Sustainable Tourism: Ethical Alternative or Marketing Ploy?

Author(s): Paul Lansing and Paul De Vries

Source: Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 72, No. 1 (Apr., 2007), pp. 77-85
Published by: Springer
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? Springer2006

Journal of Business Ethics (2007) 72:77-85

DOI
10.1007/sl0551-006-9157-7

Sustainable Tourism: Ethical Alternative

or Marketing Ploy?

ABSTRACT.
source

economic

of

tourism

tourism

While

heritage.

In

surfaced

recently
to define

tempts

is,

new

marketing

term
ploy

loss of

and

a term

concerns,
tourism.

tourism
is an

This

and

asks

acceptable

to attract

heritage.
surfaced

cultural
that

has
at

article
the question
or
criteria

the morally

the destruction

such

effects,

negative

systems

sustainable

sustainable

this
a

ecological
to these

response

of whether
merely

of

is

conscious

tourist.

KEY
global

WORDS:
tourism,

false

ethical marketing,
governance

advertising,
tourism

sustainable

instrument,

Introduction
Tourism
important

one
is rapidly becoming
sectors of economic
growth

to continue.
of growth is expected
Tourism
World
Organization

the most

of

in the world.

to the

According

Tourism

(WTO)
2020, international arrivals in the next 15 years
to 703 miUion
in
will be 1.56 billion,
compared
2002 and to 565 million
in base year 1995. Over the
an average growth rate of 4.1% is
period 1995-2020,
Vision

(WTO,
tourism

(economic)

2001).
is often

development,

seen as awelcome

source of
mass

"conventional"

tour

Pa?/ Lansing is a professor of Business Administration at the

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. He received a
J.D.

Degree

and

a Graduate

Degree

in

International

Business.

Paul De Vues received anM.Sc BA, in StrategicManagement

from theRotterdam School ofManagement, RSM Erasmus
University.

in recent years is "sustainable"

tourism, or
"eco"- tourism. Countries
and (transnational) corpo
rations alike advertise with these new terms as ameans

an ethically
and convey
to the morally conscious tourist. These
sound message
new forms of tourism are proposed
to simultaneously
to differentiate

themselves

fulfill the needs of different parties involved: delivering

revenues and profits to the tourism industry, respon
to the increasingly wealthy
travel experiences
economic
envi
and
tourist,
growth combined with
to
ronmental
and socio-cultural
host
protection
countries and communities.
sible

of the problems
skepticism

associated with
has

development

and its claim to alleviate many

tourism
conventional

tourism

Sustainable

slowdowns
temporary
Notwithstanding
(regional)
as
due to events such
and
9/11, the SARS epidemic,
the tsunami disaster, the structural underlying
trend

expected
While

numerous negative effects, such as

of ecological systems and loss of cultural
In response to these concerns, a term that has

ism is associated with

mass

conventional

development,
numerous
with

is associated

as the destruction

as a welcome

seen

is often

Paul Lansing
Paul De Vries

aswell.

its share of critique and

criticism has given rise to the

received
This

tourism is actually a
sustainable
question,
new form of tourism or a clever marketing
campaign
to provide
corporations
ethically more
appealing
same
for
the
old
Are
toy.
corporations
wrapping paper
their activities as sustainable
justified in proclaiming
whether

and in using this as a differentiation

tool, or is this an
unethical
claim and consequently
false advertising?
This article investigates this dilemma.
on sustain
information
First, some background
able

tourism

discussion.

is provided,
definition

The

setting the stage for the

of sustainable tourism is

based on

the conceptual
definition
provided by the
some of the issues regarding the
after which
WTO,
are
different
of sustainable
tourism
dimensions
on this information,
Second,
highlighted.
building
or not sustainable
the core issue is framed: whether
tourism

is a correct

ization.

Two

arguments

and ethically
sound
on this
views

different

for both

sides are presented.

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character
issue

The merits

and
of

and Paul De

78 Paul Lansing
is reviewed,
and a sug
arguments
is
for
made.
progress
Finally, major conclu
gestion
are reviewed.
sions derived from the discussion
these

different

developers,

themselves.

into a meaningful
discussion
of
entering
to
sustainable tourism and its facets, it is necessary
term.
is
this
understood
by
clarify exactly what

Before

Numerous

and subdivi
definitions,
categorizations,
are available, which
makes
the debate over
tourism

sustainable

itself

and
disjointed
and arguments"

"patchy,

often flawed with

false assumptions
(Liu, 2003), an issue that will resurface later in the
For now,
discussion.
the conceptual
definition
of
a
WTO
the
offers
sustainable tourism provided
by
this

article, the
as an umbrella

starting point. Throughout

is used
sustainable
tourism
under

other

which

such

as eco

terms,
concept,
tourism, may fall.
as a departure from
While
it is usually perceived
mass
states that
conventional
the WTO
tourism,
and
tourism
sustainable
development
guidelines
management

are

practices

"...

to

applicable

lished between

these

and

the

tourists,
of criteria,
for further

appendix
The United

raising

are

which

awareness

should meet

tourism

in

outlined

the

reference.

Nations

underlined

in tourism

A/RES/56/212,
Code
of Ethics

purpose

of

importance

sustainable

comprises

with

the importance
its resolution

development
The Global
officially
recognizing
code
for Tourism
(GCET). This

a comprehensive
set of principles whose
to
in tourism devel
is
guide stakeholders

local com
and local governments,
tourism
its
the
and
munities,
professionals,
industry
aswell as visitors (consumers), both international and
central

opment:

domestic.
game"

for

be

the

travelers

of

role

the

Ethics
(WCTE),
on a
stakeholders

Nine

articles

destinations,

outline
governments,

the

"rules
tour

of

operators,

tourism

its sustainability
and the eth
development,
is
ical issues involved. Another
the
sign
proliferation

of

of

codes

mission

conduct,

statements,

sets

of

"core

overviews
of ethical standards and related
values",
statements that can be found on virtually any website
of any corporation
tourism.
affiliated with
tourism
the dimensions
of sustainable
Adopting
identified by the WTO
economic,
(environmental,
to look at
it may be insightful
and socio-cultural),
some

of

the

issues

associated

with

conventional

tourism.

concerns

Environmental
tourism

have

development

ronmental
mented.
smaller
concerns

One

..."

2004a, b).
(WTO,
sustainability
of all
the involvement
and participation
Emphasizing
nature of the
relevant stakeholders,
the continuous

of ethics

on Tourism

consequences
With
the world
for

place
are now

with

conventional

a long history and envi

have been widely
docu

becoming
international
present on a global
the

Latin America's
Amazon
Reef,
ice plains of Antarctica).

to guarantee

three dimensions

its long-term

among
number

may

and

workers,

concerns

a smaller
traveler,
scale: from

and
these
the

damage to coastlines due to the construction

of high-rise
hotels
the Mediterra
(e.g. throughout
on fragile
to
the
effect
nean),
possibly devastating
Great
Barrier
systems
(e.g. Australia's
ecological

refer to the environmental,

Sustainability
principles
economic
and socio-cultural
aspects of tourism
a
must be estab
balance
and
suitable
development,

process,

Ten

visual

all forms

in all types of destinations,

including mass
tourism
and the various niche
segments.

of tourism
tourism

agents,

by
approached
the applica
basis for matters
voluntary
concerning
tion and interpretation
of the Code
(WTO, 2004a,
to
b). This indicates the increasing attention devoted

Background

good
term

travel

Article

Committee

World
which

sions

Vries

the

of

the main

economic

rainforest,
concerns

with

and

the

tourism

is the leakage effect, which

prevents
development
or communities
from holding
and
host countries
from
Mowforth
and
the
tourism.
retaining
gains
Munt
of three
(2003) define
leakage as consisting
elements:
ported
covers

(1) leakage refers to the purchase of im

(2) leakage
goods and services by tourists;
the imports of goods and services by hotels

and other

tourism

to the repatriation
hotels
and other

establishments;
(3) leakage refers
of profits by foreign owners of
services
and Munt,
(Mowforth

2003).
Socio-cultural

have
aspects
increasing
gained
can often be more
to trace
difficult

attention, but
other
than environmental

and economic
aspects.
conse
can
have
social
many
development
as
and
land
such
quences,
grabbing
speculation
(Williams,
2002),
escalating prices, and social dif
culture
ferentiation
(Stonich et al., 1995). Although

Tourism

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Sustainable
is at its core dynamic,
the changes that may occur in
and life styles, because of the
customs,
traditions,
If local
arrival of tourists should not be overlooked.
residents
maintain

were

confronted

with

their distinctive

to
the struggle
this would
reduce

heritage,
of tourism development.

their acceptance
This very brief overview

just touches the surface of

the set of problems generally linked to conventional
As mentioned
tourism
development.
previously,
as a solution to
sustainable tourism is often proposed
these problems, but the efficiency of such a solution
has been questioned
and Munt,
(e.g. Mowforth
concurrent
criticism on the research in
2003) with
this area
tainable

sus
clear, whether
an ethical response by
and
(Mowforth
ploy

It is not

(Liu, 2003).
tourism is actually

or a marketing
corporations
Munt,
2003; Wheeler,
1995).

79

Tourism
relations

These

advertising.

Position

as unethical

that is viewed

tool

are

views

opposing

and false
next.

evaluated

of parties
tourism: Ethically

Sustainable

concern

Growing

socio-cultural
has given

for

of tourism development
changes in the industry,

attention

increasing
devoting
of tourism. While

economic

progress,

cultural

awareness

sustainable

forms

terms

are

employed,

tourism

center

on

combining

environmental

socio

and

care,

and
(see for example Wearing
an overview
of the features of

for

2000:3,
Neil,
"alternative"

to

different

of

forms

and

economic,

environmental,

consequences
to influential

rise

these new

sound

standard for
tourism). An objective
tourism that provides a singular definition
rules and
universally
applicable and enforceable

sustainable
Issue

with

This

brief background
to the three
related

highlights
dimensions

some of the issues

of

and in general
by theWTO
tourism
of
and its ethical
sustainability
identified

have received

increasing attention,
A visit to the website
of theWTO

sustainability
shows that the
considerations

so.
and deservedly
reveals a dizzying

on awide
array of initiatives and publications
tourism development.
of topics concerning
In theory, the argument
for sustainable
seems

clear

opment

and quite
should occur

reasonable.
in a way

variety
tourism

Tourism

devel

that leads

to sus

for all of the

long term improvements
involved.
does
However,
parties
theory provide
to be a practically
clarity for sustainability
enough
Is there sufficient ground for
operational distinction?
(transnational)
corporations
nature of their tourism
tise the "sustainable"
a correct and ethically
tives? Is sustainability

is said to reduce

suppliers
the leakage

of

local

economic

effect,

employees

and

such as
problems
efforts to decrease

preservation
programs to
impact, and community
is that
cultural heritage. Their
argument

safeguard
this is a positive
development
and
real-life
evidence
encouraged
icality

of promoting
In

clients.

informed

this way,

choice

and

these
concerned

efforts

that

supports
among

tourists

when

choosing
that
corporations

should

be

the eth
potential
an

can make

their destination

how
go

with

as a differentiation

Involvement

regulation.

sound

can be
regard to this question
on
One
view
builds
real-life
distinguished.
examples
to support
and case-study
research
the use of
views

of the sustainable
Supporters
characterization
of tourism
that
initiatives
argue
in
countries
and corporations
self
actively engage
research.

initia

characterization?
Two

and

sustainable
preferred
travel opportunities.
Tourism
industry examples on
are cited to show
all three sustainability dimensions

to adver

and

work

environmental

tainable,

countries

is in
This
has yet to be introduced.
requirements
an
an
of
inevitable
of
field
feature
part,
emerging

tool. Corporations

sustainability
are deemed not responsible for conceptual vagueness
or misuse by others. A contrasting view argues that
current conceptual
room
leaves so much
ambiguity
for interpretation
that almost any cause can be sup
to a publication
This
reduces
ported.
sustainability

business

goals and sustainable

development

can

hand-in-hand.

Transnational
in

offer

environmental

successes.

a role
have played
corporations
conservation
and
ecological

For

&
Tree Hotels
instance, Banyan
a
small
number
of
operates
super-luxurious
are "eco-resorts",
most
of which
properties,
throughout Asia and the Pacific. Banyan Tree has a

Resorts

to "The Green
dedicated
separate website
Impera
a
initiative
with
its affiliate, Angsana
tive",
joint
on
Resorts
8c Spa. This
is focused
imperative

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80 Paul Lansing
"ceaseless

from

to

sensitivity

small-scale
to

toiletries,

the

marine

large-scale

ranging

tourism
Domestic

conservation

and

pro

jects. One of the success stories of Banyan Tree is its

In 1977, its location was de
first resort in Phuket.
to be

the UN

clared by

due

too severely damaged

to
to chemicals
used in tin

support vegetation
After years of effort by Banyan Tree,
mining.
flora and fauna in the area are flourishing

both
again

April 2005).
Foundation

(banyantree.com/greenimperative,
& Kent's Global
Abercrombie

was

to protect
and
the environment
this internationally
local cultures of the destinations
in
travel
visits. Founded
company
luxury
operating
in 1982

launched

1962 by the British Kent family out of their love for

& Kent
their new homeland
Zambia, Abercrombie
claims

"...

that

the

itage
unification

our

of

preservation

is best

natural

the

accomplished
of environmental

through
and economic

in Zanzibar
bird preservation
programs
seal research studies in Alaska
(akglobal

indigenous
to harbor

foundation.org,
April 2005).
tour
has compiled various efforts where
Research
ism development
and sustainability come together.
(2003) assembles numerous case-studies from
Buckley
all continents and concludes that ecotourism can work.
reveals a diverse

His work

safari lodges in Africa

comes to environmental

set of cases. Many

are very

progressive

premier
it
when

sensitivity, including world

gaming lodges and reserves such as Londo
Phinda Private Game
lozi Private Game Reserve,
to name
and
Game
and
Reserve,
Reserve,
Ngala Lodge
renowned

only a few. Other examples

the Pacific to theMonteverde
Costa

Pdca

and

Soufli

range from Turtle Island in

in
Cloud Forest Reserve
Forest Reserve

(Buckley, 2003).
Bank
Research
by the World
host countries
and communities

in Greece

demonstrates

that

have

experienced
sustainable
progress
through
is one
For instance, Mauritius
tourism development.
small islands that has turned to tourism in
of many
aware of
order to gain economic
prosperity. Being
substantial

economic

the limits to tourism development

given its small size
number
of international
the
and Umited resources,
tourist
island
According

arrivals
as

per year

the
promoting
destination.
luxury

is limited,

high-quality,
to World
Bank

(2003),

this focus

6.70%

has

on

in

resulted

Product

average
of 6.40%

growth
between

1992

1992, 5.20%
in 2001. Furthermore,
net

while

significantly,

annual

Gross

between

1982

and
2002,
has decreased

and

inflation

income

has

from

climbed

in 1982 to $247 million

$-47 million

in 2001

in
(World Bank, 2003). An important consideration
initiatives
is the involvement
of local
sustainable
Part

basis.

is the ongoing
attempt
properties with local capital, using
After

management.

porations
businesses

effort

and
cor

many

to support

local

tourism

also

development

devotes

to socio-cultural

the livelihood
Tree

tourism

local workers,

and workers.

Sustainable

ness

sustainable

construction,

a continuous

make

of

to build

tourism

local

are shared

that the benefits

residents, guaranteeing
on a community-wide

attention

her

sustained

goals".
to a global scale in 1998, A&K Global
from
has programs on seven continents,

Expanded
Foundation

Vries

as biodegradable

ecosystem",

such

programs,

and Paul De

among
include

consequences,
considering
of local residents and creating aware
at Banyan
tourists.
Initiatives
visiting
the battle

of education

promotion
munities

fever

against dengue
for children

and the

in local com

April
(banyantree.com/greenimperative,
2005). Tourism has also led to positive socio-cultural
in Australia. The
effects in the case of the Aborigines
conservation
of their cultural heritage has received

more

to increasing numbers of tourists

their ancestral land. Native
land has been

attention

that visit

due

returned to the Aborigines,

who now rule over parts
in the
of their homeland
and are actively involved
preservation
their

of not

culture,

Uluru

the environment

only

tourists

educating

(Ayers Rock),

Kata

in

Tjuta

the

areas

but

also

around

(The Olgas)

and

Alice

Springs.
of the arguments
often used against tourism
One

a social viewpoint
is that local
development
from

effects and this

negative
et al. (1987)
Liu
will.
their
against
largely happens
that residents
found in their study of host perceptions
residents

only

are concerned

experience

about

environmental

effects,

but also

from
the positive
effects
acknowledge
resulting
as
of
tourism
such
preservation
development,
historic sites. Their study showed that including the
is important, while evaluating
(Liu et al., 1987). King et al.
in
confirmed
their later study of resident
(1993)
small
island of Nadi,
of
the
Fiji that
perceptions
economic
bene
between
residents can differentiate
of residents
perception
tourism development

fits

and

however

social

costs. Tourism

opposed

development
as a result of the awareness

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is not
of such

Sustainable Tourism
costs. The

belief

that tourism

has both

negative
impacts can lead to support
to the common
This
is in contrast
those who

benefit

positive and
for tourism.
belief

that

tourism would

its
recognize
not
those who
do

from

while
consequences,
its
effects
(King et al.,
negative
emphasize
awareness
The
of
effects
of tourism
1993).
negative
not nec
does
local
residents
thus
by
development

positive
would

reduce

essarily

their

and

acceptance

support

of

tourism.

Sustainable

tourism:Marketing

ploy

this apparent evidence

Despite
of sustainable tourism, critics

for the positive effects

see several issues both

on a conceptual
and practical level. They argue that
is so vaguely defined, widely
the
concept
presently
that the
and increasingly
misused,
interpretable,
characterization
remains worrisome
and most often
lacks real content, reducing
a clever marketing
ploy.
comes
to tangible real-life

it to nothing more
than
it
when
Furthermore,
of sustainable
examples

tourism development,
many
arguments
can be nuanced. All
this characterization
that while

advertisements

in favor

of

in all, they
lure travelers

argue
might
into the belief, that going on a sustainable tourism
adventure would not only be personally fulfilling but
also the morally
thing to do, it is unfor
preferable
as
as
not
clear-cut
that. The general idea is
tunately
nicely captured in the comment by Sharpley (2000),
who posits that the focus seems to be on the long
term viability of tourism (sustaining tourism) rather
than long-term
sustainable
development
through
tourism.

sustain
First, the conceptual
clarity surrounding
able and other new forms of tourism leaves a lot to
to its popularity,
critics argue that
a buzzword
term has become
that can be so

be desired.
the
widely
There
nor

an

sets of
tourism

Due

to support almost
any cause.
interpreted
is neither a singular definition
of the concept,
agreement

on

its aspects,

standards. Due
debate

associated

criteria

or

to its issues, the sustainable

called inherently
flawed

has been

81

and enforcement.
For sustainable tourism to
a
be
real world
option, practically feasible measures
so that
and policies need to be devised
(Liu, 2003),
sustainable
tourism can diffuse the entire tourism
control

So far, it has not succeeded

in moving
a narrow
niche market
1999).
(Honey,
a number
of problems
(2000) outlines

industry.
beyond
Sharpley

tourist

flows,

dependency

accepted

industry currently lacks any widely

a foundation
that provides
for
system

the significant
of
highlight
degree
in the global tourist system (Sharpley,

2000).
Fleckenstein

and Huebsch
(1999) argue that the
must
it
is
realize
that
and
industry
community-based
to consider
costs of tourism
needs
socio-cultural
as well
development
both customers
and
these

absence,

as its responsibilities
towards
current
its
Given
employees.

authors

in the

argue

in favor

of an ethical

tourism

program
(1995)
industry. Wheeler
little attention,
posits that ethics has also received
it comes to marketing
when
tourism. Wheeler
spe
in
whether
her words
cifically questions
"green"
tourism is an actual ethical response by the tourism
a marketing
or merely
campaign related to
fashions.
market
Mowforth
and Munt
changing
new
also
whether
forms
of tourism
(2003)
question

business

are

a true

goal

of

transnational

corporations

or

Mowforth
ply a public relations tool. Wheeler,
Munt
and several other authors conclude upon
review

that currently

it should be viewed

sim

and
their

as a mar

and Neil

(2000) discuss several

while
ecotourism,
Sharpley

keting ploy. Wearing

threats in marketing
the characteristics
of the
(1999) argues that given
cannot
of
tourism
it
be
that
assumed
consumption
the "green"

tourist

is there.

at the three dimensions

of sustainable
Looking
several researchers question
the claims of
tourism,
to
sustainable tourism. One of the aspects on which
ronmental

tourism

industry that
of sustainable

the structure, ownership,

and control
Furthermore,
of the tourism industry, plus the distinctive
region
alized and polarized
characteristics
of international

doubt

The

tourism

the achievement
against
to
The
of a holistic
adoption
approach
tourism
is impossible
sustainable
due to the frag
dominated
mented,
multi-sectoral,
private-sector
and profit-motivated
tourism production
system.

a more

level.

the

mitigate
tourism.

issues need to be addressed

(Liu, 2003). Fundamental
in order for sustainable tourism research to move
to
scientific

linked with

inextricably

combine

the characterization

"sustainable"

Set

aspect.
apart from
tourism development
with

host countries

or communities,

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the

is the envi
attempts

to

in
sustainability
true sustainability will

82 Paul Lansing
due to the pollution caused
always remain questionable
to
air
the
destination.
Reid
travel
reach
(2003) and
by
and Munt

Mowforth

this par
(2003) both recognize
In areas where
tourism.
clean

in sustainable

adox

drinking water is one of the major issues faced by local

residents, advertising with the acres of azure-colored,
pool seems rather
ozone-purified,
tropical-landscaped
a telling
whose

andMunt

dubious. Mowforth

(2003) provide
Hotels Group,
example of Intercontinental
in
fresh water luxury swimming
pool at its property
is replenished
Nicaragua,
Managua,
regularly, while
water

in surrounding
slums are very poor.
economic
of
sustainable
view,
point
does little to negate the problems associated

conditions

From
tourism

an

with

conventional

most

important

One of the
tourism development.
a
on tourism
of
focus
consequences

to factors
and vulnerability
dependency
the span of control of the host country or
This is true, independent
from a focus
community.
or sustainable
on conventional
tourism
tourism
is high
outside

A second important point to consider

development.
is not to
is leakage. The impact of this phenomenon
in
and especially
influential
be underestimated
For instance, most
estimates
countries.
developing
more
tourism
that
than
of
all
50%
money
suggest
never

either

paid
World

or

reaches

leaks out

of Third

level of leakage is
power held by
significant as a result of the economic
to that
transnational
compared
corporations
large

of

destination

communities

local

recognizes
Reid
(2003)

and businesses

and

local

governments
(2002) also

communities

and
bearing
a proper

without

Sustainable

of resources.

of governments
at the expense

argues that the focus

on profit maximization

environment

ment

The

and Munt,
2003). Williams
in ownership
the asymmetry

(Mowforth

of

countries.

social welfare

results

the costs of tourism

in local
develop

is promoted

development
the leakage effect because of joint ownership,
and local suppliers. Al
the use of local employees

to

reduce

in the literature,
surprisingly
though
emphasized
or factual
is
evidence
information
little specific
on
this
this reduced leakage effect, making
available
a weak
and the
claim. Although
joint ownership
of

involvement
these

can

Durbarry
argues
majority

be

local
quite

residents
hollow

sound
ideas.

For

promising,
instance,
report that

Bank
quotes aWorld
is small because
that leakage inMauritius
(2001)

of hotels

are built with

Vues

(World Bank, quoted

operated by local management
in Durbarry,
2001:
Furthermore,
864).
foreign
are owned
in joint ventures with
local
properties
it is true that
(Durbarry, 2001). While
of hotels on the island are co-owned
by
the
learned from contact with
partners, we

shareholders
the majority
local

that there
of The Oberoi Mauritius
general manager
a
is no limit to the asset and equity commitment
foreign investor is allowed to contribute. This means
is
investor
that majority
ownership
by a foreign
can result in virtually
which
possible,
complete
of
corporations.
properties
by foreign
ownership
of Durbarry
the assertion
Therefore,
although
be true,
(2001) that not all profits leak out, might
nevertheless
substantial.
be
leakage may
Tourism

the

local capital and are

should be considered

development

all relevant

angles, including economic,

and other elements. Reid

ecological,
that the solution

from

sociological,
(2003)

to such a holistic

argues
can be

approach
in community
the
involvement,
guaranteeing
tourism
division
from
of benefits
proportional
found

as
is promoted
tourism
Sustainable
development.
to
in
often
reference
developing
socially desirable,
The validity
countries, because of local involvement.
It is a daunting
of this claim can be disputed.
task to
accurate representation
of an often diverse

undertake

and underdeveloped
community.
tioned whether
the community
assess

its

and

needs

has

the

It can be ques
has the ability to

power

to

voice

them.

(2003) warn for the general

of local
that
the
the degree
greater
assumption
the greater the sustain
control
and participation,
and Munt

Mowforth

and

ability
within

the wider

of benefits

the distribution

the community will be. They argue that this

is not always the case precisely because
there is no
all
of sustainability
and not
singular definition

members

share of the benefits.

tourism

and Paul De

of a community will
the distribution

Furthermore,

can

share the same needs.

of power

within

cause

the
and

(Mowforth
community
inequality
himself
Munt,
(2003) touch this prob
2003). Reid
of
lem in his assertion
that accurate representation
inhabitants is crucial.

Proposal
This
ethical
with

article

sets out

to

investigate

whether

for (transnational)
corporations
or whether
tourism
sustainable

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

it is

to advertise
they

are

Sustainable
in false advertising. This proposal attempts
engaging
to evaluate the merit of the arguments presented
in
while
for
also
sections,
previous
suggestions
making
on this debate.

Beforehand,
that it is not our intention

progress
to clarify here
definitive

we would

of

definition

sustainable

Tourism

development
the different dimensions.
The

no doubt
see many
and
changes
a
strict
therefore
prescription would
developments,
be limiting. We
how progress
could be
propose
what
should be included,
elements
accomplished,
instruments
and what
could be used to render sus

tourism

will

tainability a practically feasible characterization.

When
evaluating both points of view, it seems that
proponents, while offering encouraging
examples, are
unable to provide more than these (relatively) isolated
cases. There is little hard evidence available to justify
the claim that sustainable tourism has been able to live
influence.
up to its theoretical
on
had to rely
self-imposed

this time, one has

or
codes of conduct

At

room for
standards, which
give too much
too
to
discretion
and
much
corpora
interpretation
tions as to what to include and what to exclude.

ethical

efforts have led to positive

preservation
Although
these do not equal
environmental
consequences,
On
the one hand,
environmental
sustainability.
evidence
instance
other

as shown for
development
is encouraging,
but on the
claims of reduced
leakage

of economic
for Mauritius

hand, subsequent
can not be supported

which
by evidence,
makes
it difficult to form a definitive
argument. The
fact that residents can differentiate between
the costs
effects

and benefits
does

of tourism

and that this

development
lead to opposition
of further

not

necessarily
is an important finding;
this does not
development
however
provide support for the sustainable nature of
tourism

as such.

development
of the number

that can
of examples
not
these do
stand against

Irrespective

to the table,
be brought
the overwhelming
that is available. On a
critique
are
there
serious problems with
level,
conceptual
which
makes
sustainability,
practical feasibility at this
time especially difficult.
criticism re
Fundamental
structural issues associated with
gards the inherent
the tourism industry that inhibit sustainable devel
opment.
plausible

In addition,
arguments

critics

against

provide
the current

theoretically
sustainability

of

persist on

socio-cultural

levels.

operational
instrument
governance
to determine whether

and a comprehensive
it impossible
makes
tiative

and

of a practically

absence

one

and every

Several problems

economic,

environmental,

an ethical
to
framework
from which
prescribe
use.
an
As
evaluate its
emerging field of research and
a
and
volatile
sector, tourism and its sus
thought
tainability

on each

of tourism

like

to provide a
tourism, or to

83

definition
actually
an ini

to this, the critique that

is sustainable. Adding
on
is available
and
the environmental,
economic,
socio-cultural
the claims of sustainable
dimensions,
rather

appear

quently,
little more
more

tourism

sustainable

seems

than amarketing

nature

ethical

Conse

unsubstantiated.

at this moment
of its use

the

instrument, making
in advertising
dubious

and

a marketing

ploy.
to look at the progress
being said, we want
to substantiate
that would
be necessary
claims of
That

tourism? Two

sustainable

to be clarified.

issues need

one
First, how would
sustainability in tourism

start to operationally
define
Second, what
development?
instrument
take so
governance

a possible
that sustainability can be established objectively?
an
We
believe
the WTO
definition
provides
its three
excellent
theoretical
starting point with

form could

main

dimensions.

"suitable

on tourism

view

As mentioned

balance"

should

a
in this definition,
for: a balanced

be aimed

the gains

development,

that can be

by implementing
sustainability mea
accomplished
on different
its
and
sures,
consequences
far-reaching
as a
levels. Also,
should be viewed
sustainability
criterion
entirety,
With
tourism
and

that can be applied to the industry

instead of a small niche.
regard

to

the

development

be

environment,
should minimize

about

proactive

preserving

the

in its

sustainable
impact
natural

on
re

sources.

are
to be considered
elements
Important
the protection
and air quality,
of flora and
and their habitat. Limits on the number
of

water
fauna

that can visit certain areas of particular fra

can
be a necessary
step now that may of the
gility
remote destinations
are within
world's
reach of an
tourists

increasing number
On an economic
paid

to

local

of travelers.

level,
involvement

serious attention
and

has to be

the prevention
of
the host
reaching,

leaking out of, or never

This is an aspect where
the
country or community.
more
to
accusation
of sustainability
be
pretending

profits

than it really is appears to be particularly poignant.

While
economic
that can be
progress and growth
seen should be applauded, more
insight has to be

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84 Paul Lansing
into

gained
division

the

different

of revenues

As a dimension
cultural

effects

flows

money

and

the

and profits.
that is difficult

to grasp, the socio

should be
development

tourism

of

is a fun

mapped with greater accuracy. Education

in the opportunity
damental
element

for

local

to be conscious

of the changes in their

and in the provision
of the tools and

communities
environment

capacity to deal with

tourism
with.
The

that they are faced

has to realize
that

the invasions

industry
through its impact on society, it has a responsibility
that it should not take lightly.
With
this inmind, what form could a sustainability
instrument have with which
it could be put into

and Paul De

Vues

be possible
ratings would
such as Conde
magazines

Top 500) of hotels, airlines, cruise lines, and

tourism
could be ex
which
corporations,
to
measures
for
incorporate
panded
sustainability.
other

In

this

response

tourism

and would

a differentiation

they fulfill

the criteria

for

a basis

for

As

development.
the three different dimensions

ranking,
tourism

of sustainable

environmental,
(economic,
development
can
creates
This
be
socio-cultural)
adopted.
possibil
ities for comparison,
reducing room for interpretation
and thus removing
ambiguity. This approach would
serve

as an

source

excellent

of

information

for

the potential
traveler and provide a clear, universal
manner
to determine
true sustainability.
An important consideration
is the authority
and
For this type of gov
power of such an instrument.
ernance instrument
to be a viable option,
itmust be
highly

not only by consumers, but also by the

we propose
that cooperation
Therefore,
theWTO
and the industry is crucial to the

valued

industry.
between

effectiveness

a rating
see the value
of

participants
prestige is attached
An

excellent

so

that

system,
of this ranking

industry
and that

to their position.
be to integrate a
opportunity would
instrument
with
governance
existing

sustainability
such as AAA

Stars, and
an
systems have
incredible reputation,
and
authority,
prestige among
an
both travelers and industry participants. Although

ratings
Michelin

Stars.

Diamonds,
These
rating

Mobile

rating system might be more recognizable

time to
in the end, it takes not only considerable
individual

that is needed. Also,

gain the type of recognition
a
new system will be
there is the chance that such
labels and
lost in the sea of environment-related
codes

that have

tional way

in recent years. An addi

initial knowledge
of these new

surfaced

to increase

would
to

sustainable

sustain

have

mass

"conventional"

the use of sustainability

justify
tool.

to

for

the objectivity
an ethical
be (come)

to

related

set out

article

instrument

governance

concerns

to

This

to which

form,

able tourism development

and authority
needed

on

tourism

These

Leisure

Conclusion

the extent

& Leisure.

magazines
highly-regarded
publish
rankings
(e.g.
Conde Nast Gold List & Travel Awards, Travel &

practice? It is our suggestion that this instrument could

take an approach similar to a rating system, a scale
to rank corporations
and countries based
along which
sustainable

and Travel

Traveler

Geographic

travel
through influential
Nast Traveler, National

review

the dilemma

as

that

are cor

tourism

plagues
development:
in promoting
in
their initiatives
porations
justified
this way or are they unable to keep their promises and
at
is this just a clever marketing
campaign? Looking
in international

the increase

tourist arrivals, it became

one of the most
is becoming
sectors
in the world,
of
economic
important
growth
attention to.
which makes it certainly worth devoting
clear

This

tourism

that

increase

in attention

of the WTO

and UN

is underlined
to work

by the efforts
towards conceptual
standards.

ethical
clarity and industry-wide
and opponents
of the ethical
Both proponents
nature of sustainable tourism development
provide
of these different
arguments. The merit
interesting

points of view was reviewed. At this time, there seems

to be a lack of ground to base the ethicality of sus
tainability and its use in advertising on. The previous
to contribute
to the discussion by
attempted
at
the
elements
that
should be part of
different
looking
an operational definition
of sustainable tourism. Fur
section

thermore,

proposal

was

made

for

governance

that is similar to a rating system. Taking

this two-fold approach, striving for conceptual
clarity
a more balanced view on
and practical applicability,
instrument

sustainable

tourism

can be achieved.

Appendix
World
tainable

Tourism
tourism

Organization
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(2004)

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re

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maintaining
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to conserve
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ecological
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the socio-cultural
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economic
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plansing@uiuc.edu