DOUBLEDUTCHANDTHECULTUREGAME.

ByOluOguibe(2001).Catalogueessayfortheexhibition,YinkaShonibare:BeMuse,
Rome,2001.Availableonlineat
http://www.camwood.org/Olu_Oguibe_on_shonibare.htm

ThisextendededitionprintedinTheCultureGamebyOluOguibe,publishedby
UniversityofMinnesotaPress(2004)

FORTHOSEWHOCOMETOITfrombackgroundsoutsideEurope(the"ethnics,"
"postcolonials,""minorities,"allthosewhohaveancestry,connections,oraffiliations
"elsewhere"),thearenaofmainstreamculturalpracticeintheWest,atleastinthe
visualarts,isadoublypredictablespacefirst,becauseitisagamespaceandyou
havetoknowtherulesofthegame,andsecond,becauseunlikeanyothergame,such
aspirantshavealimitedchanceofsuccessbecauseitispredeterminedtheyshouldfail.
Thoughtheymayknowtherulesandmostwhohavethepatiencetounderstudyit
do,bitterlysothegameisneverthelessinherentlystackedagainstthembecause
theirpresence,andworsestilltheirsuccess,causesafaultthroughanoutwardlystolid
wallofhistorythatoughttobarthemasseriouscontenders.Ofcourse,the
understandingisthattheybelonginadifferentspace,shouldcreateworkofa
particularflavor,dealwithacertainsetofthemes,exhibitinparticularavenuesin
particularlocationsoutsidethemainstream,orbepreparedtoofferworkofa
particularnaturetoearnmomentarymainstreamacknowledgment,afterwhichthey
arequietlyreturnedtoobscurity.

Predeterminedspacesleavefewoptionsbecausetherulesareset,andplayersinsuch
spacesmustengagethemonthesetterms,avoidorignorethemasviablespacesof
practice,orseekwaystocircumventorsubvertthosetermswithalltheramifications.
WithregardtoartistsintheWesternmetropoliswhosebackgroundsare"elsewhere,"
therulesofengagementareastraitjacketofhistoryandexpectations,whichoften
leavesthemwithratherstarkoptions;totakeafallwithasmuchgraceasthedoomed
canmuster,ortoselfexoticizeandhumortheestablishmentforachanceatthatbrief
nod,orelsefailthehardway.ItwouldbeinaccuratetoimplythatnosuchOutsiders
havemetwithmainstreamsuccess,atleastmomentarily,andonecaneasilyproduce
theshortlistforcontemporaryart,fromthePakistaniIqbalGeoffreyinBritaininthe
1960stoasmatteringofyoungBritishartistswho,attheturnofthecentury,have
gainedconsiderablyvisibility:SteveMcQueen,ChrisOfili,IsaacJulien,andYinka
Shonibare,amongothers.Thesesuccessesnotwithstanding,sincetheyareexceptions
ratherthantherule,theinevitablequestionremains:Whatdoesittaketobreakthe
codeofthisculturegameandthecycleofpredeterminedobscurityandfailureto
whichsuchartistsareotherwisecondemned?Howdoartistsengageorcircumventthe
disablingrulesofthegamesoastoprevailwithintegrityandasenseofselffulfilment?
Whatisthepriceoftheticket?

OnemightfindanswersinthesuccessofpainterandinstallationartistYinka
Shonibare,whomadesteadyprogressinthelate1990sinhiscontestforvisibility
withinthemainstreamBritishartworldandwhoattheturnofthecenturycontinues
toconsolidatehisplacewithinthatspace.Shonibarefirstcametoattentioninthemid
1990sbydevotinghimselftoathoroughunderstandingofthelanguageofthe
metropolis,or,perhapsmoreaccurately,thedevicesandstrategiesofitsculture
game,andespeciallythepeculiarrulesofthegamewithregardtotheplaceand
destinyofthepostcolonialoutsider.Payingrigorousattentiontothecriticaldebatesof
theday,especiallypostmodernismanditsminoritydiscourses,Shonibareunderstood
thattobreakintotheculturegamehehadbutfewcards,fewchoices,fewavenues,or
fewguises,allofwhichinevitablyrequiredhimtosubmittoatestofdifference,andto
passthattest.

IntheheadydaysoftheThatcheryears,whenconservativenationalismheldsway
overBritishpoliticsandcultureandallcounterreasonwasconsignedtothemarginal
corridorsofprotestpolitics,ToryministerEnochPowellspokeofacertaintestof
difference:thecrickettest,whosepurposewastoprovethequestionableloyaltyof
postcolonialstotheBritishnation,andinessencetheirrefutabledifferencethat
disqualifiedthemfromclaimstoQueenandcountry,byprofferingevidencethattheir
sportingloyaltieslaynotwithBritainbutelsewhereintheformercolonieswhence
theycame.Onanygivenday,Powellmaintained,theaverageWestIndian(asBritish
citizensfromtheCaribbeanandtheirdescendantsarestillknowninEngland)would
sidewiththeWestIndiescricketteamagainstthatofEngland.Thiswasproofthatthey
wereirremediablydifferent,andinaculturethatdwelledondifferenceinloyalties,
ideologies,language,class,andcolorofskinratherthanthecommonalitiesofhistory,
themarket,andfootball,thisdifferencewassufficienttodislodgesuchgroupsfrom
thegraceandgloryofEmpire.InPowell'sBritain,thisdifferenceinloyaltiesforeclosed
thepostcolonialsfromanyformofbelongingintheBritishnation.

However,asShonibarewouldfind,difference,oratleasttheguiseofdifference,does
notalwaysfitPowell'snarrowdefinition,nordoesitalwayshavesodefinitea
consequenceasthevenerablelordproposed.Itdoesnotalwaysamounttoworse
neighborhoodservicesforcertainpolitiesandgroups,ortheirexclusionfromBritish
society,orworsestill,expatriationfromthekingdom.Aculturethatdwellson
differencealsodistinguishesbetweenformsandcategoriesofdifferencebecauseit
operatesonaneconomyofdifference.Itdemarcatesbetweenwhatonemightcall
tolerabledifferenceandintolerabledifference,betweenbenignandprofitable
difference,asitwere,anddangerousOtherness.Forsuchaculture,differenceis
tolerablewhenitsatiatesthesociety'sappetiteforamusementandentertainment,or
evenmoreespeciallywhenitservesthateternallycrucialpurposeofproppingand
sustainingthesociety'sillusionsofsuperiorityandgreatness.Ontheotherhand,
differencethatconfrontsthesociety'snarcissismwithcynicism,orchallengesitsclaims
toprimacyandgrandeur,orthreatenstodefaceordislodgeitssymbolsofuniqueness
andperpetualrelevance,thesocietywillmakeeveryefforttoexpurgate,radicallyand
surgically,fromitsbodypolitic.Inotherwords,differencethatmerelyservicesthe
civicandpleasureindustries,differencethatprovideslaborfortheutilitysystemsand
forcleaningcityoffices,sidewalks,andcoachesonthepublictransitsystem,difference

thatappearstolendclaritytothefutilelogicofthecenterandits"elsewhere,"even
differencethatbyitspresencelendscredibilitytothesociety'sclaimsofequityand
toleranceandoffersproof,ifitwasneeded,thattheEmpirehasroomandheart
enoughfordifference,thatthereisaspeckofblackintheUnionJackafterall,thatthe
metropolisis,tousetheparlanceoftheday,multicultural.Suchdifferenceisgranteda
placeofindispensabilityinthetranslucentcartographyofacultureofdifference.

Thisrequisitedifferencecanalsoserveasfertilegroundforthesharp,Outsider
imaginationintentontakingachanceandchartingitscoursethroughthelabyrinths,
barricades,andminefieldsoftheculturegameOverseveralcenturies,generationsof
EnglandsOutsidershaveunderstoodthis,andunderstooditfarbetterthanthenative
himself,for,asfamesBaldwinpointedoutaboutAmerica,theothercultureof
differencethosewhoaredisplacedandthreatenedwitheffacementbutwho
neverthelessaretoleratedonthestrengthofthesameargumentsthatareemployed
todisplacethemunderstandbesttheillogicbehindtheircondition.Becausetheyare
requiredtoprovethemselvesotherwiseworthyofthegenerosityofacceptance,and
mustendlesslybeontheirguardbecauseofthetreacherousnatureoftheircondition,
andmustdevoteenergyandtimetounravelthecuriouspsychologyoftheirdetractors
inordertounraveltheintriguingcomplexitiesoftheircommondestinywiththis
detractor,theyhavetheonusofsensitivity,criticality,andselfreflexivitybecausethe
burdenofthecrossisalwaysuponthem.

Onlythosewhomustengageinaconstantbattletoexistcommitthemselvesto
strategizingfortheirexistence,andthusmustdwellon,andintimeunderstand,the
groundrulesofthatengagement.Incontrast,thosewhoareprivilegedtotakebeing
andexistenceforgrantedhavenoneedtounderstandeitherthemselvesorthose
otherswhoaredeprivedsuchprivilege.BecausetheWesternmetropolishaslessneed
toquestionstructuresandpatternsofexistencethathaveserveditsowell,theburden
ofunderstandingdoesnotfallonit,butonthosewhoareservedlesswell,whichis
whyEngland'sOutsidersexcelinunderstandingthevariegationsofdifferenceandits
layersoframifications,andespeciallyintheknowledgethateventheQuarantineof
Differencetowhichtheyarecondemnedsometimesoffersthosewhoareintenton
escapingittheverykeyfortheirescape.Thedoormaybenarrowandfraughtwith
risks,fortodefyorsubverttheillogicofdifference,oftentheOutsidermustbeginby
exaggeratingthisdifferenceOftenhemustacceptthatdifferenceexists,evenwhere
orwhenitdoesnot,andthatthisdifferenceexistsintheexactformthatthehost
cultureperceivesit;inotherwords,hemustplaytothegalleryofdifferenceandtakea
fall.Hemustbearhiscrossinfulllightifhemustberelievedofit,andmayslipoutonly
underthedarknessofhisownnakedness.Becausethepathisnarrowandtheground
treacherous,fewareableevertosucceedatthisgamewithoutbecoming,intheend,
nothingbutthatwhichtheysetouttoescape,whichiswhattheyaremeanttobein
thefirstplaceandtoremaineverafter.TheOutsiderwhomustinserthimselfinthe
guardedspacesoftheWesternmetropolismustdosoonlybyplayingthecardof
tolerabledifferenceinthehopethatitservesasaguiseforhisintentionsandschemes
ratherthanasthestraitjacketthatperpetuallydefineshisbeing.Suchisthepriceof
theticket.Whilethisconditionalityiscommonplaceknowledgeamongoutsider
citizensofwhatremainsoftheEmpire(asBritainstillpreferstothinkofitself),

Shonibare,thoughborninLondonofAfricanparents,wasneverthelessraisedinLagos,
Nigeria,withinacultureandamongapeoplewhoseprideandselfconfidenceborder
onarroganceandwhoseunderstandingofcitizenshipandbelongingrundiametricalto
thatoftheBritish.Laterinlife,thisselfassurednesshasservedhimwellashe
negotiateshisplaceincontemporaryBritishculture.

OnemaydwellalittleonthesignificanceofShonibare'supbringinginLagos,oneof
theworld'sliveliestmetropolitancities.Inthe1970s,Lagoswasthecapitalcityofone
ofthewealthiestnationsintheThirdWorld,which,thoughithadJustemergedfroma
bitter,thirtymonthcivilwar,neverthelesscommandedrespectinthecommunityof
nations,thankstoitsnewfoundoilwealthanditsdeterminationtoturnthiswealth
intopoliticalmettle.BecausethetheatreofNigeria'scivilwarwasfarawayineastern
Nigeria,Lagoswassparedtheravagesofwarandmovedquicklytorecuperatefrom
themomentaryinstabilitythatwasitsonlylossinthewar.Withthecessationofthe
civilwar,thenation'smilitaryleadersregainedthereignsofpower,andthehighly
entrepreneurialformerrebelsintheeastsurgedbackintothecity,whichthenthrew
itsdoorsopentotheworldwiththepromiseofstability,money,sophistication,and
thecharmofthenew.AcademicsfromallcornersoftheThirdWorld,fromIndiaand
IndonesiatoBrazilandGuyanapouredintothecountry,andsodidconstruction
engineersfromGermanyandoilexpertsfromFranceandAmerica,investorsand
merchantsfromSyriaandLebanon,immigrantworkersintheirmillionsfromacross
theentireWestAfricanregion,aswellasDiasporaAfricanskeentowitnesstheriseof
themiraclenationwhereayoungarmyofficerstillinhisthirtieshadcrusheda
rebellionandappeareddeterminedtobuildAfrica'sgreatestmodernnationand
restorethegloryofhisraceLagosplayedhosttoleadingartistsandperformersfrom
aroundtheglobe,includingcountryandwesternstarsfromAmerica,themost
prominentAfricanAmericanperformersoftheday,andanemergingcropofnewpop
headlinersfromdifferentpartsoftheAfricancontinent.Themovietheatreswere
floodedwithIndianBollywoodromancesandAsianandAmericankungfuactionflicks,
andeverychildknewhisJimmyClifflyricsandBruceLeekicks.Elsewherearoundthe
country,aburgeoningpopularculturewastakingshapearoundasharedspiritof
supremeconfidenceandoptimism.Thelaidbackhighlifemusicstylethatheadlinedin
the1960syieldedmomentarilytoanewformofguitarandlyricsdrivenfunkandrock
musicbeforereinventingitselfinanequallyharddriven,rockinfluencednewhighlife
asbandsproliferatedfromcitytocityandtheyouthrevelledintheirnewfreedom.

TherewaseveryreasontobelievethataschemewasinplacetotransformLagosinto
thecapitalcityoftheblackworld.Newmuseumsandculturalcomplexeswentup,vast
constructionsthatranonaseeminglydepthlessoilpurseappearedalloverthecity,
vehicleassembliesaroundthecountrytruckedinthrongsofautomobilestoclaimthe
newhighways.Asiftoproveitsdeterminationtoturnitintoaglobalcity,Lagoshosted
thefirstWorldFestivalofBlackArtsandCulture(FESTAC)in1977,whichattracted
thousandsofAfricansandAfricansintheDiasporafromhundredsofnations,including
apoliticalandculturaldelegationfromtheUnitedStatesledbytheAmerican
ambassadortotheUnitedNations,AndrewYoung.AsNigeria'syoungmilitaryleaders
putit,moneywas"noobject"andexuberancewastheorderoftheday.Evenso,Lagos
wasmorethanamere,youngThirdWorldmetropolisaspiringto

worldcitystatus.Itwasacitywitharichandcomplexhistory.Thesiteofnumerous
politicalintriguesandfaceoffsbetweenthenativesandcolonialauthoritiesinthe
nineteenthcentury,andoneoftherichestbenefactorsfromtradewithEurope,
includingtheslavetrade,thecitystillhadacenturiesoldmonarchyandnumerous
solidlyestablishedcolonialinstitutions,fromawholeislandnamedforQueenVictoria
tocolonialgrammarschools,governmentreservedareas(GRAs),gentlemen'ssocial
clubs,andcricketandpolocourtsthatsatinthemiddleofthebustlingcitylikeoases
oftranquillity.Politiciansandexpatriateoilexecutivesmilledaroundwithstreet
performersandhawkersof"Indian"charms,YorubaandEnglishmingledwithevery
otherWestAfricantongue,bulletprooflimousinessharedthestreetswithtricycle
rickshaws,EltonJohnandDollyPartonrecordswereasubiquitousasthoseofFelaKuti
andBongosIkwue,andAmitabhBachanandBruceLeewerefolkheroesamong
teenagers.

ThiswasthecityofShonibare'syouth,asofcelebratedBritishwriterBenOkri,anda
youthwhogrowsupinthisenvironmentwithaccesstopopularculturefromallover
theworldandahighlyglobalizedconsciousnesswithoutasenseofmarginalselfor
questionableidentityobviouslydevelopsapsychequitedifferentfromthescheming
andunderstatedmarginalpostcolonialunconsciousthatBritainfashionedinits
Outsidercitizens.MovingfromLagostoLondon,therefore,waslikemovingfroma
freeterritorytoacolonyunderculturalmandate,acityofpretenceswherepeople
knowtheirplacesandliveouttheirdestiniesunderthepowerful,everwatchful
panopticonofthestate.

ShonibarereturnedtoLondonasateenager,anduponreturnhadtorelearntherules
ofbelongingbecausehewasnolongertheblackBritishboywholeft;hewasnowthe
aristocraticyouthfromLagoscomebacktoreclaimhiscitizenshipinacountrywhere
neitherhisaristocraticancestrynorhisbirthrighttocitizenshiptranslatedtothe
privilegeofacceptance.HespenthisyearsintheBritishartacademyresistingand
defyingtheperpetualdemandfordifference,strugglingtorefuseandrefutethe
orthodoxiesofhissupposedpeculiarity.Ratherthanproduceartthatrepresentedor
signifiedan"elsewhere,"ashewasrequiredto,anartthatwouldseparatehimfrom
therestofhiscontemporariesandlendcredulitytodistractingfictionsofdifference,
heinsteadproducedartthatspoketohisaffinitieswiththerest.Intheearlystagesof
hisprofessionalcareerinthelate1980shemighthavemovedtooquicklytoseekhis
placealongsidehispeers,tomakehisclaimonnationandstation.Hefailed.

Nomatter.StillpossessedofthatfarmoremetropolitanconsciousnessthatLagos
imbuedhimwith,ShonibareproducedearlyworkasaprofessionalartistinEngland
thattranscendedtheminuscule,navelgazingpreoccupationwiththeimmediatethat
wasthepredilectionofhispeers.Hemadeworkthatwasnotsimplyinlinewiththe
periodobsessions,butspoketoissuesandconcernsbeyondtheminiatureterritoryof
envogueBritishandcontemporaryEuropeanart,workthatdealtwithnuclear
disastersinEasternEurope,minorityexperiencesinAmerica,issuesintheThirdWorld,
allofwhichwasincharacterwithhisupbringinginthatmetropolitan"elsewhere."
However,theformalidiomofhisworkwasnodifferentfromthatofhis
contemporaries,andintheculturegameoftheWesternmetropolis,thiswasnota

winningstrategy,asmanyother,highlytalentedBritishartistsoflikebackgroundhave
discovered.Threedecadesearlier,anotheryoungartistwithoriginsinthecolonies,the
painterFrankBowling,haddwelledonthesamepreoccupationsandthemeswiththe
mindtoexercisethesamecreativelibertytospeaktoallthatspeaksbacktohimasan
artist,unfetteredbyconstraintsofperiodobsessionsorinstitutionalandcultural
expectations,againperhapstooquickly.Eventuallyhecametothesamerealization
thattoaspirebeyondthosecreativeterritoriesearmarkedforthemetropolis'sOthers
withoutcarefulstrategizingwastodealalosinghandintheculturegame.

RaisedinBritishGuiana,BowlingstudiedinthesamegraduatingclassasDavid
HockneyattheRoyalCollegeofArtinLondon^where,heisconvinced,hewas
deliberatelypassedupforthegoldmedalin1962(whichwenttoHockney)andwas
awardedthesilvermedalinstead.LiketheyoungShonibare,Bowlinginthe1960shad
intereststhatalsoextendedbeyondthelargelymundanepreoccupationsofhispeers
Hockney'sobsessionswithCliffRichard,forinstance,orRonKitaj'sformal
experiments.Instead,hisfocuswasonthegreat,historiceventstakingplaceinthe
colonies,thesameeventsthatinspiredyoungradicalintellectualssuchasFrantz
Fanon.BowlingwasmoreinterestedinrepresentingthecollapseofEmpire,the
epochalconfrontationsbetweentheFrenchandtheAlgerians,theemergenceof
modernnationsinAfricaandAsia,theeventsintheCongoandthedeathofLumumba,
therevolutionsinLatinAmericaalthoughatthesametimehewaseagertomarry
theselargeandglobalconcernswiththesameformalexperimentshispeerswere
engagedin.AsBowlinghasstated,althoughhissubjectmatterwasLumumbarather
thanMarilynMonroe,andalthoughsomeofhisworkwasinspiredbyChuckBerryand
LittleRichardratherthanCliffRichard,itwasneverthelessimportanttohimthathis
workbeunderstoodandrecognizedaspopart,justlikeKitaj'sorHockney'sorAndy
Warhol'sinAmerica.However,sinceBowlingwastheOutsiderofhisgenerationof
Britishartists,theartestablishmentsawhisworklackinginclaritybecauseitdidnot
sufficientlyemphasizehisdifference,thematicallyandformally.Saferandmoreexotic
subjectssuchasCaribbeancarnivalscenesmighthaveworkedbetterinhisfavour,for
thenthatwouldbedifferentaswellastolerable.Thathispostcolonial,moreglobalized
consciousnessledtoLumumbaandtheCongowasfine,buttomakepopartlikethe
restornewexpressionistworklikeKitaj's,orcolorfieldpaintingsashedidlaterinNew
York,wastoattempttoobliteratethedistancebetweenhimandtherest,andsoa
newcategorywascreatedforhiswork"expressionistfiguration"intowhichhewas
quarantinedalongsideaspentFrancisBaconandahandfuloffellowOutsiders.
BowlinglosttheculturegameandwaseventuallyterminatedasacontenderinBritish
contemporaryart.

AgenerationafterBowling,anothercropofyoungoutsiderstriedtobreakthroughthe
barricadesoftheBritishartestablishment,amongthemYokoOno,DavidMedalla,and
RasheedAraeen.Onowasapioneerofperformanceandsoundart,Medallawasa
pioneerofconceptualart,andAraeen,trainedasanengineer,beganwithminimalism
beforeventuringintoperformanceartandsituationsintheearly1970s.Again,these
artiststriedtocircumventorprevailovertheestablishmentbydefyingtherulesof
engagementandrefusingtoplaythecardofdifference.Becausetheirstrategywasno
differentfromBowling's,andtheirformalidiomswereavantgardewithoutsignifying

thedistanceofdifferenceoracknowledgingdifferenceasconditionality,theytoo
receivedonlyanodfromtheartestablishmentbeforetheywereevacuatedintothe
margins.Itwasnotuntilrecentlythatrevisionisthistorieshavetriedtorecuperateand
acknowledgetheircontributionstocontemporaryart.

Shonibare'schallenge,therefore,wastodeviseastrategybywhichhecouldbreakthe
codeofthishistoricalrelationship,andbysodoingbreakthecycleofconsignmentto
themargins.Hehadtofindawaytopassthetestofdifferencebyengagingand
outwittingitratherthanconfrontingordefyingit,andatthesametimehopetobreak
throughtheranksandintothesacredspaceofacknowledgmentwithoutcondemning
himselftoirremediableselfimmolationandcaricature.Thishedidin1994witha
groupofpaintingscalledDoubleDutch.InthepaintingsShonibareusedstretched
everydayfabricforhissupport,havingboughttheparticularlineoffabricfromBrixton
MarketinSouthLondon.Thepaintingswerepresentedasaninstallation,wallbound
againstapinkbackground,andasindividualpieceswouldeventuallymigratetoother
formationsandinstallations,suchasDeepBluein1997.Buttheformalpostmodern
devices,theuseofinstallation,ortheconceptualstatusofthecolorpinkasanempty
signifiermatterednotatall,whereastheloud"tropical"designofthesupportmeant
everything.Aconsiderableamountofliteraturehasbeengeneratedaround
Shonibare'schoiceoffabricforDoubleDutchandthefactthatthewaxprintfabricon
whichthepaintingsaremadeiscustomarilymachinespuninIndonesiaorother
locationsintheFarEast,thenpatentedandmarketedbyfirmsinEnglandandthe
Netherlands,butisneverthelesshistoricallyidentifiedasAfricanbecauseitiswidely
usedacrosspostcolonialAfrica,especiallyintheformerBritishcoloniesofWest,East,
andSouthAfrica,whereitispartofeverydayapparel.Andsoforgoodreason,because
thefabricsandDoubleDutchattractedinstantattention,especiallyinEnglandas
galleries,museums,andcuratorsembracedworkandmediumasdirectreferencesto
Shonibare's"Africanidentity."Finally,theartisthadendorsedthefictionofhisown
Otherness,andinchoosingan"African"signifierandidiomforhiswork,incodinghis
workwithwhatappearedtobeatransparentethnicity,hehadretractedhisclaimtoa
placeatthecenteroftheWesternmetropolisandrestoredthedistancebetween
himselfastheOutsiderandthosewhorightlybelonginthecenter.Orsoitseemed.

Shonibare'sDoubleDutch,understatedandmisunderstoodasitis,mustnevertheless
standasoneofthemostimportantworksofculturalcontestationinthelatetwentieth
centurybecause,farmorethananyotherworkincontemporaryBritishart,it
succeededinoutwittingandsubvertingthedesiresandmachinationsofthecultureof
differencethatisattheheartoftheglobalcontemporaryartmachine.Formally,
DoubleDutchisapleasantandlivelywork,notatallextraordinaryinthissenseand
lackinginanyengagingiconographythatcanbegleanedfromthesurfaceofthe
support.Yetthisformalordinarinessaside,rarelyisaworksocarefullyassembled,
everyaspectsothoroughlyworkedout,everyelementofsignificationsometiculously
articulated,everyramificationsoclearlycalculatedandanticipated.Asmentioned,
Shonibarefoundhis"idiomofdifference,"thewaxprintfabric,inBrixton,South
London,whichisknownforitsdiversedemographybutevenmoresoasthecapitalof
blackBritain.AlthoughnumerousotherblackcommunitiesexistinLondonandsuch
otherBritishcitiesasBirminghamandManchester,Brixtonbearstheaddedexoticism

ofatransposedtropicalbazaarwithitsboldstorefrontsandhandpaintedsigns,its
stocksofsocalledethnicfoodsandculinaryaccessories,itssyncopationsand
cacophoniesthatremindthestrangerofthecomplexitiesandalluresofBabel,its
costumesandapparels,itsmyriadskinhuesandclasscomplexities.ObviouslyBrixton
registerstheexistenceandpresenceofcommunitiesandsensibilitiesfarmore
complexandalivethantheblackandwhitechiaroscuroofmainstreamnarratives,yet
onthesurfaceBrixtonistheclichofOtherness:reducible,classifiable,transparent,
differenceparexcellence.Wherebetter,then,tolocatethemarkerofShonibare's
peculiaritythaninthiscardboardcapitalofdifference?Andhowbettertodosothan
tofindthis"African"fabricnootherplacebutwithintheheartofmetropolitan
Englanditself,conceived,manufactured,marketed,andconsumedwithoutstepping
acrossthebordertoanyexoticancestralhomelandelsewhere?Withhischoiceofthe
waxprintfabricShonibaresubtlybutclearlypointedtothefactthattheconnection
betweenthispieceofBritishtextilemercantilismandtheOthernessthatisascribedto
himistenuousindeed.ThesignifierthatwoulddenoteandinscribehisOthernessis,
afterall,entirelyBritishandhaslittleornothingtodowithAfricaorElsewhere.

Shonibare'schoiceoftitlefortheworkitselfclearlyindicatedthathewasengagedina
game,onehewasconfidenthecouldwinbecauseheunderstooditsintricaciesand
pitfalls.Again,inthisregard,onemaynotfindamoreaptly,morecarefullytitledwork
inallofcontemporaryart.Sofarmostcriticshavepointedonlytothepossibilitythat
Shonibare'stitle.DoubleDutch,mustrefertothefactthatabrandofthewaxprint
fabricsusedinthepaintingsisknownasDutchwax.However,Shonibare'stitle
resonateswithseveral,moresignificantmeanings.Inrecenttimesthetermhascome
tostandforthehighprofilerevivalofachildren'sgameofropeskippingoriginally
foundamongAfricanDiasporapopulations.ThegamedoubleDutchwastakentothe
NewWorldfromAfricaandlongremainedaneighborhoodorfrontporchpastime.
Todayitfeaturesininternationalcompetitions.Theropeskipperstandsbetweentwo
peoplewitharopebetweenthem,sometimestworopes,andastheyrepeatedlyflip
theropeabovetheskipper'sheadanddownagainwithlightningspeed,sheskipsfrom
onefoottotheothertoallowtheropetopassunderneathtocompleteanarcwithout
gettingcaughtbyit.Thisisrepeatedseveraldozentimesaminute,eacharccompleted
inasplitsecondwhiletheplayerskipsrepeatedlybetweenloopsoftherope.

Ropeskippingisagymnasticgameinwhichnimblenessandagilityofbody,sight,and
mindarerequisite.Theropeskippermustnotonlybevisuallyalerttothepointwhere
thisbecomesinstinctive,hermindandbodymustalsoworkwiththelightningspeed
andrhythmoftheropeifshemustavoidaterriblefall.Oftentheropeskipperfaces
onlyinthedirectionofoneoftheflippers,fromwhomshemustreadhercues,and
onlywiththemostacutelyhonedinstinctscanshecontendwiththeflipperbehind,
whomshecannotsee.Unlikemostothergameswhereplayersarematched,therope
skipper,ordoubleDutchplayer,iscaughtinthemiddleofthings,betweentheflippers
asbetweentheropes,betweenthebriskcircleofthearc,betweenstanding,jumping,
and,ifnotcarefuloragile,havingabadfall.Sheislikeachessplayerwhofacestwo
opponentsatonce,orbetterstill,liketheloneindividualwhomustcontendwiththe
cyclicalturnsofhistoryandtheestablishmentinacultureofdifference.Shemust
knowhowtoskipwithoutstumble.


Lessknowntomostpeopletoday,doubleDutchalsoreferstoalargelyextinct
languagegamemuchlikepiglatin,whichwaspopularamongboysatdifferentperiods
andindifferentpartsoftheworldthroughoutthetwentiethcentury.Inthislanguage
game,playersappliedasetofcodecombinationstoencrypttheirspeech.Inmany
casesthecodeinvolvedthereplacementofcertainelementsofsyntaxallconsonants
inaword,forinstancewithawholewordorprefix,suchthattheoriginalwords
becamenotonlyincomprehensibletothenoninitiatebutalmostunpronounceable
also.Inordertospeakintelligiblyinthisidiolect,doubleDutchspeakershadtobe
agile,mentallyandverbally,tobeabletoinserttherightlettersinalltherightplaces
withsufficientspeedtoformspeech.Theyhadtoknow,almostencyclopaedically,
wheretherequisiteconsonantsorvowelsoccurredinthespellingofeachwordasthey
spoke,makingthisadolescent'spastimeoneofthemostchallenginglanguageand
mindgamespossible.Likeropeskipping,linguisticdoubleDutchwasalsoa
performativeart,perhapsmoreculticandrarefied,inwhichplayershadtobesmooth
withtheirelocution,carrythemselveswiththeexclusiveairsofahighmindedcult,
andhaveflawlesscommandofthedictionoftheiresotericcircle.

Asametaphor,therefore,Shonibare'stitlewasasleightofhand,referringasitdoesto
culturalacrobaticsinwhichtheplayersaremastersofthegame.Inchoosinghistitle,
ShonibareindicatedhisreadinesstoengagetheculturegameoftheWestern
metropolisandtobringtoitthenecessarymentalandperformativesophistication.He
wouldprofferafictionofdifference,likethedevil'shandinacardgame,andhewould
playwiththenimblefingersandmindofamastercardplayer,yetultimatelyhis
winningcardwouldnotbefromhissheafofcardsbutfromhisopponent's.Double
Dutch.

InthehistoryofcontemporaryBritishculture,Shonibareisuniquebecause,thoughhe
isnotaloneamongBritain'sOutsidercitizensinsubmittingtothetestofdifference,he
isneverthelessoneofonlyafewartistswhohaveengagedandpassedthistestby
consciouslyofferingacriticalparadoxofdifference.Amonghiscontemporariesafew
otherartistscometomindinthepastdecadeorsowhohavealsoplayedthe
differencecard,butdidsobynotonlyofferingdifference,butalsoinsistingonthe
"fact"ofsuchdifference.EarlierwemadementionofChrisOfili,anotherBritish
painterofAfricandescent,whohasgainedevengreatervisibilitythanShonibare
withintheBritishmainstream.Inthemid1990sOfiliquicklyrosetofamebymaking
dotpaintingsproddedonballsofelephantdung.Ofili'sdotpaintings,differentasthey
werefromhispowerfulearlypaintings,werelargelyinspiredbyexposureto
contemporaryAustralianAboriginalpaintings,especiallyafterthelatterwereshownin
anexhibitionofcontemporaryAboriginalartcalledAratjaraatLondon'sRoyalFestival
Hall.HisuseofelephantdungwasalsodirectlyinspiredbytheworkofAmerican
conceptualartistDavidHammons,whohadusedelephantdunginhisownwork
severalyearsearlier,especiallyinhis1978piece.ElephantDungSculpture.However,
aspartofhisnarrativeofdifference,Ofiliattributedhissourceofinspirationtoabrief
triptoZimbabwe,where,accordingtothelegend,hewitnessedelephantdunginuse.
IntruththerearenotraditionsofuseofelephantdunginZimbabwe,butbymaking

thisfictitious,exoticconnectiontoAfrica,Ofilisucceededinestablishingthedistancing
differenceheneededtogainasafeplaceincontemporaryBritishart.

ThelesscarefulreadermightfindOfili'sgameofdifferencetobeanalogousto
Shonibare's.Clearlybothartistshadoutwittedtheartestablishmentbyplayingtoits
exoticistdesires.Bothhademployedfalsesignifiersintheformofelementsfound
withinEuropeitself,althoughOfilifurtherconvinceshisviewersbyflyinginhisdung
"fromAfrica."However,whenmorecarefulattentionispaidtoeachartist'snarratives
ofhispractice,asignificantdistinctionappearsbetweenthetwo.Ononehand,
ShonibaremakeseveryefforttoremindtheviewerthatthesocalledAfricanfabriche
introducedtohisworkwithDoubleDutchisnot,infact,Africanatall,butapretend
markerofexoticdistancethatwasconceivedandmanufacturedoutsideAfrica.Ashe
haspointedoutinYinkaShonibare:DressingDown(1998),"Africanfabric,exoticaif
youlike,isacolonialconstruction.TotheWesterneyethisexcessivepatterning
(Difference)carrieswithitcodesofAfricannationalism...akindofmodernAfrican
exoticism."Ontheotherhand,Ofilimakesapointofinsistingontheauthenticityofhis
trope,theelephantdung,byrepetitivelytyingittoAfrica,thelandofanimalswhere
thepeoplearebelievedtovenerateanimaldung,asthedirectoroftheBrooklyn
MuseuminNewYorkarguedinOfili'sdefensein1999afterthepainter'sworkcame
underattackforprofanityandbadtaste.Mighttherebeanelementofironyor
critiqueinelephantdungplacedunderpaintingsinthegalleryspace?Thepotential
certainlyexists,butOfiliunderminesanysuchpotentialbyinsistentlyassociatingAfrica
withthedung,whichistosay,withwildlife,savagepractices(thevenerationofdung)
andabjectiontothepointwherehisowncomplicitexoticismbecomesapparent.Born
andraisedinEnglandwithlittleornoexperienceofAfrica,Ofiliissufficientlydetached
toshareintheconventional,Europeanfantasiesofthecontinent.
Inhisreferencesonefindsaneasywillingnesstoparticipateinandperpetuatethose
fantasies.WhileShonibare'stropeofdifferenceisnotonlytransparentlyfictitiousbut
alsocriticalofthedemandfordifference,Ofili'sinsistsonitsauthenticityinanexercise
ofselfexoticizationthatmerelyreinforcesthatdemand.Ofililendscredencetothe
fictionofhisOthernessevenashebelieveshimselftooutwittheestablishmentonthat
account.Hisiterationofthenarrativeofdifferencebecomesevidenceofwillfulself
immolation,whichisthepriceofhisticketthroughthegatesofthemainstream.

OnemightarguethenthatShonibare'sapproachtotheconditionalitiesofthe
mainstreamculturalspacewasoneofactiveengagementthroughanidiomthatbore
anelementofcritique,oneofpositivesubterfugewheretheintentionsareso
apparentastoproduceaneffectiveridiculeofthoseconditionalitiesandthecultureof
difference.IncontrastOfili'sapproach,withitsrepetitivenarrativeanditsunderlying
insecurities,canonlybedescribedasacquiescentinspiteofitselfbecauseitdoes
submittothedemandfordifferencewithoutanelementofironyorcritique.AsCuban
curatorGerardoMosquerahasaptlyobserved,"Selfexoticismreveals...thepassivity
oftheartistascomplacentatallcost."Complacencyhereimpliescompliancewiththe
rulesofthegame,andnotwiththeintenttosubvert,expose,critique,orinstruct,but
withthesoleintenttoearnnotice.

TofindacloseparalleltoShonibare'smasterfulsubterfugeinDoubleDutch,onemight
lookelsewhere,toanothereraandanotherculturewheredifferencewasrequiredof
theOutsidercitizenasaconditionforacceptance.In1927,theyoungDukeEllington
receivedacontracttoperformwithhisbandatthecelebrated,whitesonlyrevuein
Harlem,NewYork:theCottonClub.Toselltheband,hismanager,IrvingMills,billed
Ellington'smusicasanewformofexoticrevelrycalledjunglemusic.
Undertheguiseofthislabel,however,Ellington,who,bytheway,disapprovedofthe
label,wasdeterminedtoprovetoAmericathatnotonlywasthemusicfarfrom
primitiveorsavage,heasitspurveyorwasinfactAmerica'smostsophisticatedand
innovativecomposerofhistime.ItwaswhileheadlininghismusicattheCottonClub
asjunglemusicthatEllingtoncomposedhisfirstmasteropus.BlackandTanFantasy,a
complexbluesodysseyinwhichhepaidtributenottotheallwhiteCottonClub,where
peopleofcolorcouldplayyetcouldnotbeservedorentertained,butinsteadto
Harlem'smixedracedanceclubsknownasBlackandTan,whereallthecomplexityof
Americacouldcometogetherandmanifestwithoutforceddistanceoremphasison
difference.Ellington,socalledkingofjunglemusicaccordingtotheCottonClub,
neverthelessconcludedhiscompositionwithaquotationfromFredericChopin's
FuneralMarch,whichwastoprovepropheticwithregardtothefateofAmericaatthe
endofthe1920s.IncompositionaftercompositionEllingtonpaidtributetothe
complexityofAmericaandinturncritiquedtheJaundiceofhierarchizingcategoriesof
theraces.HestrivedtoprovethathismusicwasAmerica'smusic,thechronicleand
tablatureofAmerica'sexperienceandhistory,andnotthemusicof"others"straight
outofthejungle.LikeShonibare's"Africanfabric"nearlyacenturylater,junglemusic
washistropeofdifference,butwiththattropehewouldconsistentlyandarticulately
critiquethecultureofdifference.

Havingbrokenthecodeoftheculturegame,Shonibaresubsequentlytransformedhis
fabricintoasignature,aproductidentity,againmanifestinghissophisticated
understandingofthedevicesofsuccessinthemetropolitancultureindustry.This
signaturehehasfreelyappliedtotheinterpretationofabroadgamutofthemes,from
hisfascinationforthefigureofthestyleconscious,smart,andconnivingoutsiderof
Victoriansociety,thedandy,whichinitselfissignificant,toreinterpretationsofclassics
ofVictorianart,literature,andtaste.Havingearnedthelibertytocirculateand
contemplatewithinthespacesofthemainstream,whichisindeeduniqueliberty,
Shonibarequicklymovedonfromthepreoccupationwithdifference,athemethat,in
fact,neverhadpriorityinhiswork,andhassincerangedfromvisualessaysonscience
fictionandspacetraveltocontemplationsofcommunalmemoryandinbetween.To
gettothedepthofhissubsequentworkwillrequireanotheressay.However,itwas
DoubleDutch,theOutsider'stokenofdifference,whichmadeeverythingpossible.In
DoubleDutch,hismostimportantworktodate,YinkaShonibarebrokethroughthe
displacingbarricadesofmetropolitanexclusionismandbecameabletoclaimhisplace
asacitizenbysimplysaying,"Iam."