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PURPOSE:
In this experiment we will measure the magnitude of the horizontal component of the
Earth's Magnetic field by the use of an instrument called a tangent galvanometer.
INTRODUCTION:
A tangent galvanometer consists of a number of turns of copper wire wound on a hoop. At
the center of the hoop a compass is mounted. When a direct current flows through the wires, a
magnetic field is induced in the space surrounding the loops of wire. This magnetic flux is
designated by Bi . The strength of the magnetic field induced by the current at the center of the
loops of wire is given by Amperes law:
Induced Bi =
o N I
.
2R
where o is the permeability of free space and has the value of 4 x 10-7 N/A2, N is the number
of turns of wire, I is the current through the wire, and R is the radius of the loop.
When the wire loops of the tangent galvanometer are aligned with the magnetic field of the
Earth, and a current is sent through the wire loops, then the compass needle will align with the
vector sum of the field of the Earth and the induced field as shown in Figure 1.
Magnetic
North
Bresultant
B of Earth
Compass Needle
Direction
Bi
(induced)
Fig. 1
The horizontal component of the magnetic field of the Earth is easily calculated from the
following relation:
B of Earth =
- 24 -
Bi
.
tan
Ammeter
Ruler
Plywood board
PROCEDURE:
1. Set up the apparatus on a board between tables as shown in Figure 2. Be sure to orient the
loops exactly in the North-South direction. Orient the compass so that the needle is pointing
to zero degrees.
Rheostat
A
Reversing
Switch
Tangent
Galvanometer
10
15 Turns
- 25 -
Current
(A)
Deflection
Right
10
45o
15
45o
Left
Binduced
(T)
BEarth
(T)
Binduced
(T)
BEarth
(T)
Average
Current
(A)
Deflection
Right
10
63.5o
15
63.5o
Left
- 26 -
Average
XC =
1
2fC
These impedances are proportional to the frequency at which the circuit is driven.
Experimentally, we can obtain a value for these reactances from the following equation:
XL = VL/I
XC = VC/I
Since the voltages across the inductor and capacitor are out of phase with the voltage across the
resistor VR by 90o, it is necessary to add the voltages vectorially to obtain the voltage across
either the inductor or the capacitor:
VL =
Vs2
VR2 .
AC generator
Frequency counter
Digital voltmeter DVM, ACV 2-Volt range
Inductance coil, 10 mH
Composition resistor, 470
(yellow, violet, brown, silver)
Ruler & French curve
Decade capacitor box
PROCEDURE:
- 27 -
BNC
Output
BNC
2 Wires
Part
A.
Inductive Reactance
Vs
R = 470
VR
Fig. 1
2. Set the function generator (Vs) to approximately 2 Volts and set the frequency to 1000 Hz.
(Check Vs with the DVM set at ACV, 2V and check the frequency with the frequency counter.)
3. Record the source voltage and the voltage across the resistor on the data table.
4. Determine
VL from VL = Vs2
I from
VR2
I = VR / R
XL from XL = VL / I
5. Repeat steps 2 through 4 for f = 1500 Hz to 4500 Hz in steps of 500 Hz.
6. Compare the experimental reactance with the theoretical reactance.
7. Plot XL versus frequency.
Part B: Capacitive Reactance
1. Repeat the above procedure only this time use a 0.5 F capacitor as the element instead of
the inductor.
Source
Voltage Vs
(V)
Voltage
Across
Resistor VR
(V)
Voltage
Across
Inductor VL
(V)
Current I
(A)
Inductive
Reactance
XL
Theoretical
XL
()
()
Capacitive
Reactance
XL
Theoretical
XC
()
()
% difference
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
Source
Voltage Vs
(V)
Voltage
Across
Resistor VR
(V)
Voltage
Across
Capacitor VC
(V)
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
- 29 -
Current I
(A)
% difference
Synchronizing
Voltage
Amplifier
Vo
Switch
Generator
Horizontal Input
OSCILLOSCOPE
A
F
H
I
L
O
Fig. 2
A)
B)
C)
D)
E)
F)
G)
H)
I)
J)
K)
L)
M)
N)
O)
P)
- 30 -
PROCEDURE:
PART I: OSCILLOSCOPE SETUP
A. Adjustments to obtain trace:
1) Intensity -Low
2) Trigger
-Ext
3) Position -Center
4) Coupling -AC
5) Focus
-Sharp
6) Sweep
-1 msec/cm
7) Deflection -1 V/cm
knobs/lever: A,G
C
B, P, Q
I, J
D, G
E
L, N
Refer to Figure 2.
OSCILLOSCOPE
Sweep Rate
Frequency
Counter
AC
1000
Power
Supply
(F.G. 1)
To Ch. 1 of Scope
and to DVM
E
Time / Div.
L
Volts / Div.
Ch. 1
Digital
Voltmeter
ACV
Fig. 3
2. Adjust the function generator to 100 Hz at 6 V peak-to-peak.
3 Compute Vrms ( = 0.707 Vo).
- 31 -
Time (sec)
-Vo
Vpeak-to-peak
Fig. 4
6. Sketch a trace of the 200 Hz AC signal seen on the oscilloscope. Indicate V pp, Vo and Vrms
on the reticule in the data sheet.
PART III: LISSAJOUS FIGURES
1. Set up apparatus as in Figure 5.
2. Adjust function generator # 2 (F.G. 2) to the same frequency and voltage as function generator
# 1 (F.G. 1).
3. Observe lissajous figures when F.G. 2 frequency is 2, 3, and 4 times that of F.G. 1
4. Observe the lissajous figures when F.G. 1 frequency is 2, 3, and 4 times that of F.G. 2.
5. Sketch all lissajous figures.
1000
F. G. 1
To Ch. 1 of Scope
and to DVM
N
Input
O
Ch. 1
To Ch. 2 of Scope
and to DVM
R
Ch. 2
Fig. 5
- 32 -
1000
F. G. 2
Frequenc
y
Vpeak-to-peak
(Volts)
Vo
(Volts)
Calculated Vrms
(Volts)
(Hz)
100
200
1000
Data Table 2
Frequency From Oscilloscope
Generator
Frequency
(Hz)
Sweep Rate
(msec/cm)
(cm/cycle)
Period
(sec/cycle)
Frequency
= 1/ Period
(Hz)
Frequency From
Counter
(Hz)
Period From
Counter
(sec/cycle)
100
200
1000
Trace of AC signal.
Horizontal: 1 ms / cm
Vertical: 1 V / div.
(2 waves with the same amplitude and different frequency whole multiples.)
60 Hz
100 Hz
100 Hz
100 Hz
200 Hz
300 Hz
400 Hz
60 Hz
200 Hz
300 Hz
400 Hz
100 Hz
100 Hz
100 Hz
Sketch
Trace
- 33 -
= d sin
n = d sin
and
Fig. 1
The diffraction grating spacing d will be determined with a helium-neon laser beam of 633
nm wavelength ().
L
tan =
White Light
Grating
d = n/dsin,
= tan-1
Lx
Screen
Fig. 2
SUPPLIES & EQUIPMENT:
Helium-neon laser
Grating stand & holder
Large replica grating
Incandescent light source
11 X 17 paper
Two-meter stick
2 ring stands
2 buret clamps
- 34 -
Laboratory jack
One-meter stick
Masking tape
Color pencils
Large cardboard
PROCEDURE:
He-Ne Laser
xright
Lab Jack
Fig. 3
PART B: DETERMINATION OF THE WAVELENGTH RANGES FOR VISIBLE LIGHT
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 4, replacing the laser with the incandescent source.
2. Record L. Record xupper and xlower for the upper and lower limit of each color band, as shown
in Figure 4.
3. Calculate .
th
0 order
White
White-light source
Violet
Blue
Green
Yellow
Orange
Red
xupper (Violet)
xlower (Violet) = xupper (Blue)
Fig. 4
Color
Violet
Blue
Yellow
Green
Orange
Red
upper
400 nm
424 nm
491 nm
575 nm
585 nm
647 nm
lower
424 nm
491 nm
575 nm
585 nm
647 nm
700 nm
- 35 -
| x right|
(m)
| xleft|
(m)
tan
x average
(m)
sin
n
sin
1
633 nm
2
Violet
Blue
Green
Yellow
Orange
Red
x
(m)
tan
sin
(nm)
xu
xl
xu
xl
xu
xl
xu
xl
xu
xl
xu
xl
u
u
u
u
u
- 36 -
% difference
Fig. 1. Reflection
The law of refraction, Snell's law, states that:
n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2.
n1
n2
2
Fig. 2. Refraction
where n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of two different mediums. The refractive index of a
medium is defined as the ratio of the velocity of light in air, c = 3.00 X 10 8 m/s, to its velocity in
that medium. The refractive index of air is 1.000. The refractive index of any medium can be
determined by measuring the angle of incidence, 1, the angle of refraction 2 and applying
Snell's law.
SUPPLIES & EQUIPMENT:
Cork board
Plate glass
Plane mirror
11 X 17 paper
Wood block
Masking tape
Refraction cube
PROCEDURE:
PART A: REFLECTION
1. Draw a straight line across the middle of the paper and then draw a triangle with vertices A, B
and C. Tape the mirror to a block and set it vertically on the line so that the reflecting surface
(back side) is on the line. The setup is shown in Figure 3 below:
A
L1
L2
R1
B
R2
Fig. 3
2. Place a pin at vertex A. From the right side of this triangle, look into the mirror for the image of
pin A in the mirror. Regard the image in the mirror as A. Place a pin R1 in front of this image,
A. Along your line of sight *, place another pin R 2 in front of R1 so that A and R1 both appear
to be right behind it. Draw a line joining the points R 2 and R1 and extend this line to the mirror
surface. Remove pins R1 and R2.
* Make sure that your eye level and the pins are on the same plane.
3. Repeat the same procedure to the left side of the triangle. With pin A still in place, locate L 1 in
front of A and L2 in front of L1. Join points L1 and L2 and extend the line to the mirror surface.
Remove pin A.
4. Place a pin at B. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for points R B1 and RB2, LB1 and LB2. Extend lines
RB1 RB2 and LB1 LB2 to the surface of the mirror.
5. Place a pin at C, repeat steps 2 and 3 for point C.
6. Remove the mirror and extrapolate the lines until they intersect at A, B and C. Join points A,
B and C to reconstruct the mirror image (virtual). Fold the paper along the mirror line and
- 38 -
hold it against the light to see if the object ( ABC) and the image ( ABC)
superimposed on each other.
can be
7. For the vertex A only, draw a line from vertex A to the point where the line R 1R2 meets the
mirror. Construct a normal to the mirror at this point. Measure the angles of incidence and
reflection with a protractor. See Figure 3.
PART A: REFRACTION
1. Using another sheet of paper, draw two straight lines perpendicular to each other. Measure
and draw the three angles 1, 2, and 3. Make your angles 15 o, 30o and 45o respectively
from the normal. The setup is shown in Figure 4. Place the glass cube along the horizontal
line and trace the outline of the glass cube.
Normal
Fig. 4
2. Place pins A and R as shown in Figure 4. Use a locater pin L to line up A and R that are on
the 15o line. Pins L and R should be as close to the glass surface as possible. Repeat the
procedure for the 30o and 45o angles.
3. Measure the angle of refraction for each incident angle. Use Snells law to compute the index
of refraction of the glass for each incident and refracted ray. Average three suitable values
and report an average index of refraction for the glass. Look up the literature value of the
index of refraction for plate glass. Compare your result to this value.
DATA SHEET: Reflection and Refraction at Plane Surfaces
Your drawings are part of your data.
Incident angle
1 = 15o
2 = 30o
Angle of Refraction
Refractive Index of
glass (n)
- 39 -
3 = 45o
n(average)
1
1
1
do
di
f
Eq. 1
do
di
In this experiment, we will use an optical bench to align a lighted object, a lens and a
screen. Light rays from the object,
, which pass through the lens will form real images that can
be focused on the screen. Observations will be made as to the nature of the image, that is,
whether it is real or virtual, erect or inverted, and magnified or reduced. Image location can be
estimated with the use of ray diagrams.
Examples of ray diagrams for convex and concave lenses.
Object
Object
Real
image
Virtual
Image
Concave lens
Convex lens
SUPPLIES & EQUIPMENT:
Optical bench & accessories
Ruler
PROCEDURE:
1. Determine the focal length of the convex lens that you are using by mounting the lens in a
stand at a distance from a window. Adjust the distance from the lens to a paper screen until
the image of an object outside the window is in sharp focus. Deduce the focal length of your
lens by using equation (1), with d o = .
2. Mount the lens at the midpoint of the optical bench and mount the screen and object lamp on
opposite sides of the lens.
3. Place the object at a position that is somewhat greater than twice the focal length of the lens
(do > 2f). Move the screen until you get a sharp focus. Describe the characteristics of the
image. Record the image distance and the object distance. Calculate the image distance
using Eq. 1.
4. Repeat step 3 for the object at exactly twice the focal length (d o = 2f).
5. Repeat step 3 for the object at somewhere between twice the focal length and the focal length
(2f > do > f).
6. Repeat step 3 for the object at exactly the focal length (d o = f).
7. Place the object at a distance that is within the focal length. Look through the lens and
describe the nature of the image (d o < f).
8. Replace the biconvex lens with one that is biconcave. Look through the lens at the object and
describe what you observe.
9. Calculate the image distance d i for images seen through the biconcave lens using the lens
equation.
10. Calculate the image height hi using the magnification equation.
| M | = | - di / do| = hi / ho
hi = ho | di / do|
11. On the graph paper, draw ray diagrams to scale. Indicate the scale used.
1.0 cm = ________ cm
- 41 -
Real / Virtual
Upright / Inverted
Enlarged / Diminished / No Image
Real / Virtual
Upright / Inverted
Enlarged / Diminished / No Image
Real / Virtual
Upright / Inverted
Enlarged / Diminished / No Image
Real / Virtual
Upright / Inverted
Enlarged / Diminished / No Image
f= -
(do > f)
do = ______________
di = ______________ (Calculated)
hi = ______________ (Calculated)
Real / Virtual
Upright / Inverted
Enlarged / Diminished / No Image
(do = f)
do = ______________
di = ______________ (Calculated)
hi = ______________ (Calculated)
Real / Virtual
Upright / Inverted
Enlarged / Diminished / No Image
(do < f)
do = ______________
Real / Virtual
cm
- 42 -
di = ______________ (Calculated)
hi = ______________ (Calculated)
RAY DIAGRAMS FOR CONVEX LENSES:
a.
c.
. .F
. .
F
b.
. .
F
d.
..
F
Virtual Image
e.
- 43 -
Upright / Inverted
Enlarged / Diminished / No Image
.F
No Image
a.
. .F
b.
c.
. F.
d.
. .
e.
. .F
. .F
PROCEDURE:
- 44 -
2 ringstands
Grating
x
L
and = tan-1
Lx .
5. Determine the wavelength, of the spectral lines. The grating has 600 grooves per millimeter.
The grating constant, d, is the distance between the grooves on the grating. For our gratings,
d = 6001000 in units of nanometers.
6. Compare these wavelengths with the known spectral line values given.
e
1
+V
Gas
Discharge
Tube
Fig. 1
- 45 -
Photon
Emission
2
st
1 Order
Spectral
Lines
1 = d sin 1
2 = d sin 2
3 = d sin 3
1, 2, 3
Light Rays
Gas Discharge
Tube
Meter
Stick
Virtual Image of
Spectral Line
Grating
L = 1 meter
Eye
Fig. 2
Selected spectral line wavelengths ( in nm, See Handbook for complete description)
Helium
Red
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet
Argon
668 nm
588 nm
502 nm
447 nm
403 nm
Red
Orange
Green
Blue-Violet
Hydrogen
697 nm
642 nm
523 nm
452 nm
Red
Turquoise
Purple
Violet
656 nm
486 nm
434 nm
410 nm
Red
x (right)
(m)
x (left)
(m)
x (average)
(m)
Orange
(nm)
- 46 -
Green
Blue
(known)
(nm)
% difference
(m)
x (left)
(m)
x (average)
(m)
Red
Yellow
Green
Blue
Red
Blue-Green
Purple
Violet
(nm)
(known)
(nm)
% difference
(m)
x (left)
(m)
x (average)
(m)
(nm)
(known)
(nm)
% difference
- 47 -
+
Output to Counter
CPM
Knee
Plateau Region
Voltage
Geiger counter
Geiger tube
- 48 -
Apparatus Notes:
1. Soap bubble: 1 part glycerin, 4 parts clear detergent, 10 parts water. Specify position of parts
of setup with masking tape on table.
2. Hologram: Diffuse sodium light with ground glass screen to prevent glare. Use black shield
and black paper underneath.
3: Optical flats: Diffuse sodium light with ground glass screen to prevent glare. View from onehalf to one meter away.
4. Color Box: Put out overhead projector with cardboard cover pieces also.
5. Michelson's interferometer: Put screen at least 2 m away.
6. Single slit diffraction - positive and negative slit multiple slits. Project on blackboard across
room. Use 2 pieces of paper 1' x 2.5' for screens.
7. Polarized light: Use circular adjustable polaroid holder. Use blue battery charger set at 6V and
12 V Pasco lamp.
8. Total internal reflection: Use large (8") crystallizing dish from chemistry. Place screen about a
meter away. Use slit opening over lamp. Use a red battery charger set at 12V and 12 V
Pasco lamp. Shield apparatus from stray light. Use lab jack for laser.
9: Pin-hole camera
STATION #1
THIN FILM
LIGHT
INTERFERENCE
AIR
PATH DIFFERENCE
IMPORTANT
Soap
Solution
BRIGHT FRINGE
WHEN IN STEP
STATION #2
HOLOGRAPHY
INTERFERENCE
Hologram
of Car
Sodium
Lab Jack
STATION #3
Lamp
OPTICAL FLATS
AIR GAPS
INTERFERENCE
Sodium
Lamp
Optical Flats -- Very Flat
STATION #4
COLOR BOX
COLOR ADDITION:
Color addition by
the mixing of
colored lights.
When three
projectors shine
red, blue, and
green light on a
white screen, the
overlapping parts
produce different
colors. The
addition of the
three primary
colors produces
white light.
COLOR SUBTRACTION:
STATION #5
LIGHT SOURCES
C OLOR ME
RED
COLOR ME
MAGENTA
COLOR ME
YELLOW
PLEAS E
DON'T
COLOR ME
COLOR ME
C OLOR ME
BLUE
FILTERS
CYAN
C OLOR ME
GREEN
MICHELSON'S
INTERFEROMETER
Laser Light Source
Half-silvered mirror
Movable Mirror
INTERFERENCE
PATTERN
C ompensator
Fixed Mirror
STATION #6
DIFFRACTION
MULTIPLE SLIT (4 Slits)
0.5 mW He-Ne Laser
Paper Screen
on Blackboard
SINGLE SLIT
A. SLIT
+ SLIT
B. HAIR - SLIT
STATION #7
POLARIZATION :
UNPOLARIZED
WHITE LIGHT
POLARIZED
LIGHT
WATCH
THIS
POLAROID
#1 =
POLARIZER
POLAROID
#2 =
ANALYZER
AS YOU
ROTATE THE
ANALYZER
POLARIZATION BY REFLECTION:
qB
Air
Glass
STATION #8
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION:
WATER
DROPS
SUNLIGHT
40O
VIOLET
RED
VIOLET
RED
42O
Translucent white
paper 1 m away
will show rainbow
on opposite side
STATION #9
PIN-HOLE CAMERA:
Source
Inverted image on
frosted glass screen