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zero. When the DC current assumes a value equal to the peak value of the symmetrical current, the
wave is considered fully offset, (maximum asymmetry). The maximum asymmetrical peak does not
generally occur during conditions of maximum asymmetry, it occurs at a fault angle of zero. The fault
angle for maximum asymmetry ranges from 0 to 90.
Restriking voltage & recovery voltage:
The definition for restriking voltage is the resultant transient voltage which appears across the breaker
contacts at the instant of arc extinction. The rate of rise of restriking voltage is the peak value of
restriking voltage divided by the time taken to reach the peak value. The recovery voltage is the power
frequency (R.M.S. voltage) that appears across the breaker contacts, after the transient oscillation dies
out and final extinction of arc has resulted in all poles.
The classification of the tests conducted on medium voltage circuit breakers & the purpose of
each category:
Tests performed on circuit breakers can be divided into five categories, according to the following:
Design Tests, Production Tests, Tests after Delivery, Field Tests & Conformance Tests. The purpose of
the design (type) tests, is to confirm the adequacy of the design of a particular type of CB to operate
satisfactorily under practical conditions. It is intended to work under (examples of tests): rated
maximum voltage, rated voltage factor, rated frequency, rated transient recovery voltage, rated
interrupting time, rated permissible tripping delay, rated re-closing time, load current switching, rated
capacitor switching current, rated line closing surge factor, out-of-phase switching current tests, shunt
reactors, rated excitation current switching, rated control voltage current. Also, rated continuous current
- carrying capacity (thermal testing): these tests demonstrate that the c.b. can carry its rated continuous
current at its rated frequency without exceeding the temperature limits as set by the appropriate
standards. Also, rated dielectric strength tests are conducted on the circuit breaker as type tests: it is
demonstrated by subjecting the breaker to high potentials both at normal power frequency and high
frequency (impulse). The dielectric strength depends upon clearances, bushing material, workmanship
and material quality. Generally, the dielectric test at power frequency is performed by applying an a.c.
(sine wave voltage)with a crest value of 1.414 times the rated low frequency withstand voltage. This
voltage is applied for 60 seconds to different points on the assembly or breaker. For example it is
applied to each terminal individually - with all other terminals connected together and to ground, this is
done while the breaker is opened. With the breaker contacts closed, the test voltage is applied to each
phase and the other phases are grounded to the c.b. frame. The breaker is considered to have passed the
test if there is no puncture or flashover of the dielectric material. This is a dry test for indoor
installations. Outdoor circuit breakers have to go through a wet dielectric test. The applicable standards
(ANSI C37.09 &IEC 56) give the voltage levels and durations (eg. 60KV for 10 sec.). Indoor circuit
breakers are also subjected to rated full wave impulse withstand voltage. Both positive and negative
impulse voltages have a crest value equal to the rated full wave impulse withstand voltage of the c.b.
This value is function of the rated voltage of the c.b., the wave shape is 1.2x50 microsecond. If no
damage or flashover is observed the breaker is considered to have passed the test. Chopped wave tests
are performed on outdoor c.b. if the breaker voltage rating exceeds a certain level (eg.15.5KV). If the
withstandability of the breaker is to be verified for switching, switching impulse tests are performed.
They are similar to the full wave tests but with a different wave shape (eg.250/2500 microsecond).
Short circuit rating test are also conducted on circuit breakers as type tests. The S.C. rating of a c.b. is
proven by an extensive series of tests. To demonstrate the capability of the c.b. to interrupt the
maximum specified current without injury to itself (when applied to grounded and ungrounded
systems). The c.b. has to interrupt the rated symmetrical current in the presence of abnormal recovery
voltage (it is defined in the appropriate standards). The general acceptable conditions of the breaker
after successful testing are: the mechanical parts and insulators are to be in the same condition as
before the test duty, it is capable of making and breaking its rated normal (full load) current at the rated
voltage and shields fitted for bushings or arc control should be intact. Production tests will be
conducted on each assembled unit to check for good workmanship and no errors in parts used. They
will include, where applicable: nameplate checks, resistors, heaters and coil checks, control and
secondary wiring checks, clearance and mechanical adjustment checks, mechanical operations, stored
energy system tests, electrical resistance of current path, timing tests, low frequency withstand voltage
tests on major insulation components and control/secondary wiring. Tests after delivery are performed
to assure that no damage has been inflicted on the breakers during shipment. Field tests are divided into
commissioning & start-up to ensure that the breaker is in good condition and is suitable for
energization & for routine maintenance that is conducted on the breaker at specific intervals during its
life time. Conformance tests are certain type tests that are performed on certain breakers in a group of
breakers as agreed upon by the purchaser & the manufacturer to re-prove conformance of the design
with the applicable standards.
Different types of interrupting media & their properties:
The interrupting media used in medium voltage circuit breakers are: air, oil SF6 and vacuum. The
general properties of fluids used in arc extinguishing chambers in m.v. c.b. are: high dielectric strength
of the gas or liquid, thermally and chemically stable, non-inflammable, high thermal conductivity, low
dissociation temperature, short thermal time constant, should not produce conducting material during
arcing. Gases used so far in m.v. c.b. can be classified into simple (air) or electronegative (SF6).
The main components of an oil c.b & how does it interrupt the arc:
They are simple in construction. The major parts of a minimum oil c.b. excluding the poles are the base
frame,the drive which is constructed as a stored energy opening and closing mechanism (the operating
mechanism). The opening spring of the stored energy mechanism is charged automatically during the
closing action. The closing spring is charged either by means of an electric motor (is built into the drive
housing) or by means of a removable crank. The pole constitute of insulating cylinder, arc chamber,
fixed, guiding and moving contacts. It also has the gas expansion chamber, terminals, oil sump, oil
draining and oil filling plugs and the oil level indicator.
Arc Interruption in Oil: on separation of the moving contact from the fixed contact in the arc chamber,
the current continues to flow through the vaporizing metallic current paths. The high temperature
occurring under such conditions, decomposes the oil (which boils at 658K), in the immediate vicinity
and a gas bubble is formed (under high pressure). It consists of (from outside inward): wet oil vapour,
superheated oil vapour, hydrocarbons (C2H2 at around 4000K), the arc (approximate temperature
7000K) as shown in fig. 2.7. As can be seen, the arc runs in a mixture of hydrogen (in both molecular
and atomic states), carbon and copper vapour. The thermal conductivity is high due to the dissociation
of hydrogen molecules into atoms. The thermal energy generated in the arc is primarily dissipated
outward through the surrounding gas envelope to the oil. Also, the gas in the arc chamber escapes to the
gas expansion chamber, so that a type of heat dissipation by convection is created, thus the rate at
which heat is dissipating is increasing. Near current zero, the thermal power generated by the current
(in the arc) approaches zero. If the heat dissipation outwards is sufficiently large, the temperature in the
arc zone can be reduced in such a manner that the arc would lose conductivity and extinguish. An arc in
hydrogen has a short thermal time constant, so that the conditions are favourable for quenching. There
are two other situations that may occur under certain conditions: thermal Restriking of Arc, re-ignition.
Thermal restriking is when the post-arc current rises again and passes into the next half cycle of SCC,
as the arc plasma heats up due to the insufficiency of heat dissipation to make conductance of the arc
zone equal to zero. Re-ignition happens when therestriking voltage of the system causes a renewed
formation of the arc, (after completion of the first interruption) and continuation of flow of current. The
arcing chamber designs are either of the axial or radial venting type. Often, a combination of both are
used in the design of minimum oil, MV CB's. The axial venting process generates high gas pressures
and has high dielectric strength. This is used mainly for interruption of low currents. The radial venting
is used for high current interruptions, as the gas pressures developed are low and the dielectric strength
is low. The higher the current to be interrupted, the larger the gas pressure developed.
The
major
liberate gas in the vacuum by some means, the discharge can take place. In the vacuum arc the neutral
atoms, ions and electrons do not come from the medium in which the arc is drawn, rather, they are
obtained from the electrodes themselves through the evaporation of their surfaces. The major parts of
Vacuum CB's are: the bottle supports, the bottles, as shown in fig. 2.8 below, which include: the fixed
contact with fixed stem, the moving contact with moving stem, the bellows, the metallic arcing
chamber at 10-8 torr of vacuum, the insulators, the mechanical coupling to the operating mechanism,
the operating rod, the contact force spring, the operating crank and operating lever, operating
mechanism (in its mechanism housing) which includes: the electric spring charging motor, the breaker
shaft, the closing spring, the opening spring, ratchet gear, tensioning shaft, coupling rod and any other
auxiliaries required like shunt trip, close release, auxiliary switches, etc.
The arc in the vacuum is a metal vapour arc. As the current carrying contacts are separated, cathode
spots are formed. For low current (below 10 kA), a highly mobile cathode spot (evenly distributed over
the contact surface) is formed and for larger currents, a multiple number of cathode spots (the
constricted form of the arc) are formed. These spots constitute the main source of vapour in the arc. In
case of constricted arcs, there is the danger of local overheating at the arc roots, which can lead to
restrikes. The contacts, therefore, have a hollow cylindrical shape with slits in the body of the contact
to divert the current flow away from the axial direction that it would otherwise take. This generates a
magnetic force that drives the arc along the circular contact end faces. In this case, the energy released
in the arc root is distributed over the whole contact face. Local overheating is thus avoided. The
drawing of the arc will be caused by the high electric field between the contacts or by the resistive
heating produced at the point of application, or both. The material of the contacts can be copperbismuth alloy, silver-bismuth or chrome-copper alloy. The emission of electrons from the electrodes
can be the result of any combination of the following: field emission, thermionic emission, secondary
emission by positive ion bombardment, pinch effect. The high vacuum inside the vacuum interrupter
has to be maintained throughout its life. The choice of a suitable contact material is of great importance
because each time an arc is switched in vacuum, material is evaporated from the contacts and bound
gas is set free. The metal vapour condenses in the form of pure metal onto the contacts and the vapour
shields, where it acts as a getter for certain gases. If the getter action exceeds the rate at which the gas
is freed, vacuum in the interrupter will be improved. The stability of the arc in the vacuum depends
upon the contact material and its vapour pressure (the higher the vapour pressure at low temperature,
the better the stability of the arc) and upon the circuit/load parameters, such as voltage, current,
inductance and capacitance. It is known that current chopping in air and oil circuit breakers occurs
because of instability in the arc column, whereas in the case of vacuum breakers, current chopping is a
function of the vapour pressure and the electron emission properties of the contact material. When the
arc interruption is over, the space between the electrodes is filled with vapour and plasma. The process
by which this residue decays and by which the vacuum gap regains its dielectric strength, is known as
the recovery phenomena. At current zero, the cathode spot extinguishes within 10-8 seconds and after
this the original dielectric strength is established quickly. Certain loads and switching conditions can
cause over-voltages and force the use of either surge limiters (limit the magnitude of the over-voltage)
or surge capacitors (reduce the rate of rise, lower the surge impedance and may reduce the transient
recovery voltage frequency).
Current
arranged. This structure, with its chemical bonds saturated, is chemically inert and highly stable. As the
temperature increases, SF6 molecules first dissociate into sulphur and fluorine atoms. This occurs at
around 2100K. As the temperature is further elevated,the sulphur gradually ionizes into positive
sulphur ions, giving up electrons. These electrons are capturedby the fluorine atoms producing negative
fluorine atoms (which are heavier than electrons).As the temperature is increased to 4000K, the energy
level is high enough to cause stripping of extra electrons bonded to the fluorine atoms and the medium
becomes more conductive. At about 6000K, the medium develops into a conductor by virtue of the
abundance of free electrons, stripped from both the sulphur and fluorine atoms. Now, as the
temperature in the arc core decreases along with the current, the population of free electrons decreases.
At above 6000K the decrease is slow, below 6000K the fluorine atoms begin to capture the free
electrons. At 3000K, nearly all of the free electrons are captured by the fluorine atoms producing
negative fluorine ions. As the fluorine ions are much slower than the electrons, the current is reduced in
proportion to the reduction in speed, when the electrons are captured. As all electrons are captured, the
current is reduced to zero. SF6 gas becomes thermally hyper-conductive at around 2100K, when
molecular dissociation takes place. In any gas, when there is an arc, the majority of the current is
carried in a well-defined arc core. Gases within the arc core are more dissociated, providing the source
of electrons that carry the current. As the current increases, the temperature of the core increases within
significantly lower plateaus of temperatures on either side of the arc core. With SF6, the arc is
concentrated into a smaller region and the majority of the medium acts as a heat sink. As the
temperature of the arc core falls with the decrease in current, the SF6 ceases to conduct current. The
fact that the arc core is well defined, with the majority of the medium in a state of hyper-conductivity,
the energy
evacuation from
the arc core is
very efficient.
The thermal energy within the arc core is quickly transferred to the hyper-conductive medium and to
the surrounding heat sink region.
The defining parameters for medium voltage circuit breakers:
The defining parameters of medium voltage circuit breakers are: the voltage ratings (nominal,
maximum and minimum), the 3-phase MVA breaker rating, the rated current, the K factor (Max./Min.
ratio), symmetrical interrupting ratings (at maximum, nominal and minimum voltage) in KA, the
asymmetrical factor, the short time rating, the close and latch, the insulation level (power frequency,
impulse level), the weight, the dimensions, the interrupting medium, the TRV capability, any arcing
medium monitoring devices, circuit breaker closing time, tripping time, interrupting time, spring
charging time, the control voltages (nominal and range), the spring charging current, close coil current
requirement, the trip coil current rating and surges switching capabilities.
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