RESERVOIR FLUID BEHAVIOR

1. These multicomponent pressure-temperature diagrams are essentially used to :

Classify reservoirs

Classify the naturally occurring hydrocarbon systems

Describe the phase behavior of the reservoir fluid

2. Cricondentherm

The maximum temperature above which liquid cannot be formed regardless of

pressure.

The corresponding pressure is termed the Cricon-dentherm pressure.

3. Cricondenbar

The maximum pressure above which no gas can be formed regardless of

temperature.

The corresponding temperature is called the Cricondenbar temperature.

4. Critical point

The critical point for a multicomponent mixture is referred to as the state of

pressure and temperature at which all inten-sive properties of the gas and
liquid phases are equal.

The corresponding pressure and temperature are called the critical pressure
and critical temperature of the mixture.

5. Phase envelope (two-phase region)

The region enclosed by the bub-ble-point curve and the dew-point curve (line
BCA), wherein gas and liquid coexist in equilibrium, is identified as the phase
envelope of the hydrocarbon system.

6. Quality lines

They describe the pressure and temperature conditions for equal volumes of
liquids.

The quality lines converge at the critical point.

7. Bubble-point curve

The line separating the liquid-phase region from the two-phase region.

8. Dew-point curve

The line separating the vapor-phase region from the two-phase region.

9. Oil reservoirs
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The reservoir is classified as an oil reservoir, if the reservoir temperature T is

less than the critical temperature of the reservoir fluid.

10. Gas reservoirs

The reservoir is considered a gas reservoir, if the reservoir temperature is

greater than the critical temperature of the hydrocarbon fluid

11. Undersaturated oil reservoir.

If the initial reservoir pressure is greater than the bubble-point pressure of

the reservoir fluid.

12. Saturated oil reservoir

The initial reservoir pressure is equal to the bubble-point pressure of the

reservoir fluid.

13. Gas-cap reservoir

The initial reservoir pressure is below the bubble-point pressure of the

reservoir fluid, the gas or vapor phase is underlain by an oil phase.

The appropriate quality line gives the ratio of the gas-cap volume to
reservoir oil volume.

14. The crude oil classifications are essentially based upon the properties exhibited
by the crude oil

Physical properties

Composition,

Gas-oil ratio

Appearance

Pressure-temperature phase diagrams

15. Black oil

16.
17. Dry-gas reservoir

The hydrocarbon mixture exists as a gas both in the reservoir and in the
surface facilities.

The only liquid associated with the gas from a dry-gas reservoir is water.

Usually a system having a gas-oil ratio greater than 100,000 scf/STB.

18. Ideal gas

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The relationship exist-ing between pressure p, volume V, and temperature T

for a given quantity of moles of gas n for perfect gases

pV = nRT

19. Specific volume

The volume occupied by a unit mass of the gas

20. Specific gravity

The ratio of the gas density to that of the air.

Both densities are measured or expressed at the same pressure and

temperature.

Commonly, the standard pressure and standard temperature are used in

defining the gas specific gravity.

21. The magnitude of deviations of real gases from the conditions of the ideal gas
law increases with increasing pressure and tempera-ture and varies widely with
the composition of the gas. Real gases behave differently than ideal gases.
22. Brown et al. (1948) presented a graphical method for a convenient
approximation of the pseudo-critical pressure and pseudo-critical temperature
of gases when only the specific gravity of the gas is available.
23. Hydrocarbon gases are classified as sweet or sour depending on the hydrogen
sulfide content.

A sour gas if it contains one grain of H2S per 100 cubic feet.

Both sweet and sour gases may contain nitro-gen, carbon dioxide, or both.

24. Nonhydrocarbon Adjustment Methods

Wichert-Aziz correction method

Carr-Kobayashi-Burrows correction method

25. Direct calculation of compressibility factors, three empirical correlations

Hall-Yarborough

Dranchuk-Abu-Kassem

Dranchuk-Purvis-Robinson

26. Formation volume factor

Relate the volume of gas, as measured at reservoir conditions, to the

volume of the gas as measured at standard conditions.

27. Viscosity

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The viscosity of a fluid is generally defined as the ratio of the shear force per
unit area to the local velocity gradient.

The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of the internal fluid friction (resis-tance)

to flow.

If the friction between layers of the fluid is small, i.e., low viscosity, an
applied shearing force will result in a large velocity gradi-ent. As the
viscosity increases, each fluid layer exerts a larger frictional drag on the
adjacent layers and velocity gradient decreases.

28. Methods of calculating the viscosity of natural gases

Carr-Kobayashi-Burrows Correlation Method

Lee-Gonzalez-Eakin Method

29. Properties of crude oil systems

Fluid gravity

Specific gravity of the solution

coefficient of undersaturated

gas

crude oils

Isothermal

compressibility

Gas solubility

Oil density

Bubble-point pressure

Total formation volume factor

Oil formation volume factor

Crude oil viscosity

Surface

tension

30. Crude oil gravity

Ratio of the density of the oil to that of water. Both densities are measured
at 60F and atmospheric pressure.

The crude oil density is defined as the mass of a unit volume of the crude at
a specified pressure and temperature.

31. Bubble-point pressure

The highest pressure at which a bubble of gas is first liberated from the oil.

32. Oil formation volume factor

The volume of oil (plus the gas in solution) at the prevailing reservoir
tempera-ture and pressure to the volume of oil at standard conditions.

33. According to the pressure, the viscosity of crude oils can be classified into three
categories:

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The dead oil viscosity is defined as the viscosity of crude oil at atmospheric pressure (no gas in solution) and system temperature.

The saturated (bubble-point) oil viscosity is defined as the viscosity of

the crude oil at the bubble-point pressure and reservoir temperature.

The undersaturated oil viscosity is defined as the viscosity of the crude oil
at a pressure above the bubble-point and reservoir temperature.

34. Surface tension

The force exerted on the boundary layer between a liquid phase and a vapor
phase per unit length.

This force is caused by differences between the molecular forces in the

vapor phase and those in the liquid phase, and also by the imbalance of
these orces at the interface.

FUNDAMENTALS OF ROCK PROPERTIES

35. Three types of laboratory tests used to measure hydrocarbon reservoir
samples:

Primary tests
These are simple, routine field (on-site) tests involving the measure-ments
of the specific gravity and the gas-oil ratio of the produced hydrocarbon
fluids.

Routine laboratory tests

These are several laboratory tests that are routinely conducted to characterize the reservoir hydrocarbon fluid. They include:
Compositional analysis of the system
Constant-composition expansion
Differential liberation
Separator tests
Constant-volume depletion

Special laboratory PVT tests

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These types of tests are performed for very specific applications. If a

reservoir is to be depleted under miscible gas injection or a gas cycling
scheme, the following tests may be performed:
Slim-tube test
Swelling test
36. The purposes of Constant-composition expansion tests:

Saturation pressure (bubble-point or dew-point pressure)

Isothermal compressibility coefficients of the single-phase fluid in excess of

saturation pressure

Compressibility factors of the gas phase

Total hydrocarbon volume as a function of pressure

37. Differential liberation process

The solution gas that is liberated from an oil sample during a decline in
pressure is continuously removed from contact with the oil, and before
establishing equilibrium with the liquid phase.

This type of liberation is characterized by a varying compo-sition of the total

hydrocarbon system.

38. Routine core analysis tests

Porosity

Permeability

Saturation

39. Special core analysis tests

Overburden pressure

Capillary pressure

Relative permeability

Wettability

Surface and interfacial tension

40. Porosity

A measure of the storage capacity (pore vol-ume) that is capable of holding

fluids.

Quantitatively, the porosity is the ratio of the pore volume to the total volume
(bulk volume).
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41. Absolute porosity

The ratio of the total pore space in the rock to that of the bulk volume.

A rock may have considerable absolute porosity and yet have no

conductivity to fluid for lack of pore interconnection.

42. Effective porosity

The percentage of interconnected pore space with respect to the bulk

volume.

The effective porosity is the value that is used in all reservoir engi-neering
calculations because it represents the interconnected pore space that
contains the recoverable hydrocarbon fluids.

43. Original porosity

Developed in the deposition of the material.

The intergranular porosity of sand-stones.

The intercrystalline and oolitic porosity of some limestones.

44. Induced porosity

Developed by some geologic process subsequent to deposition of the rock.

Fracture development as found in shales and limestones.

Slugs or solution cavities commonly found in limestones.

45. The reservoir rock may generally show large variations in porosity vertically but
does not show very great variations in porosity parallel to the bedding planes. In
this case, the arithmetic average porosity or the thickness-weighted average
porosity is used to describe the average reservoir porosity.
46. Saturation

Fraction, or percent, of the pore volume occupied by a particular fluid (oil,

gas, or water).

47. Critical oil saturation

For the oil phase to flow, the saturation of the oil must exceed a certain
value, which is termed critical oil saturation.

At this particular saturation, the oil remains in the pores and, for all practical
purposes, will not flow.

48. Residual oil saturation

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Remaining oil left that is quantitatively characterized by a saturation value

that is larger than the critical oil saturation.

During the displacing process of the crude oil system from the porous media
by water or gas injection (or encroachment).

The term residual saturation is usu-ally associated with the nonwetting

phase when it is being displaced by a wetting phase.

49. Movable oil saturation

The fraction of pore volume occupied by movable oil

Som = 1 SwcSoc

50. Critical gas saturation

The gas phase remains immobile until its saturation exceeds a certain
saturation, above which gas begins to move.

As the reservoir pressure declines below the bubble-point pressure, gas

evolves from the oil phase and consequently the saturation of the gas
increases as the reservoir pressure declines.

51. Critical water saturation, connate water saturation, and irreducible water
saturation

The maximum water saturation at which the water phase will remain
immobile.

52. Wettability

The tendency of one fluid to spread on or adhere to a solid surface in the

presence of other immiscible fluids.

53. The wetting phase tends to occupy the smaller pores of the rock and the
nonwetting phase occupies the more open channels.
54. Surface tension

The forces acting on the interface, when these two fluids are liquid and gas.

55. Interfacial tension

The acting forces, when the interface is between two liquids.

56. Capillary forces

The result of the combined effect of the surface and interfacial tensions of
the rock and fluids, the pore size and geometry, and the wetting
characteristics of the system.

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57. Capillary pressure

(pressure of the nonwetting phase) - (pressure of the wetting phase)

58. Drainage process

The process of generating the capillary pressure curve by displacing the

wetting phase with the nonwetting phase

59. Permeability

A property of the porous medium that measures the capacity and ability of
the formation to transmit fluids.

60. Klinkenberg effect

Permeability measurements made with air as the flowing fluid showed

different results from permeability measurements made with a liquid as the
flowing fluid.

The permeability of a core sample measured by flowing air is always greater

than the per-meability obtained when a liquid is the flowing fluid.

61. Effective overburden pressure

The pressure difference between overburden and internal pore pressure.

62. Reservoir fluids are classified into three groups

Incompressible fluids

Slightly compressible fluids

Compressible fluids

63. Incompressible fluids

An incompressible fluid is defined as the fluid whose volume (or den-sity)

does not change with pressure

64. Slightly Compressible Fluids

These slightly compressible fluids exhibit small changes in volume, or

density, with changes in pressure.

65. Compressible Fluids

These are fluids that experience large changes in volume as a function of

pressure.

66. There are basically three types of flow regimes

Steady-state flow

Unsteady-state flow

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Pseudosteady-state flow

67. Steady-State Flow

The pressure at every location in the reservoir remains constant, does not
change with time.

68. Unsteady-State Flow

The fluid flowing condition at which the rate of change of pressure with
respect to time at any position in the reservoir is not zero or constant.

69. Pseudosteady-State Flow

The pressure at different locations in the reservoir is declining linearly as a

function of time.

OIL RECOVERY MECHANISMS

70. There are basically six driving mechanisms that provide the natural energy
necessary for oil recovery

Rock and liquid expansion drive

Depletion drive

Gas cap drive

Water drive

Gravity drainage drive

Combination drive

71. The reservoir rock compressibility is the result of two factors:

Expansion of the individual rock grains

Formation compaction

72. The Depletion Drive Mechanism

Solution gas drive

Dissolved gas drive

Internal gas drive

DRILLING
73. Drilling fluids

Any fluid which is circulated through a well in order to remove cuttings from
a wellbore.

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74. A drilling fluid must fulfill many functions in order for a well to be drilled
successfully, safely, and economically.

Remove drilled cuttings from under the bit

Carry those cuttings out of the hole

Suspend cuttings in the fluid when circulation is stopped

Release cuttings when processed by surface equipment

Allow cuttings to settle out at the surface

Provide enough hydrostatic pressure to balance formation pore pressures

Prevent the bore hole from collapsing or caving in

Protect producing formations from damage which could impair production

Clean, cool, and lubricate the drill bit

75. Formations usually drilled with normal drilling fluids are shales and sands. Since
viscosity is the major problem, the amount and condition of the colloidal clay is
important. two general types of treatment are used:

Water soluble polyphosphates

Caustic Soda and Tannins

76. Water soluble polyphosphates

Reduce viscosity

Can be used alone or with tannins

If filter cake and filtration control is required add colloidal clay to system

77. Caustic Soda and Tannins

Reduce viscosity

Used under more severe conditions than phosphate treatment

78. Special drilling fluids specific objectives

Faster penetration rates

Greater protection to producing zones

Long salt sections

High formation pressures

79. Special Drilling Fluids

Lime base muds (treated with large amounts of caustic soda, quebracho,
and lime)

Lime-treated muds
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Emulsion muds - oil in water

Inhibited muds (large amounts of dissolved salts added to the mud)

Gypsum base muds (a specialized inhibited mud)

Oil based muds (oil instead of water used as the dispersant)

Inverted emulsions

Salt water muds

Silicate muds

Low solids muds

80. Three ways to remove solids from mud

Water dilution

Centrifuging

Circulate through large surface area pits

81. Drilling fluid classification systems

Drilling fluid classification systems

Dispersed mud systems (with deflocculants and filtratecreducers)

- deeper wells or where problems with viscosity
- the main dispersed mud is a lignosulfonate system

Calcium-treated mud systems

- to inhibit the hydration of formation clays/shales
- hydrated lime, gypsum and calcium chloride are the main components of
this type of system.

Polymer mud systems

- to increase the viscosity, flocculate clays, reduce filtrate and stabilize the
borehole.

Low solids mud system

- controls the solids content and type
- total solids should not be higher than 6% to 10%.
- clay content should not be greater than 3%
- drilled solids to bentonite ratio should be less than 2:1

Saturated salt mud systems

Oil-based mud systems

- invert emulsion (water-in-oil mud)
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- emulsion muds (oil-in-water mud)

Air, mist, foam-based mud systems

- lower than hydrostatic pressure
- types 1) dry air or gas is injected into the borehole to remove cuttings
- types 2) mist drilling is then used, which involves injecting a foaming
agent into the air stream
- types 3) foam drilling is used when large amounts of water is
encountered, which uses chemical detergents and polymers to form the
foam
- types 4) aerated fluids is a mud system injected with air to reduce the
hydrostatic pressure.

Workover mud systems (completion fluids)

- minimize formation damage
- compatible with acidizing and fracturing fluids
- reduce clay/shale hydration

82. Emulsifiers are added to control the rheological properties (water increases
viscosity, oil decreases viscosity).
83. CMC or sodium carboxymethylcellulose
84. Drilling Fluid Additives

Alkalinity and pH Control

Bactericide

Calcium Reducers

Corrosion Inhibitors

Defoamers

Emulsifiers

Filtrate Reducers

Flocculants

Foaming Agents

Lost Circulation Materials

Lubricants

Pipe-Freeing Agents

Shale-Control Inhibitors

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Surfactants

Weighting Agents

85. The electrical stability (E.S.) of an oil-based drilling fluid is the stability of the
emulsions of water in oil
86. Hydrostatic pressure

The pressure created by a column of fluid due to its density and vertical
height.

Hp (psi) = MW x 0.0519 x TVD (ft)

87. Hydraulic Pressure

The pressure created (or needed) to move drilling fluid through pipe.

88. Drilling Fluid Report

Density

Alkalinity

Plastic viscosity

Salt/chlorides

Yield point

Calcium

Gel strength

Sand content, solids content,

pH

Filter cake thickness

water content, oil content

Funnel

viscosity

89. Bit hydraulics and optimization

Jet nozzles

Hydraulic horsepower

Hydraulic impact force

90. Casing

To prevent the borehole from caving in during the drilling of the well, to
provide a means of controlling fluids encountered while drilling, to prevent
contamination of fluids to be produced, and to protect or isolate certain
formations during the course of a well.

91. Five basic types casing

Conductor casing

Surface casing

Intermediate casing

Production casing

Liner
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92. Conductor casing

The first string of casing to be used

The setting depth can vary from 10 ft to around 300 ft

The normal size range for conductor pipe is from 16 to 36 inches

93. Purposes of surface casing

Protect fresh water formations

Seal off unconsolidated formations and lost circulation zones

Provide a place to install the B.O.P.'s

Protect build sections on deviated wells

Provide for a sufficient leak-off test to be conducted

94. Intermediate Casing

Set after surface casing, normally to seal off a problem formation

95. Production Casing

Production casing is usually the last full string of pipe set in a well.

These strings are run to isolate producing formations and provide for
selective production in multi-zone production areas.

96. Liner

A liner is a string of casing that does not reach the surface

They are usually hung (attached to the intermediate casing using an

arrangement of packers and slips) from the base of the intermediate casing
and reach to the bottom of the hole.

97. Oil well cementing

The process of mixing and displacing a slurry down the casing and up the
annulus, behind the casing, where is allowed to set, thus bonding the
casing to the formation.

98. Functions of cementing include

Protecting producing formations

Providing support for the casing

Protecting the casing from corrosion

Sealing off troublesome zones

Protecting the borehole in the event of problems

99. Cement additives

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100.

Accelerators

Retarders

Extenders

Pozzolans
Accelerators

A chemical additive used to speed up the normal rate of reaction between

cement and water which shortens the thickening time of the cement,
increase the early strength of cement, and saves time on the drilling rig.

101.

Retarders

An additive used to increase the thickening time of cements.

Lignosulfonates, modified cellulose, organic acids, organic materials and

borax

102.

Extenders

Extended cement slurries are used to reduce the hydrostatic pressure on

weak formations and to decrease the cost of slurries.

103.

Fly ash, bentonite, and diatomaceous earth

Pozzolans

Natural or artificial siliceous materials added to portland cement to reduce

slurry density and viscosity

104.

Drilling bit

Rolling Cutter Rock Bits

Polycrystalline Diamond Compact Bits

Diamond Bits

Coring

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