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Confucian
Ethics
and Japanese
Practices
Management
Marcj.
contradictions
between
the Confucian
code
writings
and modern
and
inconsistencies
realities.
Attention
seems
There
In the
(Abegglen and Stalk, 1986).
are
and
papers
being published
the nature
research programs
launched to determine
A major portion of
and efficacy of the phenomenon.
academic
arena,
effort in 'International
development
is directed
Business'
toward the study of, and con
tact with,
the
firm and
Japanese
trading company.
the
have
Japanese firms and
Japanese government
centers within
established
the university
academic
the curricula
environment
to
foster
help
cooperative
and
projects
mutual
understanding.
arisen concerning
have naturally
the
Questions
or
non
not
adoption of Japanese ways and whether
can
Japanese firms
successfully implement
techniques
in another
which
have been proved
culture
(e.g.,
and Mirza,
Tsurumi,
1978; Buckley
1985; Dillon,
et
1983; Sethi
al, 1984). The debate over the issues of
Dr. Marc
J. Dollinger
is an Assistant
Indiana University. He
versity
in 1983. His
Professor
of Management
at
current
research
is
focused
on
the
strategic
Dolling*
in
places the question
divergence
is thor
framework
and the evidence
and
convergence
an academic
oughly mixed
and empirical
theoretical development
findings
or not the
Japanese
(and therefore other
are
more
East Asian economies)
like the
becoming
both
whether
or vice
West
versa.
to culture as a factor in
though references
a gap exists
the convergence
debate are ubiquitous,
in our
of
of
the
ethics
Japanese cul
understanding
ture. Most Westerners,
business
academics,
including
source
to
have had litde or no exposure
original
materials
has
been
There
consider
(in translation).
Even
Baliga
their interpretation
of the culture of Japan and their
enactment of it. Since most Western
readers have no
direct
of Japanese
experience
and
historical
philosophical
ethics
roots,
and society,
the reader
its
is
to accept reconstructions
of Japanese culture
rather than the logic-in-use
(Kaplan, 1964).
The purposes
of this paper are twofold. One
forced
design
is to offer
original material
from
one of the
576
Marcj.
sources
ethical
the
of Japanese
tradition,
of Confucius,
and illustrate its contributions
in the context of Japanese
and industrial
managerial
are
as the most
The
Analects
practices.
regarded
source
In the Ana
reliable
of Confucius'
writings.
major
Analects
lects, Confucius
themes
major
important
wrote
of
character
set
the
tone
of Chinese
of these
themes
the
importance
of human nature
and
introduced
The
philosophy.
is humanism.
of
the
most
Confucius
the
the
individual,
and the value of devel
He wrote
of the
through
learning.
of human
and the need for
perfectability
beings
constant renovation of the
in
order to achieve
spirit
oping
oneself
that perfection.
The second purpose is to offer the hypothesis
that
in re
of the contradictory
much
results obtained
can
the
question
searching
convergence-divergence
nature of
be explained by the contradictory
Japanese
an exercise
approach may be termed
in hermeneutics.
Hermeneutical
method
relies on
tradition. This
and emphasizes
interpretation
dimension
of research. The researcher
textual
level-constructs
found
the historical
interprets first
in the text material
and trans
Grimes,
number
The
of Confucian
modernization.
contributions
are directed at the ethical aspects of human
thought
some to call
a Confucian
interaction,
Japan
leading
et al,
1986; MacFarquhar,
(Adler
1980).
society
has at its core four distinct,
Japanese Confucianism
not
exclusive
(or consistent)
mutually
First, in its most essential form, Confucian
ism is a humanistic
and the human being
philosophy
is
with
dignity and respect. Second, Confu
regarded
its
cianism
the values of harmony with
inculcates
on
concurrent
and
emphasis
loyalty, group
family
though
themes.
of the individ
and the submergence
identification,
ual. Righteousness
and the acts of righteous individ
uals within
the framework of loyalty provide a third
dimension.
theme of
Lastly, there is the integrating
who
the morally
the Chun-Tzu,
superior person,
to the other Con
leads by example and is devoted
fucian
Chun-Tzu
theWest
settled. There
in some
change
suggestion
This
traditions.
while
ways
maintaining
underlying
is in fact exactly the Japanese experience,
reflected in
is no
that societies
cannot
one of
most famous
Japan's
slogans of the moderni
science" (toyo no
zation era, "Eastern ethics, Western
no
do toku, seiyo
gei ). However,
causality
although
two of the three criteria of
proved,
are present,
and time prece
covariance
causality
the elimination
of
dence (Selltiz et al, 1976). Only
is
alternative explanations,
e.g., materialism,
missing.
cannot
be
into
symbolic representations
(Steffy and
one of a
is
Hermeneutical
1986).
exegesis
of methodologies
that fall into the general
classification
of subjective, qualitative
research, em
an
perspective
idiographic
(Morey and
phasizing
Luthans,
1984).
a
society combining Buddhism,
Japan is complex
Shintoism
and Confucianism
with
the artifacts of
lates these
Dollinger
values.
It is
through
the Chun-Tzu
that the
in Japan
Confucianism
was born
Confucius
Lu
in modern
Analects.
He
died
at age 73
(see Chan,
1963, for a
good historical
Confucianism
accounting).
out from China
spread
throughout
Asia in spite of the fact that Confucianism
had no
missionaries.
The bearers of the message
of Confu
cius were Buddhist monks, who while
proselytizing
carried the day-to-day
values of Con
for Buddha,
is not native
fucius with
them. Since Confucianism
to
Japan, having
to understand
been
the
imported
divergent
Japanese Management
Confucianism
history
The
many
detailed
beyond
it is necessary
in Japan.
of Confucian
thought
course of Confucian
philosophy
times
has
taken,
historical
the
wrote
since Confucius
to trace the
has
and
changed
lived. A
is
to
was
re-established
as the funda
A.D.
and political
the military
reign. The Shogun
ruler of Japan under Tokugawa
rule. Confucianism
that the
provided the focus for precisely the problem
the
creation
and
maintenance
faced:
of a
Shogun
stable political and social order on the basis of a firm
1960). Con
(Reischauer and Fairbank,
scholars used the peace and unity
versely, Confucian
as
created by the Tokugawa's
government
military
ethical
code
an
to rid themselves
of the clerical
opportunity
dominance
of Chinese-style
mandarins
and to unite
Confucian
with statism.
thinking
had a different
The Tokugawa
Confucianists
thrust than the Manchu
in
principle,
doxy was,
the Japanese Confucianist
of
administrative
political
Chinese
innovation
organization
of
577
thrust was
on
administrative
of
control
large
central
of Confucianism
perspective
of this paper. However,
due
scope
Practices
and experiment.
The
the decentralized
daimyo
state).
Thus
between
there began a mutual
dependency
the state as represented by the
Tokugawa
Shogunate,
the baku-han
decentralized
system
(the
political
Much
military
network) and the Neo-Confucianists.
was
intact, the
adopted
orthodoxy
natural hierarchy of classes (elite and samurai, farmer,
the four themes described
artisan, merchant),
pre
of Buddhist
and Taoist
the
and
viously,
shedding
tenets
in
philosophical
(Hall, 1970). Basic education
was Chinese Confucian
its
Japan
by the mid-1700s;
was
to
the
individual's
moral char
purpose
develop
of
the Chu
Hsi
In
the
Japanese
setting,
reinforce values
?
achievement
to one's
respect
to
better fulfill
Confucian
of duty,
in honor
self-discipline,
to one's
superiors.
teachings
. .
name
(Jansen,
and
1965,
to
served
loyalty and
gratitude
and
p. 96).
Later on in
Tokugawa
and early 18th centuries,
of Confucianism
elements
could be righteousness,
way. There
and
class in a Confucian
each
for
humanity
principle
its duties
and each class could perform
scheme,
to the ethical
its
of
do
without
principles
according
the merchant's
shame.
to
were devotion
duty,
arts, austerity, temperance,
and the readiness to die immediately
self-discipline
at
for their superiors. The chonin, or merchants,
samu
to imitate the more
tempted
highly esteemed
rai. Their
the
code demanded
loyalty (to
trading
The
elements
cultivation
house
of bushido
of the martial
or
firm), frugality
renovation
of equipment
harmony
and
(re-investment
and machines)
righteousness.
of profits,
as well
as
578
Marc].
that prevented
merchants
wealthy
their status made
them even richer
to reinvest
from
changing
by forcing them
in commercial
activities
their wealth
time class
Fairbank,
(Reischauer
1960). Over
to blur but were
never
lines began
completely
in debt to merchants,
eliminated. Warriors,
deeply
mer
had their debts cancelled
by the
commonly
and
And
To
buys
rejoice
valuable
but
trade,
when
one
makes
merchandise
it is
unpardonable
or
transaction
profitable
is part of amerchant's
cheaply
...
in a samurai
(de Bary,
a
1958, p. 430).
it is a ridiculous
In
interest
...
are
(de Bary,
all
of
part
li
...
Law
the
of
the
1958, p. 491).
rule of over
1868
250
the Tokugawa
years
to an end with
the restoration of the Emperor
a
revolution
This was
Meiji.
essentially
peaceful
on the rode to moderniza
to
begin Japan
designed
tion. The lessons drawn from the Chinese experience
to the
that change
Japanese
to preserve their nation's
independence.
a
the time of the Meiji Restoration
there were
1854 demonstrated
needed
individuals
of exceptional
(like Iwasaki of
samurai
and merchant
who
straddled
Mitsubishi)
lead Japan through this revo
traditions and helped
number
lutionary
time.
of
taught the perfectability
the
proper ethical/political
society through
organi
et al,
zation and
leadership
(Fairbank
1965). Many
was on
that their Confucianism
Japanese recognized
the fringe of Chinese Confucianism,
it was
however
to
clear that this Confucian
contributed
philosophy
a
sense
the development
of
of nationalism,
strong
as funda
and promoted
education
and ambition
mental
values
in
the general
population
(Jansen,
1965a).
The modernization
on
by the Meiji
brought
Restoration
in
and the opening
of Japan succeeded
a
economic
and
state,
cap
strong military
creating
able of resisting Western
much
pressures. However
of
the culture
Japan persisted. Al
strong
though
formally abolished,
class distinctions
remained. The Confucian
concept
was
as a part
of superior/inferior
ingrained. By 1890,
of the Meiji Constitution,
the Imperial Rescript
of
There
even
who
emerged
Education
of Confucian
group
of
skill
peasant
entrepreneurs
capital,
possessed
to form
business
and the technology necessary
large
et al,
The
1965).
(Fairbank
organizations
guiding
of
the
Restoration,
epitomized
by Saku
philosophy
ma Shozan's
"Eastern ethics, Western
Science"
slogan
was characterized
an easy blend of
(Passin, 1965),
by
made
Confucian
education
mandatory
and universal
(Bort?n, 1970).
In the late 20th century Confucianism
code
Japanese
The
came
of
which
Confucianism,
was
to argue from
By the 19th century it
possible
manner
of historical
the very Confucian
reflection
that human society rested on the twin pillars of labor
De Bary quotes
and the exchange
of merchandise.
Kaiho Seiyo,
...
Dollinger
phi
patterns of
by emerging
as a moral
1965) but
it is still dominant.
management
survival
as a
from
and
practices
feudal
times
of
sense
of
personal
set of
single homogeneous
managerial
behaviors
that can safely be labeled as "Japanese".
a
in
Within
Japan there is
good deal of variance
the
between
practice,
managerial
especially
larger
There
trading
smaller
company/financial
firms. Variation
center
firm
and
exists within
the
these
surely
as Ouchi
two groups as well.
Additionally,
(1981)
are
a
American
of
there
number
firms that
observes,
appear to use similar practices
Z)
(labeled Theory
and
therefore
deemed
these managerial
behaviors
Another
interpretation
accultural.
may be
however
are
is that the practices
that is, there
pan-cultural;
are
cultures and ethical systems capable of
multiple
very similar management
practices
(equi
producing
a
great deal has been written
finality). However,
Practices
Japanese Management
and many authors agree
about Japanese management
on its
components
major
(Pascale, 1978; Tsurumi,
Nonaka
and Johansson,
Munchus
1985;
1978;
1983;
1985).
Kagonoetfd/.,
Miller
and
Keys
to
review and attempt
(1984)
to as the "Japanese manage
refer
they
review
encompasses
jungle". Their
resource
human
Japanese manufacturing
practices,
a
and decision-making
modes.
policies,
Through
a
review of the literature,
reduce
they
subjective
to
three
of observable managerial
practices
myriad
integrate what
ment
theory
a
long
lifetime
factors:
underlying
a commitment
to
run
planning
employment,
sense of collective
Japanese
All
responsibility.
factors have bases in Confucian
underlying
The practices
which
horizon,
and the
three
thought.
the first factor in
underline
run
horizon,
planning
long
to sufficient time to manage,
in
in work, and
discipline
implementation,
their
the
integration,
include: a commitment
diligence
the development
of an organiza
are all consistent with
the
These
philosophy.
Confucian
goal of the search for perfection
of a righteous character.
development
and the
Writing
said,
governs
revolve
his
measures
and
will
regulate
then
avoid
they
or shame.
by
virtue
is
it.'
around
Confucius
state
governmental
and
law and
by
punishment,
but have no sense of honor
wrong-doing
virtue
them
and
them
by
regulate
a sense of
rules of
and
will
have
propriety
they
set themselves
and moreover,
right.'
Lead
by
the
shame,
These
three Analects
as the
describe what
help
could be
"preferred leadership
style"
are constant,
society. Leaders
steady, and
this behavior
for subordinates.
provides
guidance
act with
Leaders must
magnanimity,
compassion,
Confucian
et al,
the
(Sethi
1984). Also,
leader does not resort to rules and laws to
and wisdom
lead, but
instead
trusts
of
said, The
Confucius
possessions
man
superior
to be
wants
slow
in
of
arbitrariness
opinion,
no
no
dogmatism,
obstinacy
egotism.
cannot be ac
perfection
a
to
require
patient attention
complished
overnight,
to
detail and encourage Japanese workers
"pursue
the last grain of rice in the corner of their lunch box"
tasks of achieving
ideal of renovation
(Hayes, 1981). The Confucian
and renewal enables the Japanese to renew each day
to the
term
the commitment
long
goals of the
a search for
and
the
organization,
perfection without
results. From the book, the
pressure for immediate
Great Learning (Chan, 1963) comes this
description,
The
you
renovate
one
yourself
day,
then
can
you
do
so
so
so
everyday, and keep doing
everyday, and keep doing
after
day
day.
and
in
characterized
Confucian
thinks
The
Confucius
man
inferior
superior man
said,The
Confucius
and no
1963),
vision
to
their
propriety will enable the people
accomplish
to this in Chinese
tasks. The one exception
history
was the
Legalist School of the Ch'in dynasty (221?
206 B.C.) which
doctrine in favor
rejected Confucian
a
of
legalistic society based upon power. The Legal
in
ists succeeded
China but their violence
unifying
and brutality
lead to their overthrow
(Chan, 1963).
Even now in Japan, there is a decided
for
preference
shared values over
legalisms.
are four additional Analects
comment
Following
on the character of the Chun-Tzu:
ing
tional
579
that
the
shared
virtue
of
Confucius
or
practice
Confucius
out
the new
said, Is
from
said,
'A man
is
a
pleasure
to time what
it not
time
qualified
who
to learn
has been
reviews
to teach
the old
and
to
repeat
. .
learned?'.
so as to find
others.'
580
MarcJ. Dollinger
was the commitment,
albeit by a
(1984)
to
of
This
lifetime
firms,
minority
employment.
factor manifested
itself by
levels of investment
high
in
employee development,
training and socialization,
career
reduced turnover, non-specialized
paths and
and Miller
the development
of internal
The
labor markets.
on the
Confucian
emphasis
family, which has been
to the firm, and the
that domi
groupism
the Confucian
ethos serve as a foundation
for
redirected
nates
ones
mergence
of
of
subjects, Confucius
. . .The
said,
man
superior
is not
an
implement.
view that
the fundamental
saying expresses
are
have
inherent
value,
people
good, they
they exist
as total
not to be treated as tools.
organisms,
This
the Confucian
ethic of group was
Originally,
most often
to
in the
applied
relationships
family and
to
are
These
lifetime
rela
government.
traditionally
the group concept was extended
was
around which
agriculture
In
Japan,
tionships.
to
first
the clan,
organized
superiors,
there
to
disrespectful
has
superiors,
never
yet
a man
who
disorder.
been
creates
is not
superior
in Japan
positive value
of the kaisha
"being born
and Stalk, 1985, p. 200.)
The third factor that emerges
from
and
the Key
value
nature
centered
tices
of Confucian
Such prac
thought.
as consensus
decision-making
(ringi), participa
tive management
and
(nemawashi),
quality circles all
use the
as
Concomitant
action.
the
basis
for
group
the group values are the personal values that are
to make
the group work. Ouchi
required
(1981)
Z as: trust,
describes
these in his Theory
subtlety,
are all components
of
intimacy and loyalty. These
with
Meng
'Never
said,
. .'
disobey.
. . .Confucius
according
serve
should
bushido.
to
the
their
principles
ruler with
of
and ministers
propriety,
loyalty.'
. . . Hold
to be fundamental.
loyalty and faithfulness
Have no friends who are not as good as yourself. When
you make
be anxious
'Especially
quotations
lest parents
above
and
Confucian
them.
should
reflect
be
the
said,
sick'
character
of
that if
it is readily
from family
loyalty,
are
expanded
tool of social control
the dicta
to correct
be afraid
Meng Wu-po
The
don't
mistakes,
apparent
to firm, this is a
(Abegglen and Stalk,
(jen).'
powerful
of the individual
1986). It requires the submergence
to achieve
is more
than
Self-promotion
perfection.
it is disloyal and immoral.
egotism,
Confucius
them.'
knowing
Confucius
On loyalty:
Tseng-Tsu
on
three
ingratiating
whether
in
counseling
they
are
Japanese
expected
'A man
appearance
with
is seldom
clever
aman
words
of
and
an
humanity.'
I examine myself
others
I have
not
said,
Ethical
contradictions
in Japanese
management
In addition
detailed
to
above,
the positive
and
values
and
negative
contradictory
practices
aspects
of
the Confucian
of Confucian
tions
Confucian
between
democratic
noted.
been
of
Each
capitalism.
these
said, (Chan,
. . Women
.
types
to
results obtained
the disparate
explain
helps
the convergence/divergence
researchers investigating
of the group,
ranking member
a
she is senior to
number of the men.
even
though
As Confucius
of
ethics
as the lowest
treated
Con
can be classified
tradictions
contradictions
modern
have
tradition
581
Practices
Japanese Management
and
servants
1963),
are most
by
issue.
third
internal
contradiction
concerns
the
as leader. From
In the East
harmony.
(Maruyama,
is generally
reversed
Japanese have consciously
the bias
1965). The
to avoid Westernization
as
they achieved
science, Eastern
through
the Japanese ruling elite
ethics". For example, when
went
for a
Restoration
after the Meiji
searching
on which
to model
constitution
their new one, they
attempted
modernization
chose
"Western
the German
model
because
of Bismarck
consciousness.
source
Another
fucian
value
of
system
conflict
internal
is the need
in the Con
allow
full
personal
Korean
for
Japanese
almost
all forms
rights
all.
For
example,
discriminated
ancestry
against and kept segregated from Japanese of native
are discriminated
in
ancestry, and women
against
of
are
of economic
If individual
to be
abhorred
ity is
suppressed, and self-promotion
how will the superior person be known? The differ
a true Chun-Tzu
ence between
calmly
standing
amidst
confusion
problems
unobtrusive
can
be very
observation.
difficult
Confucius
to determine
himself
faced
by
a
adminis
similar problem. As a virtuous but minor
trator he was unable, within
to
his own lifetime,
exert any
his
other
than
among
leadership
disciples.
External
contradictions
it
it
This made
freedoms.
individual
played down
more
to the Confucian
attractive
ethic. However,
once the country was
it was inevitable
that
opened
into
Western
the
and ideas would
elements
seep
Japanese
to deal with.
difficult
clash
ethics and teachings
occasionally
with the realities of the modern
and complex busi
on renovation
ness world. For
example, the emphasis
seem incon
and the values of ritualizing behavior
sistent with the need for change and innovation. The
Confucian
this contradiction
Japanese mitigate
by focusing
and concen
behavior
their rituals on interpersonal
in
innovation.
technological
trating their efforts
distaste
the
for profit and
Confucian
Similarly,
have
of
the corresponding
suspicion
ill-gotten gain
been reconciled aswell. Japanese companies prefer to
to the
and their contributions
emphasize
growth
all are
national polity
instead of profit. And while
are necessary
aware that
for future invest
profits
are made
to appear a
of
ment,
they
by-product
on
virtuous behavior. This puts enormous
pressure
to be both pure and
executives
Japanese
productive
the same time. When
profits
inferior ways, by inferior people,
for those individuals are severe.
at
Confucius
said,
'Wealth
and
honor
are obtained
in
the consequences
are what
every
man
582
MarcJ. Dollinger
Confucius
will
Confucius
by
profit,
he
enemies.'
said, The
the
ness,
are motivated
acts
'If one's
said,
have many
man
inferior
man
superior
understands
understands
righteous
profit.'
A
be, "If Confucius
question would
legitimate
societies main
disdained wealth, how do Confucian
is not unlike
tain capitalism?" This
the question
in his critique of the
Weber
asked and answered
Chinese
mandarin
to show
was
was
of capitalism while
Confucianism
supportive
not. The answer for
one
Japan is different from the
Weber
for China.
construed
Japanese Confucianism
and the merchant was encour
developed
differently
to follow his
to seek
Way
(Tao), and
aged
perfection
in commercial
transactions. For example,
according
to the Mitsui
house
laws, the chonin
(merchants),
were inferior to the samurai, yet within
the chonin's
world, he was master
(Hall, 1970).
at Kikkoman,
Chief executive
Japan
resignations
most
are
and
Toshiba
Airlines,
recently
significant
surrender authority but not
because
the executives
in
culture
corporate
Japanese
notion
is that the leader can
anyone
the U.S.
(Yoshi
or
he
she wishes,
but
cited
in
social
the
ethics,
the
authority
delegate
In
the
responsibility.
(leaders) delegate
Tsurumi,
not
and
the Wall
Street
Journal,
7/10/
1987, p. 19)
The
exists
potential for unreconciled
inconsistency
between
human
endless
renovation
perfectability,
and the economic
realities of failed policies. What
to a
does failure mean
Failure
Japanese Confucian?
to a Confucian
is shame and dishonor,
and is not
terms. The execu
in economic
immediately
grasped
above were not as an immediate
resignations
of
economic
failure. The Kikkoman
consequence
incident was over tainted wine,
the JAL incident
over a crash which
over
500
killed
the
people,
tive
Toshiba
scandal concerned
Ameri
selling top-secret
to the Soviets. While
each case has
technology
cause
the
repercussions,
secondary financial
primary
of the resignations was the
reality of imperfectability.
can
Confucius
improvement
inferior man
said,
or
seeks
The
superior
to
occasion
it in others.'
man
blame]
seeks
in
[room
himself;
for
the
to hierarchical
The Japanese's dedication
systems,
the
Confucian
and to extreme
model,
following
the hierarchy, can be seen as dysfunc
loyalty within
tional. Bresler
(1986) blames Japan's group-centered,
hierarchical
social mores for
interfering with the free
of
He
market
forces.
claims that loyalty to a
play
more
firm or a
important
family of related firms is
in many
than price and
decisions.
quality
purchasing
He also claims that the
that
Japa
special emphasis
nese
on
places
social harmony
results
term
long
in massive
culture
relationships
distribution
and
in
efficiencies.
and small stores
Layers of middlemen
are
from the development
of more
effi
protected
cient distribution
because
their
of
policies
long
service to
larger firms.
mentality
produces minimally
chosen for their characteristics
He
to
emanate
also have
occasional
hierarchical
from
the
relationships,
industrial clan, are stifling and counter-pro
ductive. Ouchi
the negative
(1981) also recognized
a
of
Confucian
dominated
aspects
organizational
culture. He noted
that xenophobia
and racism are
of this intense group loyalty aswell.
by-products
earlier
values
Confucian
for
consequences
Japan. Morgan
just-in-time
the
relationships
smaller manufacturers
contracting
structure
of
in his
(1985),
(kanban)
between
negative
of
industrial
organization
observations
of
the
calls
the
inventory practices,
the larger assemblers
Arms
"incestuous".
is not common
and the
length
in Japan. The hierarchical
industrial
organization
at a severe economic
puts
smaller,
disadvantage.
the retired
class workers, women,
are often
and part time workers
shabbily
lower
treated.
Popper, Janow
other consequence
order by hierarchy.
In
societies
obligation
in a vertical
with
are
and Wheeler
of
(1985) suggest
the Confucian
tendency
Confucian
traditions
. . .
an
to
of
concepts
hierarchy.
Equal
rights
in aWestern
sense
are
conceptions
of equality:
...
In
tolerance
individualism,
far
less reliance
to
seems
there
particular
for
governmental
guidance,
for
respect
greater
on
legal guarantees,
be
in Asia
less value
greater
on
placed
stress
Dissent
. .
countries.
remains
(from
suspect
Freedom at Issue,
in most
Jan.?Feb.
of
Books.
upon
the need for morality on the part of the leaders and the
masses.
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Department ofManagement,
Indiana University,
Bloomington,
IN 47407,
U.S.A.