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CCNA Basics

Category Archives: b. COMMUNICATION

MODELS AND MEDIA
August 5, 2012

2.1 OSI Reference Model

What is an OSI model?
The OSI model or the OPEN SYSTEMS INTERCONNECTION (OSI) is a layered framework for the
design of network system that allows for communication across all types of computer systems. It is
designed by the INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS ORGANISATION (ISO) to define the basic
standards for network communication. The OSI is a layered network model that explains step-by-step
how systems communicate. A layered network model makes it easier to understand how packets are
sent from one computer to another and reduces the complexity.
The OSI model consists of 7 separate but related layers, each of which defines a segment of process of
moving information across a network.
7 layers of OSI model are:

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How to remember the names of the layers?

The OSI is a layered architecture. What is meant by layered architecture?

The OSI model is built of 7 ordered layers.
Consider the figure below:

Various layers are involved when a message is sent from device A to device B. As the message travels

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Various layers are involved when a message is sent from device A to device B. As the message travels
from A to B, it may pass through many intermediate nodes. These intermediate layers usually involve
only the first 3 layers of OSI model.
In developing the model, the designers distilled the process of transmitting data down to its most
fundamental elements. They identified which networking functions had related uses and collected those
functions into discreet groups that became layers. By defining and localizing functionally in this
fashion, the designers created an architecture that is both comprehensive and flexible.
Advantages of layered architecture:
1. Allows you to modify a component without disturbing the next one.
2. Design scalable and maintainable application rapidly.
3. Increase security of an application.
The 7 layers of the OSI are divided into two parts:
The host layers: they provide accurate data delivery between the computers.
The media layers: they control physical delivery of messages over the network.

To understand how OSI model works, it is important to know the functions of each layer.
FUNCTIONS OF EACH LAYER:
7. APPLICATION LAYER:
This layer enables the user to access the network. It provides user interfaces and support for services
such as e-mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database management and other types of
distributed information services.
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Functions of application layer are:

It defines user interface tower level layers and various application processes.
It generates and processes the requests that it receives.
It deals with large amount of data, data transfer and user requirements for network.
It is responsible for implementation of security checks at user entry points.
Specific services provided by the application layer are:
Network virtual terminal: it is a software version of a physical terminal and allows a user to
logon to a remote host.
File transfer, access and management (FTAM): this application allows a user to access files in a
remote computer (to make changes or read data), to retrieve files from remote computer and to
manage or control files in a remote computer.
Mail services: this application provides basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.
Directory services: this application provides distributed database sources and access for global
information about various objects and services.
6. PRESENTATION LAYER: the presentation layer is responsible for inter-operability. On the sender
side, it changes the information from its sender-dependent format to the common format and finally to
the receiver dependent format on receiver side.
Various functions of this layer are
It acts as an interpreter between the network and the node, it represents data according to the
software/hardware environment of the node.
It provides several functionalities related to data like:
Data compression: it reduces the number of bits to be transmitted by compressing the data.
Data conversion: it formats the data on different nodes as per their software/hardware
environment.
Data encryption: it encodes data in a specific format so as it cannot be understood by every
user or application.
5. SESSION LAYER:
It provides services related to sessions between two computers. Main services provided by this layer
are:gff
It allows users on different networks to establish a connection called session between them.
It provides services like authentication (username & password check), connecting (creating
connection) & disconnecting (terminating connection) user access.
It maintains the sequence of data packets and two-way communication.
It provides a mechanism for a program to establish communication link with other program.
It provides processes like synchronization so that data can be transmitted exactly from the point
where the connection was broken.

4. TRANSPORT LAYER:

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4. TRANSPORT LAYER:
This layer is responsible for source-to-destination (end-to-end) delivery of entire message, whereas
network layer oversees end-to-end delivery of individual packet without recognizing any relationship
between those packets. The network layer treats each packet independently as though each piece
belonged to a separate message, whether or not it does. The transport layer on the other hand ensures
that the whole message arrive intact and in order, overseeing both error control and flow control at the
source-to-destination level.
Responsibilities of transport layer are:
Service-point addressing: computer often runs several programs at the same time. For this
reason, source-to-destination delivery means delivery not only from one computer to the next but
also from a specific process (running program) on one computer to a specific process (running
program) on the other. The transport layer, therefore, must include a type of address called a
service-point address (or, port address). The network layer gets each packet to the correct computer;
the transport layer gets the entire message to the correct process on that computer.
Segmentation and reassembly: a message is divided into transmittable segments, each segment
containing a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the
message correctly upon arriving at the destination and to identify and replace packets that were last
in transmission.
Connection control: a transport layer can be either connection-oriented or connection-less. A
connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent packet and delivers it to the
transport layer at the destination machine. A connection-oriented transport layer makes a
connection with the transport layer at the destination machine before delivering the packets. After
all the data is transferred, the connection is terminated.
Flow control: the transport layer is responsible for flow control. Flow control at this layer is
performed end-to-end
Error control: error control at this layer is performed end-to-end. The sending transport layer
makes sure that the entire message arrives at the receiving transport layer without error (damage,
loss or duplication). Error correction is usually achieved through re-transmission.
It takes information from session layer and converts it into format understandable by other systems.
3. NETWORK LAYER:
It is responsible for the delivery of individual data packets from the source-to-destination across
multiple networks. It adds the logical address of the sender and receiver to the packet. It also provides
routing facility.
Functions of this layer are:
Logical addressing: the network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper layers
that among other things include the logical address of sender and receiver.
Routing: when independent networks or links are connected together to create internetwork (a
network of networks) or a large network, the connecting devices (called routers or gateways) route
the packets to their final destination.
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It keeps the track of which layer receives the information.

It translates the logical network address to physical machine address.
It breaks larger packets into smaller ones so that they could be accepted by data link layer.
It provides flow control and congestion control services.
2. DATA LINK LAYER:
It transforms the physical layer- a raw transmission facility to a reliable link and is responsible for nodeto-node delivery. Its function is to move data frames from one station to other. Data link layer divides
the stream of bits into number of frames. Also the physical address of the receiver device is added to the
data frame. It provides error control mechanism to detect and retransmit corrupt or lost frame.
Functions of data link layer are:
Framing: it defines the stream of bits received from the network layer into manageable data units
called frames. It formalises data into equal units called frames and defines route for each frame.
Physical addressing: if frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the data
link layer adds a header to the frame to define the physical address of the sender (source address)
and/or receiver (destination address) of the frame. If the frame is intended for the system outside the
senders network, the receiver address is the address of the device that connects one network to the
next. This means that data link layer gains physical access to network to transfer data.
Flow control: if the rate at which the data is absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate at which
data is transmitted by sender then data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to prevent
overwhelming the receiver.
Error control: the data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanisms to
detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses the mechanism to prevent duplication of
frames. Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of the frame.
Access control: when 2 or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer protocols
are necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any given time.
1. PHYSICAL LAYER:
It co-ordinates the functions required to transmit a bit stream over a physical medium. It deals with the
mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and transmission medium. It also defines the
procedures and functions that physical device and interfaces have to perform for transmission to occur.
Physical layer is concerned with the following:
Physical characteristics of interface and media: the physical layer defines the characteristics of
the interface between the devices and the transmission medium. It also defines the type of
transmission medium.
Presentation of bits: the physical layer data consists of a stream of bits (sequence of 0s and 1s)
without any interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals- electrical or
optical. The physical layer defines the type of encoding (how 0s and 1s are changed to signals).
Data rate: the transmission rate- the number of bits sent each second- is also defined by physical
layer. This means that physical layer defines the duration of bits which is how ong it lasts.
Synchronization of bits: the sender and receiver must be synchronized at the bit level. In other
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words, the sender and receiver clocks must be synchronized.

Line configuration: the physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the medium.
Line configuration refers to the way two or more communication devices attach to a link. A link is a
physical communication pathway that transfers data from one device to another. line configuration
defines the attachment of communication devices to a linkPoint-to-point: this configuration provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire
capacity of the channel is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
Multipoint: a multipoint (also called multidrop) line configuration is one in which more than two
specific devices share a single link.
Physical topology: it defines how devices are connected to make a network. Devices can be
connected using a mesh topology (every device connected to every other device), a ring topology
(every device is connected to the next, forming a ring) or a bus topology (every device on a common
link).
Transmission mode: the physical layer also defines the direction of transmission between two
devices: simplex, half duplex or full duplex.
In the simplex mode, only one device can send, the other can only receive. The simplex mode is a
one way communication.
In the half-duplex mode, two devices can send and receive but not at the same time.
In a full-duplex mode (or duplex mode), two devices can send and receive at the same time.
The physical layer defines the electrical and mechanical specifications of cables and connectors.
It also defines physical transmission medium between two stations.
SUMMARY OF LAYERS

HOW OSI MODEL HELPS IN COMMUNICATION?

The communication between two devices takes place step by step.
If a computer wants to send piece of information to another computer, following steps will take place:
1. The data will travel through APPLICATION LAYER which attaches its piece of information like
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

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provides network service.

Now data travels to presentation layer where data gets formatted i.e., encrypted, compressed or
translated whatever is the requirement.
Now data travels down to the session layer where session layer performs its function of connection
coordination.
Data then travels to transport layer where data is reassembled in sequence and any error is
corrected.
Now data travels to network layer where data is routed to the destination using the IP address.
Data then travels to the data link layer where it is divided into frames. Data link layer uses the MAC
address. This layer attaches additional information to the data. A frame header and frame trailer
are attached to the data.
Frame header contains the source MAC address and the destination MAC address.
Frame trailer checks the frame loss or frame error.

7. At physical layer, data is transformed into bits and sent to the other device through the physical
connection be it through cables or wireless.
When the receiving computer receives the data, following steps are followed:
1. The data is received by the physical layer now.
2. Then data travels to data link layer where the information is stripped out of the frame header and
the frame trailer.
3. The network layer receives the data packets.
4. The transport layer receives data in sequence.
5. The session layer coordinates the communication.
6. The presentation layer decrypts the data which was encrypted by the presentation layer of source
computer.
7. The application layer receives the data in readable form.

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DIFFERENT DEVICES WORK ON DIFFERENT LAYERS:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Gateways work on application layer.

Routers work on network layer.
Bridges/switches work on data link layer.
Hubs/ repeaters work on physical layer.

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August 5, 2012

2.2 TCP/IP MODEL

The TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers:
Physical layer
Data link layer
Network layer
Transport layer
Application layer
The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface, internetworking, and transport

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The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface, internetworking, and transport
functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model. The three topmost layers in the OSI
model, however, are represented in TCP/IP by a single layer called the application layer.

Layer

Description

Protocols

Application

Defines TCP/IP application

protocols and how host
programs interface with
transport layer services to use
the network.

HTTP, Telnet, FTP, TFTP,

SNMP, DNS, SMTP,
X Windows, other application
protocols

Transport

Provides communication session

management between host
computers. Defines the level of
service and status of the
connection used when
transporting data.

TCP, UDP, RTP

Internet

Packages data into IP

datagrams, which contain
source and destination address
information that is used to

IP, ICMP, ARP, RARP

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forward the datagrams between

hosts and across networks.
Performs routing of IP
datagrams.
Network interface

Specifies details of how data is

physically sent through the
network, including how bits are
electrically signaled by
hardware devices that interface
directly with a network
medium, such as coaxial cable,
optical fiber, or twisted-pair
copper wire.

Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI,

X.25, Frame Relay, RS-232,
v.35

TCP/IP Protocols
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)- Web servers implement this protocol. Short for Hypertext
Transfer Protocol, the underlying protocol used by the World Wide Web. HTTP defines how
messages are formatted and transmitted, and what actions Web servers and browsers should take
in response to various commands. For example, when you enter a URL in your browser, this
actually sends an HTTP command to the Web server directing it to fetch and transmit the requested
Web page.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)- Used by e-mail servers (and sometimes Web servers) to
send e-mail. Short for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, a protocol for sending e-mail messages
between servers. Most e-mail systems that send mail over the Internet use SMTP to send messages
from one server to another; the messages can then be retrieved with an e-mail client using either
POP or IMAP. In addition, SMTP is generally used to send messages from a mail client to a mail
server. This is why you need to specify both the POP or IMAP server and the SMTP server when
you configure your e-mail application.
Post Office Protocol Version 3 (POP3)- A protocol used to retrieve e-mail from a mail server.
Most e-mail applications (sometimes called an e-mail client) use the POP protocol, although some
can use the newer IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol). There are two versions of POP. The
first, called POP2, became a standard and requires SMTP to send messages. The newer version,
POP3, can be used with or without SMTP.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)- The protocol for exchanging files over the Internet. FTP works in the
same way as HTTP for transferring Web pages from a server to a users browser and SMTP for
transferring electronic mail across the Internet in that, like these technologies, FTP uses the
Internets TCP/IP protocols to enable data transfer. FTP is most commonly used to download a file
from a server using the Internet or to upload a file to a server (e.g., uploading a Web page file to a
server).
DNS- Short for Domain Name System (or Service or Server), an Internet service that translates
domain names into IP addresses. Because domain names are alphabetic, theyre easier to
remember. The Internet however, is really based on IP addresses. Every time you use a domain
name, therefore, a DNS service must translate the name into the corresponding IP address.

For example, the domain name http://www.example.com (http://www.example.com) might

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For example, the domain name http://www.example.com (http://www.example.com) might

translate to 198.105.232.4. The DNS system is, in fact, its own network. If one DNS server doesnt
know how to translate a particular domain name, it asks another one, and so on, until the correct IP
address is returned.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)- creates a reliable connection between two computers.
TCP is one of the main protocols in TCP/IP networks. Whereas the IP protocol deals only with
packets, TCP enables two hosts to establish a connection and exchange streams of data. TCP
guarantees delivery of data and also guarantees that packets will be delivered in the same order in
which they were sent.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)- Does not establish a connection, just sends messages. It is a
connectionless protocol that, like TCP, runs on top of IP networks. Unlike TCP/IP, UDP/IP provides
very few error recovery services, offering instead a direct way to send and receive datagrams over
an IP network. Its used primarily for broadcasting messages over a network.
Internet Protocol (IP)- Provides addressing scheme.. IP specifies the format of packets, also called
datagrams, and the addressing scheme. Most networks combine IP with a higher-level protocol
called Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which establishes a virtual connection between a
destination and a source. IP by itself is something like the postal system. It allows you to address a
package and drop it in the system, but theres no direct link between you and the recipient. TCP/IP,
on the other hand, establishes a connection between two hosts so that they can send messages back
and forth for a period of time.
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)- Provides error messages. It is an extension to the
Internet Protocol (IP). ICMP supports packets containing error, control, and informational
messages. The PING command, for example, uses ICMP to test an Internet connection.
IMAP Short for Internet Message Access Protocol, a protocol for retrieving e-mail messages. The
latest version, IMAP4, is similar to POP3 but supports some additional features. For example, with
IMAP4, you can search through your e-mail messages for keywords while the messages are still on
mail server. You can then choose which messages to download to your machine.
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August 5, 2012

2.3 Transmission media/cables

Media is the physical path through which data is transmitted and received. Media is of two types:
Guided media- it is the wired transmission media. The data travels through cables.
Unguided media- it is the wireless transmission media. The data travels through air.
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Twisted pair
Coaxial
Fibre-optics
WirelessInfra-red
Radio-wave
Twisted pair cables: They consist of two insulated copper wires twisted around each other. The advantage of twisting is
that it cancels out electrical noise from adjacent pair (called crosstalk) and external sources.
They use RJ-45 telephone type connectors.
These cables are not expensive.
These are easy to install.
There are 2 types of twisted pair cables:
Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

Shielded twisted pair (STP)

Shielded twisted pair: If the twisted pairs are shielded in the
Foil, they are called shielded twisted
Pair (STP).

Jacket and a higher quality protective

STP cables use woven copper braid

jacket. They also use foil wrap between

and around the wire pairs.
These cables are much less susceptible to inference and support higher transmission rate than UTP.
These cables are used in an environment where electrical noises are high like factories.
Shielding makes it harder to install.
Distance limit is 100 metres which causes attenuation problem. Attenuation is a general term that
refers to any reduction in the strength of signal.

Unshielded twisted pair: Maximum cable length of UTP is 100 metres.

They consist of 4 pairs of wires, full duplex.
UTP is the most common form of twisted pair wiring,
because it is less expensive and easier to work with than
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STP.
Categories of UTP cables are: Category

Speed
(data
rate)

Application

CAT 1

1
mbps

Analog voice (POTS), Integrated Services Digital Network.

CAT 2

4
Mbps

Mainly used in the IBM Cabling System for Token Ring networks
(http://searchNetworking.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid7_gci213154,00.html)

CAT 3

16
Mbps

Voice and data on 10Base-T Ethernet

CAT 4

20
Mbps

Used in 16 Mbps Token Ring

Otherwise not used much.

CAT 5

100
Mbps

supports Fast Ethernet and comparable alternatives such as ATM.

Limitation of using UTP is that they can be easily tapped as they are not shielded cables.
They are more prone to damage.
The main problem is attenuation because of more twists and works in limited distance of 100
meters- same as in case of STP.
Types of Ethernet cables: Straight cable-regular cable used in a network.
Cross-over cable-cable directly connecting two similar devices.
Straight cables: in straight cables, the corresponding pins are directly connected.
The straight cables are used to connect:
Host (PC) to switch or hub.
Router to switch or hub.
Example:
Cross-over cables: in cross-over cables, 2 PCs are connected by
connecting pins cross-over.
Cross-over cables are used to connect:
Switch to switch
Hub to hub
Host to host
Hub to switch
Router direct to host.
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Example:
Coaxial cables: Cables used in cable TVs, long distance
telephone communication and LANs.
They can transmit analog and digital
signals but repeaters are used for digital
signals after every few kilometres.
Consists of a Solid or Stranded Copper Core Surrounded by Insulation, a Braided Shield and an
Insulating Jacket.
Braided Shield Prevents Noise and Crosstalk
More

Resistant to Interference and Attenuation Than Twisted

Pair Cabling.

Coaxial cables use following connectors: BNC-T connector

Open terminator
Terminator with ground
Types of coaxial cables: Thinnet cable
Thicknet cable
Thinnet cable: Also called RG-58 cable or 10 Base 2.
0.25 Thick.
Can carry signal 185 meters or 607 feet.
Thicknet cable: 0.5 Thick
Used for 10base5 Networks, Linear Bus Topology
Transmits at 10 Mbps
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External Transceivers
Can Carry Signals 500 Meters or 1640 Fee
Much Less Flexible and Far More Bulky and Harder to Install Than Thinnet.

Uses DIX or
AUI
(Attachment
Unit
Interface)
Connector
Also Known
As DB-15
Connector to
Connect to

Advantages of thicknet over thinnet:

Better Security Than Thinnet
Better Resistance to Electrical Interference Than Thinnet
MORE Expensive Than Thinnet
MORE Expensive Than Thinnet
Coaxial cable which serves as a backbone transmission medium for the LAN.
Fibre optic cable: Consists of a small core of glass or plastic surrounded by a cladding layer and jacket. Cladding is an
insulating material and jacket is a protective covering.
Fibers are unidirectional (light only travels in one direction) so two fibers are used, one for sending
and one for receiving. Kevlar fibers are placed between the two fibers for strength.
Good for very high speed, long distance data transmission.
NOT subject to electrical interference.
Cable cant be tapped
and data cant be stolen
=> high security.

and is used for relatively large distances. It generates one stream of laser.

Single mode optical fibre:

it is also called
monomode optical fibre

Multimode optical fibre: it is designed to carry multiple light rays

concurrently each at a slightly different reflection angle within optical fibre
core. It is used for relatively shorter distances.
The multimode connector used is shown alongside:
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The quality of information transmitted through a communication medium depends upon bandwidth.
Increased bandwidth means faster transmission speed.
Bandwidth is affected by the amount of network traffic, software protocols, and type of network
connection.
Comparison between different transmission media is given in table below: -

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