Sampling and Quantizing

APC-SoE
Engr. Duwi E. Iscala

Introduction
Advantages of digital transmission for data is
self-evident, it is not immediately obvious why
it is desirable to go to the trouble and expense
of converting analog signals to digital form
and back again. There are in fact several very
good reasons for doing so.

Introduction
Digital signals can be manipulated more easily than analog
signals.
They are easier to multiplex
Digital signals can easily be encrypted to ensure privacy
When an analog signal goes through a chain of signal
processors, such as transmitters, receivers, and amplifiers,
noise and distortion accumulate. This process can be made
much less severe in digital systems by regenerating the
signals by using various types of error control.
Data compression can be used with digital signal to reduce
its bandwidth to less that required transmitting the original
analog signal.

Sampling
An analog signal varies continuously with
time. If we want to transmit such a signal
digitally, as a series of numbers, we must first
sample the signal.
This involves finding its amplitude at discrete
time intervals. Only in this way can we arrive
at a finite series of number to transmit.

Introduction
In 1928, Harry Nyquist showed
mathematically that it is possible to
reconstruct a band-limited analog signal from
periodic samples, as long as the sampling rate
is at least twice the frequency of the highestfrequency component of the signal.

Sampling
Sampling Process
Sampling is a process of
transforming continuoustime signal to discrete-time
signal. For perfect
reconstruction of the analog
signal from a sampled signal,
the sampling rate should be
greater than twice the
highest frequency of the
analog signal (Haykin, 2001).

Sampling Process

Sampling

Time domain

xs (t )

Frequency domain

x (t ) x(t )

Xs( f )

x(t )

X (f ) X(f )

| X(f )|

| X (f )|

x (t )

xs (t )

| Xs ( f ) |

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Sampling
Sampler
An analogue sampler commonly known as the
sample-and-hold is used in sampling the input
analogue signal voltage and maintaining that voltage
until the next sampling instant.

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Sampling
The FET (Field Effect Transistor) acts like a simple switch.
When turned "on," it provides a low-impedance path to
deposit the analogue sample voltage on capacitor.
The time that the FET is "on" is called the aperture or
acquisition time.
Essentially, the capacitor is the hold circuit. When the switch
FET is "Off," the capacitor does not have a complete path to
discharge through and therefore stores the sampled voltage.
The storage time of the capacitor is also called the conversion
time because it is during this time that the unit converts the
sample voltage to a digital code.

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Sampling
The storage time of the capacitor is also called the conversion
time because it is during this time that the unit converts the
sample voltage to a digital code.
The acquisition time should be very short. This assures that a
minimum change occurs in the analogue signal while it is
being deposited across the capacitor.
If the input to the sampler is changing while it is performing
the conversion, distortion results. This distortion is called
aperture distortion.
Thus, by having a short aperture time and keeping the input
to the constant relatively constant, the sample-and-hold
circuit reduces aperture distortion.

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Sampling
If the sample time is made longer and the
analogue-to-digital conversion takes place
with a changing analogue signal, this is called
natural sampling.
Natural sampling introduces more aperture
distortion than flattop sampling and requires a
faster A/D converter.

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Sampling
Sampling
process

Analog
signal

Pulse amplitude
modulated (PAM) signal

Sampling theorem: A bandlimited signal with no

spectral components beyond , can
f m be uniquely
determined by values sampled at uniform intervals of
1
2 fm
1
The sampling rate, f s T 2 f m is called Nyquist rate.
s
fs 2 fm
If
, aliasing problem occurs.
Ts

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Aliasing
If the sampling rate is too low, a form of
distortion called aliasing or foldover
distortion is produced. Aliasing refers to
change in frequency of the reconstructed
analog signal.

Sampling
LP filter

Nyquist rate

aliasing

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Analog Pulse Modulation

Pulse modulation systems represent a
message-bearing signal by a train of pulses.
The four basic pulse modulation techniques
are Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM), Pulse
Width Modulation (PWM), Pulse Position
Modulation and Pulse Duration Modulation
(PDM).

PAM

PDM and PPM

Example 1
1. It is necessary to transmit the human voice
using a frequency range from 300Hz to 3.5
KHz using a digital system. What is minimum
required sample, according to theory?
2. What is the sampling rate of Problem No. 1
in 10 seconds?

Quantizing
Quantization
Is the process of converting the sampled
signal to a binary value
Each voltage level will correspond to a
different binary number
The magnitude of the minimum step size is
called the resolution.
The error resulting from quantizing is called
the quantization noise.
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Quantizing
The number of levels available depends on the
number of bits used to express the sample
value. The number of levels is given by
N = 2n
where:
N = number of levels
n = number of bits per sample

Example 2
Calculate the number of levels if the number
of bits per sample is:
a. 8 (as used in telephony)
b. 16 (as used in the compact disc audio
system)

Dynamic Range
Dynamic Range

This is the ratio of the largest to smallest analog signal

that can be transmitted.
DR

Vm ax
Vm in

But Vmin is the resolution and can be written as

q Vm in

Vm ax
2n

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Quantizing
If this is expressed in decibels
Vmax
DR(dB) 20 log
20 log 2n
Vmin
DR(dB) 6n

20n log 2 6.02n

From DR 2n , it can be observed that the DR is the maximum

binary number for a system. With one code used for 0V which is
not considered in calculating DR, it is observed that

DR 2n 1
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Dynamic Range
For a linear PCM system, the maximum
dynamic range in decibels is given
approximately by
DR(dB)max = 1.76 + 6.02n dB
where:
DR(dB)max = maximum dynamic
range in decibels
n = number of bits per sample

Example 3
What is the dynamic range of an 8-bit
quantizing?
Compute for the resolution if the maximum
voltage height is 10 volts?
Find the maximum dynamic range in dB for a
linear PCM system using 16-bit quantizing.

Quantizing Noise
Since the ANALOG signal can have infinite
number of signal levels, the quantizing
process will produce errors called
quantizing error or often quantizing noise.

Quantizing Noise
Mathematical Expression for Quantization Noise
q
2

For Quantization noise :

1
Mean square error, MSE:
q
The effective voltage, Veff
The noise power, Pn

q
,
2

q
2

quantization error
3

q
2

1
q 3

q
2
q
2

q2
12

q
2 3

q2
12 R
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Example 4
What is the quantizing noise for a 12-volt
maximum, 10-bit quantizing system? Compute
for the mean square error. What is the
effective voltage and noise power?

Sampling and Quantizing

Transmission of Baseband Signal:
Digital info.
Format

Textual
source info.
Analog
info.

Bit stream
(Data bits)

Sample

Sampling at rate
f s 1 / Ts
(sampling time=Ts)

Quantize

Pulse waveforms
(baseband signals)

Pulse
modulate

Encode

Encoding each q. value to

l log 2 L bits
(Data bit duration Tb=Ts/l)

Quantizing each sampled

value to one of the
L levels in quantizer.

Mapping every m log 2 M data bits to a

symbol out of M symbols and transmitting
a baseband waveform with duration T

Information (data) rate: Rb 1 / Tb [bits/sec]

Symbol rate : R 1 / T [symbols/sec]
For real time transmission: Rb mR
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Sampling and Quantizing

Transmission and Reception of Baseband Signal
Digital info.
Format

Textual
source info.
Analog
info.

Sample

Quantize

Pulse
modulate

Encode

Bit stream
Format
Analog
info.

sink

Low-pass
filter

Textual
info.

Decode

Pulse
waveforms

Demodulate/
Detect

Transmit

Channel

Receive

Digital info.
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End of Presentation