Chemistry

Owes its origin alchemist of those days (A.D.500 1600).

An alchemist was a person who devoted a large amount of time and effort
mainly for searching for the elixir of life (a potion that stops the aging
process) and looking for ways to change base metals (such as lead) into
gold.
Chemistry Today:
The science of Chemistry can still be defined as the study of the materials
that make up the universe and the changes these materials undergo.
Some science historians believe that the word chemistry derives from the
Greek word chemeia, meaning the art of metalworking.
The information obtained may be both qualitative, consisting of general
observations about the system, and quantitative, comprising numbers
obtained by various measurements of the system.
When enough information has been gathered, a hypothesis a tentative
explanation for a set of observations can be formulated.
Further
experiments are devised to test the validity of the hypothesis in as many ways
as possible.
After a large amount of data has been collected, it is often desirable to
summarize the information in a concise way. A law is a concise verbal or
mathematical statement of a relation between phenomena that is
always the same under the same conditions. As mentioned earlier, hypotheses
provide only tentative explanations that must be tested by many experiments.
If they survive such tests, hypotheses may develop into theories. A theory is
a unifying principle that explains a body of facts and those laws that
are based on them. Theories too are constantly being tested. If a theory is
proven incorrect by experiment, then it must be discarded or modified so that
it becomes consistent with experimental observations.
Matter
Anything that occupies space and has mass is called a matter. Matter
is all around us. Matter included things we can see and touch (such as water,
earth, and trees) as well as things we cannot (such as air).
Substances and Mixtures
A substance is a form of matter that has a definite or constant
composition (the number and type of basic units present) and distinct
properties. Examples include water, ammonia, table sugar (sucrose), gold,
and oxygen). A mixture is a combination of two or more substances in
which the substances retain their identity. Some familiar examples are
air, soft drinks, milk, and cement.
Mixtures do not have constant
compositions. This solution is a homogeneous mixture. If sand is mixed
with iron filing, however, the result is a heterogeneous mixture.
In

heterogeneous mixture, the individual components

separated and can be seen as separate components.

remain

physically

A physical property can be measured and observed without changing

the composition or identity of a substance. Hydrogen gas burns in
oxygen gas to from water describes a chemical property of hydrogen
because in order to observe this property we must carry out a
chemical reaction, in this case burning. After the reaction, the original
hydrogen and oxygen gases will have vanished, and all that will be left is
water. We cannot recover the hydrogen from the water by a physical change
such as boiling or freezing the water.
Substances can be either elements or compounds.
An element is a
substance that cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical
means. At present, 109 elements have been positively identified. Eightythree of them occur naturally on Earth. The others have been created by
scientists in nuclear reactions.
As we mentioned earlier, water can be formed by burning hydrogen in oxygen.
The atoms of hydrogen and oxygen combine to form water, which has
properties that are distinctly different from those of the starting
materials. Thus, water is an example of a compound, a substance composed
or atoms of two or more elements chemically united in fixed proportions.
Daltons atomic theory (in 1808) marks the beginning of the modern era of
chemistry. The hypotheses about the nature of matter on which Dalton based
his theory can be summarized as follows:
Elements are composed of extremely small particles, called atoms. All
atoms of a given element are identical, having the same size, mass, and
chemical properties. The atoms of one element are different from the
atoms of all other elements.
Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element. In any
compound, the ratio of the numbers of atoms of any two of the elements
present is either an integer or a simple fraction.
A chemical reaction involves only the separation, combination or
rearrangement of atoms; it does not result in their creation or
destruction.
Law of conservation of mass, which says that matter can neither be created
nor destroyed. Since matter is made of atoms that are unchanged in a
chemical reaction, it follows that mass must be conserved as well. Daltons
brilliant insight into the nature of matter was the main cause of the
rapid progress of chemistry in the nineteenth century.

Various Concepts & Terms

Unit of Mass:
One of the fundamental properties of an atom is its mass. The mass of an
atom is related to the number of electrons, protons, and neutrons in the atom.
By international agreement, an atom of the isotope of carbon (called
carbon-12) that has six protons and six neutrons has a mass of
exactly 12 atomic mass units (amu). One atomic mass unit is also called
Dalton This carbon-12 atom serves as the standard, so one atomic mass unit
is defined as a mass exactly equal to 1/12 th the mass of one carbon 12
atom.

Mass of one C-12 atom = 12 amu

Mass of one carbon 12 atom
1 amu = ---------------------------------------12
The amu provides a unit of mass for comparison - but the units are very small
for practical use. Concept of mole (mol) is used for this purpose- it is the
amount of substance that contains as many elementary units ( atoms,
molecules, ions or other particles) as there are in exactly 12 g of the
carbon (12C).This quantity is called as molar mass of carbon. Which is the
mass of 1 mole of units (such as atoms or molecules)
1 mole = 6.022045 x 1023 particles. This is called as Avogadros
number
The term molecular weight has also been used to mean molecular mass.
The molecular mass is the sum of the atomic masses in the molecule. For
example, the molecular mass of H2O is
2(atomic mass of H) + atomic mass of O
{2(1.008g) + 16.00g}= 18.02 g = molar mass of water
Various other examples
N2 + 3H2 ---- 2NH3
CO + H2O ------ CO2 + H2
2SO2 + O2 ----- 2SO3

Mass & Weight: For most practical purposes both mean the same. Mass and
weight are often used interchangeably, yet strictly speaking, they are not
equivalent. Mass is defined as the quantity of matter contained in an object.
The mass a body is fixed & constant it will change only when some thing is
either removed from it or added to it.
Weight is a measure of the
gravitational pull exerted on the object- it can change from place to place
depending upon the local gravitational forces.
Equivalent Weight = chemical equivalent or the combining weight in a
reaction.
Equivalent weight of an element = is a number which shows how many
parts by weight of a particular element combines with (or replaces from a
compound), with 8 parts by weight of oxygen, or 1.008 parts of hydrogen.
Equivalent weight of an acid / base = is the mass of it which contains
/which combines with 1.008 g of replaceable hydrogen.
HCl, HNO3,HBr,CH3COOH, NaOH,KOH = Mol.Wt. = Eq. Wt.
H2SO4, Na2CO3= Mol.Wt/2 = Eq.Wt.
Equivalent weight of a reducing/oxidizing agent = is the mass of it
which reacts with or contains 1.008 g of hydrogen of 8.00g of available
oxygen.
KMnO4 = Mol.Wt/5 = Eq.Wt. [ As 2 KMn04 = 2K+ +Mn+2+50]
FeCl3 = Mol.Wt = Eq.Wt.
Normality = is most common method of expressing concentration of a
solution. Which is number of equivalents in grams of the reagent present in
one liter of the solution = gram equivalents per liter
1N NaOH = 40g NaOH in 1 liter of the solution (4g NaOH in 100 ml of the
solution or 0.4g in 10 ml of the solution)
0.1N NaOH = 4g NaOH in 1 liter of the solution (0.4g NaOH in 100 ml of the
solution or 0.04g in 10 ml of the solution)
1N KMnO4 = 31.5g KMnO4 in 1 liter of the solution

Other methods used for expressing concentrations are:

Molarity , molality, g/l, % (w/w), % (w/v)

For Dilute solutions concentration is generally expressed in terms of ppm

(Parts per million = mg/l)
Periodic Table
At the present time we know of slightly more than 109 chemical elements.
Most of these have been described very thoroughly and a large number of
their physical and chemical properties have been collected. These data have
led to a very compact arrangement known as the periodic table.
By 1869, about 63 elements had been discovered and in that year the first
reasonably successful system for organizing all the elements appeared. Two
men, Dmitri Mendeleev in Russia and Lothar Meyer in Germany, at about the
same time, independently produced very similar arrangements of the elements
in chart form. What they were was that if you arrange the elements in order
of increasing atomic weights, certain chemical properties repeat at regular
intervals. Using this guideline, they found that the elements tended to fall into
groups, each characterized by a set of chemical properties different from the
groups preceding or following it. In other words, they recognized a cyclic or
periodic nature to the chemical properties of the elements.
Mendeleev stated his discovery as the periodic law : The properties of the
elements are in periodic dependence upon their atomic weights. All this was
done using only chemical and physical properties and without any really firm
ideas about atomic structure.
The modern period law says that the properties of the elements are periodic
functions of their atomic numbers. That is, when the elements are arranged in
order of increasing atomic number, they demonstrate their periodicity even
more than when arranged by atomic weight. In todays periodic table, which
has nearly twice as many elements as Mendeleev knew, there are more
families, but the essential idea of periodic chemical properties is unchanged.
Gas Laws:
Boyles Law : At constant temperature the volume of a given mass of a gas
varies inversely as the pressure. P 1/ V [ P1xV1 = P2xV2 = constant]
Charles Law : The volume of a given mass of a gas varies directly as its
absolute temperature, so long as the pressure remains constant. V T
[V1/T1= V2/T2 = constant]
Combined Gas Laws : when both the laws are combined we get
[PV/T = P1V1/T1= P2V2/T2 = constant]
It would be reasonable to ask, in light of the foregoing sections, what happens
to the volume of a gas if the temperature and pressure are held constant and
we change the mass of gas.
In 1811, Amadeo Avogadro proposed a

remarkable answer to this question called Avogadros hypothesis. He said that

at a given temperature and pressure, equal volume of gases contain
same number of molecules. What this means is that if you have 1 L of
oxygen at a given temperature and pressure, for example, it will have the
same number of molecules in it as 1 L of nitrogen at the same temperature
and pressure.
Acid & Bases.The Bronsted-Lowry Definition
The classical (Arthenius) concept of acids and bases was extended by Bronsted
and Lowry in 1923. According to their definitions, an acid is anything,
molecule or iron, that gives up or donates a proton, and a base is any species
that will accept a proton. Not only is the definition of a base expanded,
compared to Arrheniuss definition, but limitations on the type of solvent are
removed. Bronsted and Lowry did not believe that acid-base behavior occurs
only in water.
According to the Bronsted-Lowry view,thus, when HCl reacts with water :
HCl(g) + H2O H3O+(aq) + Cl--(aq)
Further, according to them just like redox system there is acid-base
system. A compound can function as acid only if a base is present, same
is true for the base.
In above reaction Water acts like a base and accepts the proton from the HCl
Here HCl is an acid and water is base. If we consider the reverse reaction
H3O+ will be an acid giving proton to base ClHCl(g) + H2O
Acid-1 + Base -1

H3O+(aq) + Cl--(aq)
Acid-2 + Base-2

Acid-1(HCl) & Base-2(Cl-) - are known as acid and the corresponding

conjugate base pair. Similarly H2O
& H3O+ base and corresponding
conjugate acid pair.
Concept of Weak Acids & Weak Bases :

-OH + H2O --- -O- + H3O+

Cl2--NH2 + H2O ----- Cl2--+NH3 + OH-

Concept of pH:
The pH of a solution is calculated from its molar concentration of hydrogen ion
by using the formula.
pH = -log10[H3O+]
where log10 or log is taken to mean base 10 logarithm. Make a note to
remember that the brackets, [ ], mean molar concentration when used in a
solution chemistry context. The method will be illustrated by finding the pH of
a solution whose H3O+ concentration is 0.1 M :
Substitute the molar H3O+ concentration into the expression
pH = -log[H3O+] = -log[1 x 10-1]
Use the property of logs, which says that the log of a product of two or more
numbers equals the sum of the logs of the factors in the product, to get
pH = -log[1 x 10-1] = -[log 1 + log 10-1]
Evaluate the log terms on the right either by using the table, your calculator or
some other method : log 1 = 0; log 10-1 = -1, which when substituted give
pH = -[0 + (-1)]
Remove the inner parentheses giving - pH = -[0 -1] = -[ -1]
Finally simplify to

pH = 1

Calculate the pH of a 0.01 M solution of HNO3

As the HNO3 is stong acid dissociation is complete & [H3O+] =0.01 M
pH = -log[H3O+] = -log[1 x 10-2]
pH = -[log 1 + log 10-2]
log 1 = 0; log 10-2 = -2; therefore, pH = -[0 + (-2)]
pH = -[0 2] = -[-2] = 2.0
Calculate [ H3O+ ] for a solution whose pH is 2.3.
Substitute pH value into [ H3O+ ] = 10-pH = 10
Rewrite the exponent : [ H3O+ ] = 10

2.3

2.3

= 10

0.7

x 10

Find the antilog of the positive exponent: Antilog (0.7) = 5

Write the concentration :
[H3O+] = 5 x 10 3
Law of Mass Action & Equilibrium constant :
The rate of a chemical reaction is directly proportional to active mass i.e. the
molecular concentration of each of the reacting substances it is actually gram
mole of a substance per unit volume say per liter.
CH3COOH + H2O <----- CH3 COO - + H3O
a-x
b-x
x
x

R-F [CH3COOH]X[H2O] & R-B [Ch3COO] + [ ]

R-F = Rate of forward reaction & R-B = Rate of back word reaction
--- -- -- -- -- -- --- -- - -- ---- --- -- -- -- --

Concept of Reversible & Irreversible reactions

Le Chaterliers Principle:
If to a system in equilibrium we apply a constraint, a change takes place
within the system tending to nullify the constraint and to restore the
equilibrium
N2 + 3H2 ---- 2NH3 +heat
CO + H2O ------ CO2 + H2 - heat
2SO2 + O2 ----- 2SO3