
+
2+
2+
2+
Alkali ions, H (aq), NH4 , Be , Mg , Ca ,
2+
2+
2+
Sr , Ba , Ra
All others
Soluble
Soluble
Alkali ions, H
Low solubility
Soluble
Soluble
Low solubility
Low solubility
Soluble
Soluble
Low solubility
b) Combustion reactions
A combustion reaction is simply burning a substance in oxygen. Thus O2 is always a reactant. The products will vary
depending on what substance is burnt. Examples of combustion reactions include:
propane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
C3H8 + O2 3CO2 + 4H2O
magnesium + oxygen magnesium oxide
2Mg + O2 2MgO
It can be seen that the combustion of magnesium is also an example of a combination reaction. Reactions can sometimes fall
into more than one general category. A combustion reaction also occurs when a bullet is fired. The combustion of the chemical
propellant in the bullet case produces a gas which expands and forces the bullet out of the barrel at great speed.
c)
Decomposition reactions
Chemical reactions do not always need two reactants sometimes, one is enough. A decomposition reaction involves one
single reactant which breaks down or decomposes to form two or more new substance. The general equation for such a reaction
would be:
XY X + Y
For example, light breaks down silver chloride to form two substances: silver and chlorine. Silver chloride is used to coat
photographic film, producing a dark image when light causes it to break down. Water can be broken down using electricity to
produce oxygen and hydrogen gas. The following equation shows this reaction, and two more examples are included.
water oxygen gas + hydrogen gas
2H2O (l) O2 (g) + 2H2 (g)
calcium carbonate calcium oxide + carbon dioxide
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
magnesium hydroxide magnesium oxide + water
Mg(OH)2 MgO + H2O

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d) Exothermic and endothermic reactions

Many reactions produce or absorb energy, usually in the form of heat. For example, if you feel a test tube become colder in a
reaction, the reaction is absorbing energy and is thus endothermic. If the test tube becomes warmer, the reaction is releasing heat
energy to the surroundings and is thus exothermic.
Endothermic reactions: energy + reactants products
Exothermic reactions: reactants products + energy
The following are examples of an exothermic reaction (burning magnesium ribbon) and endothermic reaction
(photosynthesis) respectively:
magnesium + oxygen magnesium oxide + energy
2Mg + O2 2MgO + energy
carbon dioxide + water + energy glucose + oxygen
6CO2 + 6H2O + energy C6H12O6 + 6O2
e)
Neutralisation reactions
Neutralisation reactions occur when an acid is added to a base, forming water and other substances. A base is anything that
can neutralise an acid, like metal hydroxides. These reactions can be written as:
acid + base salt + water
For example:
hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide sodium chloride + water
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
When the base used is a carbonate or a hydrogen carbonate, a third product, carbon dioxide, is observed as bubbles in the
solution. Neutralisation reactions are very common. Every time we brush our teeth, the toothpaste, which contains a base,
neutralises the damaging acids left on our teeth by bacteria. Farmers can reverse the effects of acid rain on soil by adding the base
calcium hydroxide. Indigestion caused by too much acid in the stomach can be relieved with antacids, which are just bases in solid or
liquid form.
The general reaction equation for an acid combining with a hydroxide is:
acid + hydroxide salt + water
Some examples of dilute acids reacting with dilute hydroxide solutions are:
hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide sodium chloride + water
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
nitric acid + lithium hydroxide lithium nitrate + water
HNO3 (aq) + LiOH (aq) LiNO3 (aq) + H2O (l)
The above acids react in the same way as if hydroxides were solids. The only difference is that the (aq) subscript next to the
hydroxide would be replaced by (s). The subscript (l) is always used for water to show it is a liquid.
The general reaction of an acid with an oxide is:
acid + oxide salt + water
Examples of dilute acids reacting with solid oxides are:
hydrochloric acid + calcium oxide calcium chloride + water
2HCl (aq) + CaO (s) CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)
sulphuric acid + lithium oxide lithium sulphate + water
H2SO4 (aq) + Li2O (s) Li2SO4 (aq) + H2O (l)
Like the last two neutralisation reactions, the reaction of an acid with a carbonate produces a salt and water, but it also
produces a third product: carbon dioxide. The reaction of an acid with a hydrogen carbonate produces that same three products:
acid + carbonate salt + water + carbon dioxide
acid + hydrogen carbonate salt + water + carbon dioxide
Examples are:
nitric acid + sodium carbonate sodium nitrate + water + carbon dioxide
2HNO3 (aq) + Na2CO3 (s) 2NaNO3 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
hydrochloric acid + ammonium carbonate ammonium chloride + water + carbon dioxide
2HCl (aq) + (NH4)2CO3 (s) 2NH4Cl (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
sulphuric acid + sodium hydrogen carbonate sodium sulphate + water + carbon dioxide
H2SO4 (aq) + 2NaHCO3 (s) Na2SO4 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
It is the carbon dioxide produced that often makes you burp after taking antacids. Baking powder is a mix of tartaric acid and
sodium hydrogen carbonate (bicarb soda). When water is added, they dissolve and mix. This produces that carbon dioxide bubbles
that make cakes rise. You can test for carbon dioxide presence by bubbling the gas through limewater. The limewater goes from clear
to milky if carbon dioxide is present because of the formation of a calcium carbonate precipitate. Another test is that carbon dioxide
will extinguish a lit match.
f)
Combination reactions
Combination reactions, or synthesis reactions, involve two or more substances combining to form one new substance. These
reactions have the general equation:
Page 9
X + Y XY
For example, carbon and oxygen can combine to form carbon dioxide:
carbon + oxygen carbon dioxide OR
C + O2 CO2
Note: O2 is used instead of O in the equation because the oxygen in the air around us exists as diatomic molecules. Diatomic means
that two oxygen atoms bond together to form a stable molecule.
g) Displacement reactions
When one metal deposits or settles on top of another metal, the reaction is known as a displacement reaction. Different
metals have different degrees of reactivity. Some metals will give away their outer shell electrons easily and are thus very reactive.
The Group I elements (alkali metals) are the most reactive metals. Other metals, like gold and silver, are very unreactive. This means
they dont give electrons as easily. A basic rule is that a more reactive metal will displace a less reactive metal in solution. If you
have a solution of a particular metal salt, and you place a solid piece of a more reactive metal in the solution, a reaction will take
place. The electrons from the more reactive metal will be transferred to in the ions of the less reactive metal, which will be comes
solid and deposit on the surface of the more reactive metal. For example, when a piece of zinc is placed in a solution of copper
sulphate, the zinc ions form when zinc atoms give up electrons to copper ions and a coating of solid copper forms on the surface of
the zinc as copper ions accept electrons to become copper atoms.
Displacement reactions can be used to coat metals. For instance, if you wanted to coat a piece of zinc with copper, you could
simply dip it into a solution of copper sulphate. The copper ions would accept electrons from the zinc atoms on the surface, because
copper is less reactive than zinc. The reaction would be written as follows:
zinc + copper sulphate zinc sulphate + copper
Zn(s) + CuSO4 (aq) ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)
This would, however, not create a very even coating. Industrial plating is carried out quite differently. Electroplating is the
name for the process that causes metal atoms to be deposited on the surface of a substance that acts as a conductor. By using
electricity, non-spontaneous reactions can be made to produce decorative or useful surfaces.
h) Acid-metal reactions
When an acid reacts with a metal, hydrogen has and a salt are produced. A salt is an ionic compound containing the ions left
over after reaction. The general reaction can be written as:
acid + metal salt + hydrogen
An example would be:
hydrochloric acid + magnesium magnesium chloride + hydrogen
2HCl (aq) + Mg (s) MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Most metals will react with acids. Some, like the Group I metals, react violently, while other metals, like lead, need hotter or
more concentrated acid solutions to make them react. The table on the next page shows the reactions between some acids and
metals.
Acid
Metal
Reaction equation
Salt produced
Nitric acid
Calcium
2HNO3 (aq) + Ca (s) H2 (g) + Ca(NO3)2 (aq)
Calcium nitrate
Sulphuric acid
Magnesium
H2SO4 (aq) + Mg (s) H2 (g) + MgSO4 (aq)
Magnesium sulphate
Hydrochloric acid
Iron
2HCl (aq) + Fe (s) FeCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Iron (II) chloride (ferrous chloride)*
2+
3+
*Ferrous indicates an iron compound with a +2 valency, i.e. Fe , while ferric indicates an iron compound with a +3 valency, i.e. Fe .
It is much more common to see the valency of an iron compound to be indicated in bracketed roman numerals, i.e. iron (II) chloride,
instead of ferrous or ferric, i.e. ferrous chloride.
The presence of hydrogen gas given off can be tested by using the pop test. A spark in the presence of H 2 causes a popping
sound as the gas combines with the O2 in air to form water.
Note: In the exam, just write iron (ll) instead of ferrous, i.e. iron (II) oxide, not ferrous oxide.
In a nutshell:
a. Precipitation results in an insoluble solid being formed when two clear solutions are mixed
Soluble salt A + soluble salt B insoluble salt C (the precipitate) + soluble salt D
e.g. silver nitrate + sodium chloride silver chloride + sodium nitrate
b. Neutralisation occurs when an acid is added to a base, forming water and other substances.
Acid + base water + salt (ion)
e.g. hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide sodium chloride + water
c. Combustion simply burning a substance in oxygen (i.e. O is always a reactant)
Oxygen + Substance substance(s)
e.g. magnesium + oxygen Magnesium oxide
d. Displacement when one metal deposits on another.
A more reactive metal will displace a less reactive metal in a solution.
e.g. zinc + copper sulphate zinc sulphate + copper

Page 10
e.
Decomposition one substance breaks down to form two or more new substances.
XY X + Y
e.g. magnesium hydroxide magnesium oxide + water
f. Endothermic / exothermic where energy is absorbed (endothermic) or released (exothermic)
Endothermic: energy + reactants products
Exothermic: reactants energy + products
g. Combination (synthesis) when two or more substances form one new substance
X + Y XY
e.g. carbon + oxygen carbon dioxide
7. Conduct the different types of reactions listed in 6.
The following experiment can be used to prepare the compound carbon dioxide and also show a precipitation reaction.
Making a compound
Aim: To prepare the compound carbon dioxide
Hypothesis: The reaction of the marble chips (calcium carbonate) and hydrochloric acid will produce water and carbon dioxide, and
the limewater will turn milky in the presence of carbon dioxide.
Equipment: 2 test tubes, test tube rack, rubber tubing, limewater, marble chips, 2M hydrochloric acid, safety glasses, rubber stopper
Method:
1. The apparatus was set up as follows:
2. Marble chips were added to a test tube and covered with 2cm of hydrochloric acid.
3. The rubber stopper was placed immediately and the rubber tubing was passed into a test tube filled with limewater.
Results: The limewater turned milky.
Discussion:
Due to the reaction between the hydrochloric acid and marble chips (calcium carbonate), the carbon dioxide was
produced. The presence of carbon dioxide caused a precipitation reaction which caused the limewater to turn milky. This is also why
the limewater turned milky when exhaled into using a straw. The exhaled carbon dioxide caused the limewater to turn milky. The
equation for the reaction between hydrochloric acid and the marble chips would be:
hydrochloric acid + calcium carbonate (marble chips) carbon dioxide + water + calcium chloride
2HCl (aq) + CaCO3 (s) CO2 (g) + H2O (l) + CaCl2 (aq)
The equation for the reaction between limewater and carbon dioxide would be:
carbon dioxide + calcium hydroxide (limewater) calcium carbonate + water
CO2 (g) + Ca(OH)2 (aq) CaCO3 (s) + H2O (l)
Some errors which occurred were that too much limewater was used, and thus the reaction took prolonged amounts of
time. Besides this, there was minimal error.
Conclusion:
A carbon dioxide compound was formed, and its presence was proved through the limewater turning milky.
Electroplating
Aim: To investigate the displacement reaction associated with electroplating
Equipment: 6V DC power source, 250mL beaker, 2 insulated wires with crocodile clips on one end, 1 very thing 7 x 4 cm strip of
copper metal (coiled cooper wire may also be used), 1 stainless steel electrode, sandpaper, tongs, washbottle of distilled water, 1M
zinc sulphate solution, 2M nitric acid, lab coat, safety glasses, gloves.
Method:
1. The copper was cleaned with sandpaper
2. The copper was dipped in acid and rinsed with distilled water.
3. The copper was attached to the negative terminal of the power source and it was rested in the beaker.
4. 150mL of 1M zinc sulphate was put in the beaker.
5. The stainless steel electrode was attached to the positive power terminal. It was not allowed to touch the copper terminal.
6. The power was turned on for about 3 minutes.
7. The copper was removed and rinsed with distilled water.

Page 11
Acids and metals

Aim: To observe the reaction of an acid with a metal
Equipment: 3 test tubes with stoppers, test-tube rack, matches, 100mL beaker, small pieces of aluminium, magnesium, zinc, iron and
tin, 0.1M solutions of hydrochloric, sulphuric and acetic acid, lab coat, safety glasses
Method:
1. 2 cm of hydrochloric was poured into each test tube.
2. One of the metals was added to the first test tube. If an obvious reaction was observed, a stopper was placed on the test tube for
about 15 seconds. A match was lit, and as the stopper was taken off, it was held at the mouth of the test tube.
3. Step 2 was repeated for the other metals, except the gas test wasnt repeated for each reaction.
4. Steps 1-3 were repeated for each of the other acids.
Results:
Hydrochloric acid
Sulphuric acid
Acetic acid
Aluminium
There was no reaction.
Magnesium
Iron
There was a reaction and popping

noise when the lit match was held.
There was a reaction but there was
no popping noise.
Tin
Zinc


Chemical reactions
Aim: To observe changes during chemical reactions
Equipment: Solid copper carbonate, magnesium, dilute nitric acid, splint, matches, Bunsen burner, test-tube holder, test-tube rack,
dilute sodium hydroxide, thermometer, dilute barium nitrate, dilute sodium sulphate, dilute copper sulphate, solid zinc, 5 test tubes
(1 with stopper), lab coat, safety glasses
Note: 1.0M is an appropriate concentration for these solutions, but anything between 1.0M and 2.0M would be suitable.
Method:
1. Carefully heat a small amount of copper carbonate in a test tube. Ensure that the test tube is pointed away from people. Stop as
soon as you see a colour change. Record your observations.
2. Add the small piece of magnesium to 2 cm of nitric acid in a test tube. Stopper the tube to collect some gas. Gave your lab partner
light a splint and place it near the mouth of the test tube.
3. Record the temperature of 2 cm of the nitric acid solution. Add 2 cm of sodium hydroxide solution and record the new
temperature.
4. Place a small piece of zinc into 2 cm of dilute copper sulphate solution. Record your observations in the table below.
Results:
Reaction Number
Reactants
Observation
Conclusion
1
Copper carbonate and heat
Turns black and burns from powder
They react to form carbon dioxide and
to liquid
copper oxide.
2
Magnesium and nitric acid
Bubbles forming and rising to top
Hydrogen gas is produced
3
Nitric acid and sodium
The temperature is 30C (around
There is little to no temperature change.
hydroxide
room temperature)
4
Zinc and dilute copper
Zinc turned brown and bubbles were
Displacement reaction where copper
sulphate solution
produced
and zinc sulphate are produced
Discussion:
Copper carbonate: CuCO3
Sodium sulphate: Na2SO4
Nitric acid: HNO3
Sodium hydroxide: NaOH
Magnesium: Mg
Zinc: Zn
Barium nitrate: Ba(NO3)2
Copper sulphate: CuSO4
The reaction between nitric acid and magnesium is an acid-metal reaction that produces hydrogen gas and a salt
(magnesium nitrate). In the reaction between zinc and dilute copper sulphate solution, if zinc was replaced with silver, nothing would
happen. This is due to the fact that silver is less reactive than copper and a displacement reactions would not occur.
The following are equations for reactions related to this experiment:
copper carbonate + heat copper oxide + carbon dioxide
barium nitrate + sodium sulphate barium sulphate +
CuCO3 CuO + CO2
sodium nitrate
nitric acid + magnesium hydrogen + magnesium nitrate
Ba(NO3)2 + Na2SO4 BaSO4 + 2NaNO3
2HNO3 + Mg H2 + Mg(NO3)2
zinc + copper sulphate copper + zinc sulphate
nitric acid + sodium hydroxide water + sodium nitrate
Zn + CuSO4 Cu + ZnSO4
HNO3 + NaOH H2O + NaNO3
Page 12
Conclusion:
Changes during chemical reactions were successfully observed and reaction equations and conclusions were made about the results
of the reactions.
8.
Describe each of the reactions listed in 5.
See point 5 and 6.

9.
Give an example of each of the reactions listed in 5.
See point 5 and 6.

10. Differentiate between an atom and an ion.
If an atom changes the number of electrons it has by gaining or losing outer-shell electrons, it becomes electrically charged
and we call it an ion. If an atom loses electrons, it becomes a positive ion, while if it gains electrons, it becomes a negative ion.
Meanwhile, atoms have the same number of protons and electrons, and are thus electrically neutral.
11. Explain how a negative and positive ion forms.
An ion forms when an atom loses or gains electrons in a chemical reaction. Whether an atom loses or gains electrons
depends on the number of electrons and spaces in the atoms outer shell. If the atom has more atoms than spaces, it would be easier
to gain electrons than to give away electrons. If the atom has more spaces than atoms, it would be easier to lose electrons than to
gain electrons. Thus, atoms with more atoms than spaces in their outer electron shells will gain electrons and become negative ions
(anions), and atoms with more spaces than atoms in their outer electron shells will lose electrons and become positive ions. When
ions come together to form compounds, they combine in a ratio that gives the compound a total charge of zero. There must be
enough negative charges to balance out the positive charges and vice versa. Some ions are made up of more than one type of atom
and are called polyatomic ions or radicals. These ions have special names. The table below shows some of the more common ones.
Ion name
Formula
Hydroxide
OH
2Sulphate
SO4
2Carbonate
CO3
Hydrogen carbonate
HCO3
+
Ammonium
NH4
Nitrate
NO3
12. Write the formula of simple ionic compounds using the periodic table.
The two ions must form in such a way that when they combine, the compound has an overall charge of zero. For example,
sodium and chloride ions combine in a 1:1 ratio because sodium ions have a +1 charge and chloride ions have a -1 charge. Thus, one
of each ion joins together to give a compound with a total charge of zero. Its chemical formula is NaCl and is called sodium chloride.
Metals in Group I elements (alkali metals) always form ions with a +1 charge; metals in Group II (alkaline earth metals) always form
ions with a +2 charge; metals in Group III always form ions with a +3 charge; Group IV metals often have a +4 charge but can also
have a charge of +2 (assume +2 charge unless told otherwise). Transition metals have a variety of ionic charges, but most form ions
+
with a +2 charge. If a metal has more than one common ion, the charge it takes is shown with Roman numerals (e.g. copper(I) Cu ,
2+
copper(II) Cu ). The metals in Group V and VI also have charges that can vary.
Elements in Group VII (halogens) always form ions with a -1 charge; elements in Group VI always form ions with a -2 charge;
Group V elements always form -3 charge. Non-metal elements in Group IV (carbon and silicon) may form -4 ions. Elements in Group
VIII (noble gases) either have full outer electron shells or are happy with having 8 electrons in their outer shells. Thus, they are
extremely stable and rarely form ions.
nd
Remember: When writing the formula of an ion, take the valency of the 2 ion and put it in the subscript for the first and vice-versa.
+
2So, for example, Cu and O becomes CuO.
13. Explain how ionic compounds form.
Ions are formed when atoms lose or gain electrons in order to gain a perfect arrangement of a full outer electron shell. Ionic
compounds form when positive and negative ions attract each other and are linked together by electrostatic attraction the
attraction between opposite charges. These strong links are called ionic bonds. Ionic compounds are also called salts. In almost all
cases the positive ion is a metal. Ionic compounds are always of neutral charge when they form.

Page 13
The following table shows ions and ionic compound formulae.

Negative ion and electron configuration
Formula
2+
Mg (2, 8)
Cl (2, 8, 8)
MgCl2
+
2Na (2, 8)
O (2, 8)
Na2O
3+
2Al (2, 8)
S (2, 8, 8)
Al2S3
2+
3Ca (2, 8)
N (2,8)
Ca3N2
14. Explain how covalent compounds form.
Positive ion and electron configuration
Name
magnesium chloride
sodium oxide
aluminium sulphide
calcium nitride
Covalent compounds form when atoms bond by sharing outer-shell electrons. They form when non-metals come together.
In these bonds, no electrons are transferred, unlike in ionic compounds. Instead, atoms share pairs of electrons in order to gain a
noble gas electron configuration. These links are called covalent bonds. The following covalent compounds show atoms sharing
electrons to gain noble gas electronic configurations. The following table shows prefixes for the number of atoms in a covalent
compound.
Number of atoms Prefix
1
no prefix or mono2
di3
tri4
tetra5
pent6
hex7
hept8
oct9
non10
dec15. Name covalent compounds.
Some covalent compounds include:
CO2 carbon dioxide
CO carbon monoxide
N2O5 dinitrogen pentoxide
CCl4 carbon tetrachloride
NH3 nitrogen trihydride (commonly known as ammonia)
CH4 carbon tetrahydride (commonly known as methane)
+
Some compounds contain both ionic and covalent bonding. The ammonium ion NH 4 is held together by covalent bonding
(the sharing of electrons). However, when it joins to a negative ion like Cl , the chloride ion, it forms an ionic bond.
16. Define an acid and list its common properties.
Acids contain the element hydrogen combined with other non-metal elements, e.g. hydrochloric acid (HCl). When an acid
is placed in water, the hydrogen breaks away from the other elements. They have a pH below 7. In strong acids, hydrogen breaks
away very easily. They are also corrosive and will destroy living tissue and eat through some surfaces. Some examples of strong acids
are hydrochloric acid (HCl), nitric acid (HNO3) and sulphuric acid (H2SO4). In weak acids, however, very little hydrogen breaks away,
with examples including vinegar or acetic acid (CH3COOH) and citric acid (C6H8O7). Acids can be dilute or concentrated. In dilute acid
solutions, there are very few acid particles (solute) in a large amount of water (solvent), while in concentrated solutions, there are
many acid particles dissolved in the solvent. Concentrated solutions are very dangerous, while dilute solutions may be relatively
harmless.
Acids that we eat and drink, like citric acid in lemon and sherbet and lactic acid in yoghurt are weak and dilute, but still
strong enough to affect sensitive tissues, like lemon juice on a cut. The following table shows the various uses of acids:
Acid
Common name
Common use
Acetylsalicylic acid
Aspirin
Pain reliever
Benzoic acid
Preservatives in foods
Sorbic acid
Preservatives in foods
Ascorbic acid
Vitamin C
Vitamin supplement, antioxidant
Sulphuric acid
Battery acid
Car batteries, manufacturing fertilisers
4-chloro-2-methylphenoxyacetic acid
MCPA
Herbicide
Hydrochloric acid
Spirit of salts
Brick cleaners, cleaning metals
Acetic acid
Vinegar
Flavour and preserving food
Some of the common properties of an acid include the fact that they have a sour taste, they turn blue litmus red, and they
conduct electricity in aqueous (water) solution.
Page 14
17. Define a base and list its common properties.

Bases can be thought of as the chemical opposite of acids, reacting with acids to produce water and other substances
through a reaction called neutralisation. Any reaction of an acid and a base is called neutralisation. Strong bases, likewise to strong
acids, attack living tissue and cause serious burns. They react differently to skin than acids do, so while strong acids are corrosive, we
say strong bases are caustic. Bases that dissolve in water are called alkalis. Bases may also be weak, such as ammonia used for
cleaning. Many household cleaners contain bases because they are excellent as dissolving oil and grease. Oven cleaners usually
contain sodium hydroxide (NaOH), a strong base, because it reacts with oils to form soap, which washes away easily. Bases include
ionic compounds like hydroxides, oxides, carbonates and hydrogen carbonates. Some properties of bases include the fact that bases
taste bitter, have a soapy feel and turn red litmus blue. The following table shows some bases and their uses:
Base
Common name
Common use
Sodium hydroxide
Caustic soda
Making soaps, cleaning ovens
Calcium hydroxide
Slaked lime
Reducing acidity in soil
Ammonium hydroxide
Cleaning ammonia
Cleaning products
Sodium hydrogen carbonate
Baking soda, bicarbonate of soda
Cooking
Sodium carbonate
Washing soda, soda ash
Washing powders
18. Use litmus and universal indicator to determine acidic levels.
Litmus paper turns red in acidic solutions and blue in alkaline solutions and thus only gives a broad range of possible pH
values. It can only differentiate between acids and bases. Universal indicator is much more precise. It can undergo many colour
changes and give us a good estimation of the pH of a solution.
19. Prepare and use a natural indicator.

The following experiment involves preparing and using a natural indicator.
Natural indicators
Aim: To prepare and use a natural indicator
Equipment: 0.1M hydrochloric acid, 0.1M sodium hydroxide, distilled water, pink or red flower petals, beetroot juice, tea bag, 3 x
100mL beakers, filter paper cut into strips, Bunsen burner, heat mat, tripod, gauze, matches, 3 test tubes, test-tube rack, Pasteur
pipettes, lab coat, safety glasses
Method:
1. Gently boil 50 mL of water in a beaker combined with the flower petals until the water becomes strongly coloured, then remove
from heat.
2. Place 20 mL of beetroot juice in another beaker.
3. Boil 50 mL of water in another beaker and add a tea bag.
4. Using tongs, dip a strip of filter paper into each solution and lay them on paper towel to dry.
5. Place 2 cm of hydrochloric acid in a test tube, 2 cm of sodium hydroxide in a second test tube and 2 cm of distilled water in a third
test tube.
6. Add about 10 drops of flower-petal water to each and record the colour of each solution.
7. Clean the test tubes and repeat steps 5 and 6, first using beetroot juice, then tea.
8. Carefully dry the freshly made indicator paper over a Bunsen burner flame, being careful not to burn it.
9. When dry, put a drop of acid on one end of each piece of paper, and a drop of base on the other end. Allow them to dry.
Results, Discussion, Conclusion:
The previous experiment was not conducted in class, and thus these could not be completed.

Page 15
20. Write the simple formulae of acids, bases and salts.

Acids include hydrochloric acid (HCl), sulphuric acid (H2SO4), nitric acid (HNO3). Bases include sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and
calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Salts include sodium chloride (NaCl), calcium oxide (CaO), sodium nitrate (NaNO 3) and magnesium oxide
(MgO).
Other acids:
aspirin / acetylsalicylic acid: C9H8O4
benzoic acid: C7H6O2
sorbic acid: C6H8O2
vitamin C / ascorbic acid: C6H8O6
MCPA / 4-chloro-2-methylphenoxyacetic acid: C9H9ClO3
vinegar / ethanoic (acetic) acid: C2H4O2
Other bases:
slaked lime / calcium hydroxide: Ca(OH)2
cleaning ammonia / ammonium hydroxide: NH4OH
baking soda (bicarbonate of soda) / sodium hydrogen carbonate: NaHCO 3
washing soda (soda ash) / sodium carbonate: Na2CO3
Other salts:
sodium sulphate: Na2SO4
aluminium sulphate: Al2(SO4)3
Science Half Yearly Notes: Topic 9 Simple Machine Technology
1.
Describe qualitatively the relationship between force, mass and acceleration.
Newtons Second Law states that something will happen if a force is applied: the object will accelerate and the acceleration
will depend on the mass of an object. Acceleration applies to any speed change in velocity. This may be a change in speed or
direction. All acceleration requires a force. A force is a push, pull or twist that causes an object to either:
increase its speed (accelerate)
decrease its speed (decelerate)
change its direction
change its shape
If any of these occur, then a force has caused it. Mass is the amount of matter in an object. Kilograms are a unit of mass.
Force, mass and acceleration are related in such a way that force is equal to mass multiplied by acceleration. This also means that
mass is equivalent to force divided by acceleration and acceleration is equal to force divided by mass.
2.
Understand the concept of work as force x distance in direction force acts.
The word work is used in many different ways: hard work, homework and a lot of work. Scientists mean something
different to these everyday expressions when they refer to the word work. To understand how simple technologies and machines
make a job easier, we need to understand the scientific meaning of work. Scientifically, work is the energy needed to move
something over a certain distance. Like all energy, work is measured in joules (J).
work = effort force x distance (W = Fd)
where effort force refers to what is needed to get the job done and distance referring to how far we need to move to do the job. For
example, if we assume a job takes 12 joules to do, we could do the job in a number of ways:
Distance we need to move to do the job (m)
Effort force needed to do the job (N)
Energy needed to do the job (J)
Proof that this will do the job
12
12
1
12 x 1 = 12
12
6
2
6 x 2 = 12
12
4
3
4 x 3 = 12
12
3
4
3 x 4 = 12
12
2
6
2 x 6 = 12
12
1
12
1 x 12 = 12
If the distance we move is greater, the effort we need to put in is less. All simple technologies use this fact to make them
effective.

Page 16
3.
Identify that simple machines make tasks easier or more convenient.
Simple machines make tasks easier or more convenient.

4.
Describe a machine as a device which changes the size and/or direction of a force, thus making work easier to perform.
A machine is a device which changes the size and / or direction of a force, thus making work easier to perform.
5.
Identify some advantages of levers, pulleys, gears and inclined planes.
Levers
Advantages of levers include the fact that they are force multipliers: we put in a small effort and the lever system multiplies
it so that we can lift much heavier loads. Levers reduce the effort needed to lift a load. The disadvantage is distance: the more we
wish to reduce effort, the further we need to move the lever.
Pulleys
Advantages of pulleys include the fact that adding more pulleys can significantly decrease the effort needed to do a certain
job. A single pulley makes the job of lifting an object easier but only because it changes the direction of the effort force. You still need
to put in the same effort that you would if you were lifting the object. In fact, you may need to put in more effort, due to the fact that
you need to overcome the load and some friction in the pulley.
Bigger loads can be lifted with little effort if a system of two or more pulleys is strung together. The pulleys now become
force multipliers: we put in an effort and the pulley multiplies it, so we can lift heavier loads. Unfortunately, a disadvantage is that
friction once again makes us work harder, by reducing the efficiency of the pulley system.
Inclined planes (ramps, wedges and screws)
Inclined planes are made up of ramps, wedges and screws. It reduces the effort needed to move an object by increasing the
distance that the object will be moved. For inclined planes, the mechanical advantage of an object is:
Mechanical advantage = load / effort
A ramp is simply a machine that helps you avoid lifting an object vertically by letting you roll it or push it up a slope. A wedge
is a moving ramp. It moves through another object, pushing it apart. Screws, nuts and bolts are curved ramps. Again, by increasing
the distance the load is moving, the effort required is less. A disadvantage of inclined planes is the friction that occurs from pushing
the object reduces the efficiency.
Gears
In science, the turning effect of a force on an object is called torque. It is calculated by multiplying the applied force by its
perpendicular distance from the turning, and measured in newton metres. Gears can be used to change speed, torque or the
direction of rotation. A gear is a wheel with identical teeth around its edge. If the axle turns it, it is called the driving gear. If the teeth
of another gear (called the driven gear) mesh with the driving it too will turn, but in the opposite direction. The speed and torque of
the driven gear depends on its size compared to the driving gear, as shown in the diagram.
6. Give examples of machines from antiquity and describe the principle(s) upon which they operated.
The Archimedes screw is an invention of Archimedes that is still in use today. It was a device originally used to bail out the
hulls of warships but is now commonly used to raise water from dams and rivers in the Middle East. The returning boomerang that
we commonly think of as being for recreation rather than hunting originated from specially shaped sticks used for hunting. Several
forms of boomerang-like throwing sticks were used by different indigenous tribes. These throwing sticks were carefully shaped
according to the purpose they were going to serve and the prey they were to be used to hunt. It is the different curvature of the
surfaces, and the shape of the boomerang, that give rise to the different flight paths they follow when thrown. One surface is usually
flat, while the other is curved into the shape of an air foil (just like a wing). This is why there are right-handed and left-handed
boomerangs, and why boomerangs can hover for some time in the air. The flight of a returning boomerang involves some complex
physics created by the combination of lift created by the wing-like surfaces moving through the air, and the gyroscopic forces
created by the rapidly rotating boomerang (just like a spinning top).
7. Perform first hand investigations into the principles of operation of levers, inclined planes and pulleys.
The following experiments are first hand investigations into the principles of operation of levers, inclined planes and pulleys.
The seesaw
Aim: To investigate the seesaw as a lever
Equipment: 7 small masses (such as 5 cent coins), ruler, a fulcrum or pivot (a pencil is ideal), an elastic band
Method:
1. Set up a seesaw as shown below:

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2. Use the elastic band to hold the ruler in place on the pencil.
3. Place four of the small masses on the left side of the ruler and another four on the right and arrange them until the seesaw is
balanced.
4. In the table, record the distance of each pile of masses from the pencil fulcrum. Repeat with two masses on the left and three on
the right.
5. Repeat for all the other masses shown.
Results, Discussion & Conclusion:
The previous experiment was not conducted in class,
and thus these could not be completed.
The following is the results table:
Ramps
Aim: To investigate the relationship between the slope of a ramp and effort
Equipment: Spring balance, ramp, dynamics cart and wooden block, small
masses, sticky tape, books, protractor
Method:
1. Make a pile of textbooks on your desk about 10 cm high.
2. Weigh the dynamics cart and the block of wood with a spring balance. Tape
masses on them until both are about the same weight. Record their new
weights.
3. Slowly lift the cart vertically up until it reaches the top of the stack. Record the
effort required from the spring balance.
4. Repeat with the block.
5. Now place the ramp on the books so that its angle with the desk is very small.
6. Measure the angle with a protractor and measure the distance along the ramp from the bottom to the top of the books. Record it.
7. Drag the cart up the slope with the spring balance until it reaches the top of the books once more. Record the effort needed and
then repeat with the block.
8. Try three different angles. You might need to overhang the books to do so. Take angle and effort measurements each time for both
the cart and the block.
Results:
Angle
Distance along ramp
Vertical height
Effort (N)
MA = load / effort
30
50 m
25 m
20 N
40 N / 20 N = 2
15
50 m
13 m
10 N
40 N / 10 N = 4
Weight
40 N
80 N
Effort
20 N
40 N
MA = load / effort
2
2
Discussion:
In this experiment, there were a few errors that could have occurred. For example, the accuracy of the angle inclined in the ramp,
instrument and human error. The inaccuracy of the angle would affect the results of the effort used when pulling it up the ramp. Also,
the measurement of the spring balance wouldnt be exact. The mass would hence be affected. Therefore, overall, the mechanical
advantage would have been slightly incorrect.
MA = load / effort = length of ramp / vertical height = 1 / sin or cosec
From the results, we can deduce that as the angle of the ram decreases, the mechanical advantage increases. This is because the
length of the ramp is increased and as we know, the sacrifice of increased distance is compensated by less effort. The mass does not
affect the mechanical advantage because the effort is compensated for it, as long as the ramp stays at the same angle. Mechanical
advantage varies depending on the load and effort. The higher the
mechanical advantage, the better and more effective the machine is.
Conclusion: As the angle decreases, the mechanical advantage increases
as the effort needed decreases.
Fixed and moveable pulleys
Aim: To investigate the mechanical advantage of various pulley
configurations
Equipment: 100g mass, spring balance, retort stand, strong cotton
thread
Method:
1. Use a spring balance to measure the effort force needed to hold a
100g mass in each of the situations shown below.

Page 18
2. Record your readings.

3. Now use the fixed pulley and moveable pulley to gently lift the 100g mass and observe the spring balance readings.
Results, Discussion & Conclusion:
The previous experiment was not conducted in class, and thus these could not be completed.
The following is the results table:
8.
Explain the principles of operation of levers (class 1, class 2, class 3), inclined planes (screws, nuts and bolts, ramps,
wedges) and pulleys (single, double, block and tackle).
Levers
A lever can be any solid object that is made to turn round a pivot or fulcrum. A load is placed somewhere along the lever and
an effort causes the turning. Generally, levers are force multipliers: we put in a small effort and the lever system multiples it so that
we can lift much heavier loads. As with ramps, levers reduce the effort needed to lift a load. Class 1 levers (or first order levers) have
the load at one end, the effort force at the other and the fulcrum somewhere in between. Class 2 levers (or second order levers) have
the fulcrum at one end, the effort at the other and the load somewhere in between. Class 3 levers (or third order levers) are not used
to decrease the required effort. They are speed multipliers, and they get the load (usually small) to move at an increased speed. They
have a fulcrum on one end, the load at the other end, and effort somewhere in between.
Inclined planes
A screw is like a wedge in that it is also a ramp, this time spiralling around a metal
cylinder. Screws also penetrate material such as solids, liquids and gas (electric fan). Try to
hammer a wood screw into a piece of timber and you wouldnt get very far, because it would
take an extremely large force to do so. If the screw is turned, the timber is moved along the
spiral ramp. Because of the large distance, a smaller force is required although a lot of turning
must be done. A bolt and its nut work in the same way, although in this case, the nut is wound
down the screw of the bolt.
A ramp (sometimes called an inclined plane) is one of the oldest and simplest technologies. It is used when we need to get a
heavy object up to a higher level. If you want to lift a load, you need to do a certain amount of work regardless of how you go about
it. The work will depend on the weight of the object and the height you lift it, not on how you do it. A wedge is simply an inclined
plane that moves through another object, forcing apart or splitting the object as it does so.
Pulleys
A pulley is simply a wheel with a grooved edge where a string, rope or chain can run. A single pulley makes the job of lifting
an object easier but only because it changes the direction of the effort force. You still need to put in the same effort that you would if
you were lifting the object. In fact, you may need to put in more effort, due to the fact that you need to overcome the load and some
friction in the pulley. Friction always makes us work harder, by reducing the effectiveness or efficiency of machines. Bigger loads can
be lifted with little effort if a system of two or more pulleys is strung together. The pulleys now become force multipliers: we put in
an effort and the pulley multiplies it, so we can lift heavier loads. A double pulley system halves the effort required. Double the load
can be lifted, but the distance we need to pull the rope is also doubled. A multiple pulley system is often called a block and tackle or
sometimes a chain hoist. The effort needed gets less as more pulleys are added to the system, because this adds to the distance the
rope needs to be pulled. The mechanical advantage is equal to the number of pulleys used. Unfortunately, a disadvantage is that
friction once again makes us work harder, by reducing the efficiency of the pulley system.

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9. Distinguish between force multipliers and speed multipliers.

A force multiplier increases the effort force and the mechanical advantage is larger, which means it is easier to move a large
load with less effort. A speed multiplier does not make it easier to move, but makes the load move through a distance larger than the
effort required.
10. Explain the concepts of MA, VR and efficiency.
Mechanical advantage measures how effective the technology or machine is, and can be calculated by dividing the load you
want to move by the effort you need to put in.
Mechanical advantage = load / effort = distance of effort from fulcrum / distance of load from fulcrum
Velocity ratio is calculated by dividing the driver gear by the driven gear. The driver gear or pulley is the one connected to
the power, e.g. the pedals on a bicycle or the motor. VR = speed of driver gear / speed of driven gear.
Multiply the speed of the driver gear by the velocity ratio to calculate the speed of the driven gear.
Efficiency is how well a machine works, or how effective it is. Friction decreases the efficiency of effectiveness of a machine.
It is usually calculated as a percentage of the output to the input.
11. Examine the costs and benefits of friction in a modern machine. (e.g. car)
Used to help us travel fast overseas, the first designs of aeroplanes were by
Leonardo Da Vinci. All flying machines in history have used similar technologies: gears and
pulleys to turn the propellers and levels to move the flaps on the wings. However two
other technologies were required. A flying machine needs to be light, and so in the early
days materials used included light wood and bamboo.
Nowadays, scientists are developing materials that though expensive, are lighter
and stronger, like titanium. Wings also need a special curved wedge shape to help give the aircraft the lift to take off. An aircraft has
4 important forces acting on it: lift, drag, thrust weight. Aeroplanes are streamlined so as to reduce drag, which is caused by the
friction created by air sliding the aircraft and slows it down. Friction in cars means that more fuel is needed in cars and is a huge
burden to car manufacturers as well as users. However, friction is necessary to start and stop a car.
12. Describe the concept of torque.
In science, the turning effect of a force on an object is called torque.
13. Explain how winged aircraft fly.
A winged aircraft is able to take off when its lift is greater than its weight. When the two forces are balanced the altitude
remains the same, and when the weight is higher than the lift, the aircraft goes down. Lift is an upward force produced by the wings
of the aircraft. The wings of an aircraft are in a special shape called air foil or aerofoil. The top surface of the wing is longer than the
bottom surface which makes the air move faster over the top, allowing it to catch up with the air moving the shorter distance below
the wing. High speed air has a lower pressure than slow/non-moving air, which makes the wing get sucker up, taking the aircraft with
it.
14. Solve problems related to the above points.
See Science Focus 3 questions in Chapter 9: Simple Machine Technology.
15. Identify and describe examples of scientific concepts and principles that have been used in technological developments.
The forces of weight, lift, thrust and drag are still used in modern technology. Complex machines are created through the
combination of simple machines, so that their technologies become even more useful, allowing us to do things which were previously
impossible. A force is a push, pull or twist that accelerates or decelerates an object or changes its direction or shape. Friction is a
concept which must be considered in many technological developments, since it can reduce the efficiency of machines, although
everyday life relies on the principle of friction.
Plane: In the case of an aeroplane the force lift helps it stay in the air, weight is pulling it down, thrust is the forward
propulsion increasing the speed and the drag is slowing it down. There are different materials which are lighter and stronger
which are used for aeroplanes.
Boat: In the case of a boat the force lift is also known as buoyancy which keeps it from sinking, thrust is the propeller, sail
or paddle (depending on your boat) and the drag is the water and wind currents.
Cars: In the case of a car, the weight of it (force of gravity) pushing the car to the ground, drag is caused by friction that is
caused by the tires resistance against the road and the thrust is provided by the power of the engine that comes through
the turning of the wheels.

Page 20

Science Half-Yearly Notes (FINAL)

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Science Half Yearly Notes: Topic 1 The Periodic Table

Define atoms, molecules, compounds and ions.

Define atomic number and mass number.

Use atomic number to identify elements.

Describe the way in which electrons are arranged in atoms.

Science Half-Yearly Notes 2013

Construct a timeline of the history of the model of the atom.

Science Half-Yearly Notes 2013

Prepare a compound like CO2.

Compare the amount of CO2 in different soft drinks.

Record the weight of the unopened can of soft drink.

Science Half-Yearly Notes 2013

Science Half-Yearly Notes 2013

14. Identify elements by the flame tests.

Science Half-Yearly Notes 2013

Total number known

These are the main allotropes of carbon:

Recognise the signs of a chemical reaction.

There is a permanent colour change.

A precipitate (solid) forms from a solution

Branches of a tree are mulched.

Science Half-Yearly Notes 2013

The following are examples of chemical change:

Wood burns to form charcoal (carbon).

A dead mouse stuck in the wall of a house begins to

Write word equations for chemical reactions.

Include the energy term in endothermic and exothermic reactions.

Compounds with solubility

Science Half-Yearly Notes 2013

d) Exothermic and endothermic reactions

2HNO3 (aq) + Ca (s) H2 (g) + Ca(NO3)2 (aq)

H2SO4 (aq) + Mg (s) H2 (g) + MgSO4 (aq)

2HCl (aq) + Fe (s) FeCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

Iron (II) chloride (ferrous chloride)*

Science Half-Yearly Notes 2013

Science Half-Yearly Notes 2013

Acids and metals

There was no reaction.

There was a reaction and popping

There was no reaction.

There was a reaction and popping

There was no reaction.

Describe each of the reactions listed in 5.

See point 5 and 6.

Give an example of each of the reactions listed in 5.

See point 5 and 6.

Science Half-Yearly Notes 2013

The following table shows ions and ionic compound formulae.

17. Define a base and list its common properties.

19. Prepare and use a natural indicator.

Science Half-Yearly Notes 2013

20. Write the simple formulae of acids, bases and salts.

Describe qualitatively the relationship between force, mass and acceleration.

Understand the concept of work as force x distance in direction force acts.

Science Half-Yearly Notes 2013

Identify that simple machines make tasks easier or more convenient.

Simple machines make tasks easier or more convenient.

Identify some advantages of levers, pulleys, gears and inclined planes.

Science Half-Yearly Notes 2013

Science Half-Yearly Notes 2013

2. Record your readings.

Science Half-Yearly Notes 2013

9. Distinguish between force multipliers and speed multipliers.