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Experimenting for the radio amateur is that activity that occurs when a new
idea is committed to practice. This usually includes building or
homebrewing some circuitry, but that is only part of the process. It also
includes the planning, analysis, measurement, evaluation and packaging that
accompanies the building. The art of this collected activity is what we call
design.
transmitter, here operating on the 40 meter band. The design starts with a
crystal oscillator. After building and testing this, we add a buffer amplifier.
The output of this stage is studied and measured. Then a 200 milliwatt output
amplifier is added to realize a low power transmitter that is still suitable for use
on the air.
1.12A Bipolar Transistor Power Amplifier: A simple brick is built to
bring the output up to a much more practical level of 2 watts. An inexpensive
transistor is used.
1.13An Output Low Pass Filter: The transmitter just described may not be
useable on the air owing to excessive harmonic output. So, we built a filter
that can be added at the output. This filter is built as an isolated module so it
can be used with other designs. This section concludes the transmitter by
adding shaped keying, transmit/receive switching, a power output control, a
sidetone oscillator, a spot switch, and some tuning in the oscillator to achieve
some VXO action. This transmitter has been used with the IC Based Direct
Conversion Receiver described above for contacts on the 40 meter band.
1.14About the Schematics in this Book: We have made a few departures
from standard ARRL practice. Probably the most significant one is that we try
to put a lot of data directly into the drawing, including coil data when possible.
This allows us to bypass the parts lists otherwise used.
transistor.
The large signal model is now applied, used to analyze methods
for biasing the part. Similar discussions are presented for the junction field
effect transistor.
2.2Amplifier Design Basics: Amplifiers are now studied with small
signals. We use the models to calculate voltage gain for some simple circuits.
Input and output resistance are also calculated. The discussion is extended to
FETs and to some high frequency effects.
2.3Large Signal Amplifiers: The basic models used for biasing can also be
used for analysis of circuits with large or practical (real) signal levels. These
are the levels we might find well into a receiver system, or in a transmitter.
Some distortions are studied, illustrated with a simple emitter follower. A
Class-A power amplifier is then considered.
2.4Gain, Power, dB, and Impedance Matching: These parameters are all
defined, definitions needed throughout the book. The reflection coefficient is
introduced.
2.5Differential Amplifiers and the Op-Amp: A special circuit type is
presented, the differential amplifier. One ideal diff-amp is the op-amp, a form
now discussed. The basic rules for application are presented.
2.6Undesired Amplifier Characteristics: Some undesired characteristics of
any small signal amplifier are presented. These include noise, gain
compression, harmonic distortion, and intermodulation. The intercept idea is
introduced.
2.7Feedback Amplifiers: We now present one of our favorite circuits, the
single transistor feedback amplifier. This is presented with design
equations that allow the experimenter to design his or her own versions.
Some advanced forms are presented. Practical design information is
presented. A program on the book CD, FBA.EXE, also considers feedback
amplifiers. In that analysis, a more refined (hybrid-pi) model is used for the
bipolar transistor.
2.8Bypassing and Decoupling: This section discusses the critical, and often
neglected problems of bypassing and decoupling. The differences between the
two are emphasized. The problems with most bypass capacitors is modeled by
a small inductor in series the larger capacitor. The problems of paralleled
bypass capacitors are examined.
emphasis is given to amplifier schemes that fit with component types that are
still available to the experimenter. A complete IF system will usually include
some automatic gain control, or AGC, so envelope detectors are needed. Some
detection schemes are presented. They are then combined with the IF
amplifiers and DC amplifiers to form complete IF systems suitable for
receivers.
6.3Large Signals in Receivers and Front End Design: We now examine the
affects of large signals in a receiver front end. This leads to discussion of
receiver dynamic range as well as intercepts. The viable mathematical methods
are presented that allow a multiple stage system to be investigated for cascaded
noise figure and cascaded third order intercepts. The methods can also be
applied through CASCADE.EXE, a Windows program included with the
book CD. Several receiver designs are considered to illustrate the concepts.
A practical, general purpose monoband, diode ring based receiver front end is
presented that can be used in numerous applications. This is applied in the
EZ90-14C, a receiver configured to easily provide a dynamic range beyond 90
dB at 14 MHz CW. The receiver design ideas are further illustrated with a
high performance 14 MHz CW receiver. This receiver is the present
incarnation of the Progressive Receiver, a 1981 design.
6.4Local Oscillator Systems for superhets are discussed next. The emphasis
is on methods to achieve a spectrally pure output that can be used at HF and
VHF. Shielding schemes are presented, as are the virtues of isolated function
modules.
6.5We now delve into the fascinating problem of Receivers with Enhanced
Dynamic Range, our so called competition grade receivers. Several
schemes are presented, both in block diagram and in circuit form. The ultimate
example offered is what we have named the Triad receiver, which features a
switching mode MOSFET mixer followed directly by a crystal filter with
constant input impedance. The resulting receiver has a 10 dB noise figure with
an input 3rd order intercept of +45 dBm. This far exceeds anything presently
offered commercially to the amateur radio market.
6.6Transmitter and Transceiver Design: We need transmitters to go with our
receivers. A discussion of transmitter design begins with the usual SSB
equipment we use where mixers generate the output frequencies. A SSB
transmitter differs little from a receiver except in the direction of signal flow.
Linear power amplifier chains (from microwatts up to a few watts) are then
discussed and illustrated with some low power examples. Balanced
modulators using diode rings and pairs as well as Gilbert Cells are presented
and combined with the transmitter IF systems discussed. Some circuits vital
to transceivers are presented, including bi-directional amplifiers.
6.7Frequency Shifts, Offsets and Incremental Tuning: These are straight
forward details that can add a lot to equipment functionality.
6.8Transmit-Receive Antenna Switching: The problems of transmit-receive
switching at the antenna are discussed with emphasis on electronic switching
schemes. Examples up the 100 watt level are presented.
The chapter ends with several projects.
6.9The Lichen Transceiver: A Case Study is a monoband SSB design
offering very high dynamic range. Although the unit shown operates in the 75
meter band, it can be adapted to other HF bands.
6.10--The next design example is A Monoband SSB/CW Transceiver. This
circuit is highly flexible and can be placed on any single band between 1.8 and
144 MHz when suitable filters are used. The version presented operates in the
6 Meter band. This design offers several circuit modules that can be used in
other transceivers.
6.11A Portable DSB/CW 50 MHz Station. The final design example is a
portable rig for 6 Meters featuring a receiver with a crystal controlled converter
driving a direct conversion receiver. The transmitter for the portable station
uses an unusual VXO scheme to develop a DSB signal.
voltmeter is presented for use with other circuits within the book.
7.2We now consider the oscilloscope. Basic concepts are presented,
including an explanation of a scope probe and its application. A paper on the
CD expands some on the subject.
7.3The next subject covered is that of RF Power Measurement. This is vital
to anyone building a transmitter, although our applications also extend to
receiver LO chains. Some of the several power meters presented are sensitive
enough that they can easily measure signals off the air (from antennas) and can
be used with signal generators for gain measurements on amplifiers. Further
applications are found in a power meter paper on the book CD. Several
paragraphs deal with the special problems of RF power measurements with an
oscilloscope.
7.4Attenuators are used to reduce the amplitude of RF signals in a specified
impedance environment while preserving that environment. Design equations
are given for several forms, and examples of power attenuators are shown.
7.5Measuring Frequency, Inductance, and Capacitance: The problem
measuring frequency is easily solved with a suitable counter. An example
circuit was given in Chapter 4, and commercial units are widely available.
Once one has the ability to measure F, L and C are easily done with some
existing standard values. This is done with a suitable general purpose
oscillator.
7.6Sources and Generators: Many of the measurements we do require a
source of energy. The first example circuit presented is an audio oscillator that
we have used for the testing and adjustment of SSB transmitters. A more
elaborate audio generator is then presented for two-tone testing. The next unit
presented is a general purpose RF source, providing outputs from 3 to 45 MHz
in a relatively simple design. While this lacks the shielding needed to qualify
it as a true signal generator, it is suitable for extensive lab work when used
with a step attenuator.
The next unit describe is a signal generator
extender. This is a simple box that will allow a generator (such as many
surplus HP units) that functions only down to 10 MHz to generate well defined
outputs at frequencies down to audio.
The discussion of generators continues with a look as special crystal controlled
sources. One example generates a stable 6 Meter signal using an off-the-shelf
crystal. Next, weak signal sources for MDS measurements are discusses.
used for this application, but only a few are considered here. Generally the
diode ring is preferred over a Gilbert Cell. Passive FET mixers (switching
mode) will certainly come into their own in the next few years. Some
comments are made regarding excess noise sources that become important in
DC receiver applications.
8.5A Modular Direct Conversion Receiver: This section is essentially an
update of earlier work. The various modules or elements in the block are
considered with recommendations.
8.6DC Receiver Advantages:
DC receivers have important differences
from superhets, and for the very best competition grade or laboratory grade HF
receivers, superhets will continue to dominate. For other applications, Direct
Conversion receivers may have significant advantages. Some of these
advantages are described here.
been altered from earlier designs, resulting in enhanced dynamic range. The
components used have 1 % tolerances, but are then user selected to 0.1 % with
a digital volt meter. Extreme attention is devoted to low distortion design.
Details are presented for phase and amplitude trimming. An example of the
R2-Pro is found in Chapter 12.
9.10A High Performance Phasing SSB Exciter:
The design of a very
high performance phasing SSB exciter is described, starting with the significant
differences between phasing exciters and phasing receivers. The signal levels
in the design are based on measurements of standard level packaged diode ring
mixers. Emphasis is on low distortion, low noise off-channel, and opposite
sideband suppression near 50 dB. Circuitry is also included for a high
performance DSB exciter and one for very low distortion AM.
9.11A Few Notes on Building Phasing Rigs: Some comments are
presented with emphasis on complete transceivers. The ideal system uses
separate blocks for each function with only a LO system being shared. Some
other factors discovered, sometimes painfully, are outlined.
9.12Conclusion: There are some situations where phasing based designs
are preferred over a super-heterodyne system. These are discussed here.
Above all else, we encourage the builder/experimenter to try some of the ideas
in his or her own home lab.
CD-ROM that accompanies the book. These are in ADSP assembly language as
well as assembled into read-to-run programs.
10.1 The EZ-Kit Lite describes the platform and the motivation for using this
type of device. Measurements of the input and output dynamic range are shown
along with a discussion and measurement of intermodulation effects. A table
shows possible alternatives to the EZ-Kit.
10.2 A Program Shell presents the minimal DSP program that is needed for
any of the components. The use of program interrupts is discussed along with
the specific implementation of A/D and D/A interrupts used by Analog
Devices. A sidebar later in the chapter presents considerable detail on the use
of fixed-point (not floating point) numbers to represent Voltages inside the
DSP.
10.3 DSP Components looks at Amplification and Attenuation of signals,
including the roles of shifting and multiplication.
10.4 Signal Generation gives details of the generation of sine waves for use
as internal functions and externally through D/A converters. Using this
generator as an example, the use of Index Registers for data arrays in the DSP
is covered.
10.5 Random Noise Generation shows the generation of white noise at known
levels by using random number generators. Both uniform and Gaussian
distributions are covered.
10.6 Filtering Components are presented in two forms. The IIR filter is
shown for simple applications, such as might use R-C analog components.
Then, full details, including a design program, are given for FIR filters.
Performance tradeoffs are shown.
10.7 DSP IF shows combinations of DSP components to produce an
intermediate-frequency processing system.
10.8 DSP Mixing shows the Double-Balanced Mixer in a single DSP
multiplication instruction.
10.9 Other DSP Components shows the use of the basic components to
implement Automatic Gain Control, FM Transmission and FM Reception.
CD-ROM Contents:
The various programs on the ROM are listed in the text. The ROM includes 60
articles from prior issues of QST, QEX, HR, Communications Quarterly, and
Microwave Update. The CD includes 10 circuit design programs and several
DSP code listings, including source code for the 18-MHz transceiver and the
DSP-10 144-MHz transceivers.