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Unit Two: Ethics

Benefits of Studying Ethics


1. Moral philosophy can deepen our reflection on the ultimate questions of life. This is of value in
itself, regardless of practical application.
2. Moral philosophy can help us think better about our judgements and how to handle situations.
Everyone has an opinion on how we should act, which over time will form our beliefs.
3. Moral philosophy, like logic, can improve our general thinking process. We learn to think
rigorously about life's fundamental questions in order to understand and evaluate conflicting
points of view, and to reason in a careful way.
Defining Ethics

comes from the Greek word ethos; morals from mores, meaning the customs of people
helps us predict how people are going to behave
basic principles of what determines right and wrong

Logicality

requirement that we logically have consistent beliefs


if that is violated, we are accepting contradictory beliefs or accepting consistent beliefs without
thinking of the logical consequences

Where do our moral principles come from?

parents
people of influence
government
school
religious doctrine

Metaethics
source of morality
do we make it up individually?
is it from G-d?
is it from nature?
do we get it from reason?
principles used to arrive at a moral conclusion:
consequences/result
impulses

Normative Ethics
how we determine what we will do
every action has a consequence
consequences of action makes the action moral or immoral
is the intention of the action that determines this?
what principles should we live by?
Areas of Normative Ethics
1. Deontologists:
believes that you should follow rules regardless of consequences and what the effect may be
on others
focuses on moral means
2. Consequentialists:
believes the most important consideration is getting the best result/consequences for
everyone
anything that leads towards that outcome is the right thing to do
example: utilitarianism maximizes pleasure and reduces pain
focuses on moral ends
3. Virtue Ethicists:
moral decisions are made by people with good character
no ultimate law on morality or consequences
focuses on acquiring and shaping character
Applied Ethics
more practical
how we apply the knowledge of ethics to situations in real life
used in situations like:
abortion
animal rights
death penalty

Kant's Principle- Absolutism


1. Find the basic principle or maxim on which an ethical decision is being made (eg- the maxim
you can tell lies)
2. Imagine a world where this maxim was universal (eg- everyone lies all the time)
3. Ask yourself will this maxim lead to a contradiction? (for example, if everyone always lies,
then lying will cease to work. There will be no lies because no one will ever have any cause to
believe anyone else. This makes lying self contradictory- a liar depends on the truthfulness of
people)
4. If there are contradictions, the maxim is immoral, but if there isn't one, the maxim is moral.
(Therefore, lying is immoral)
Bentham's Principle- Hedonistic Calculus
came up with this formula to calculate the relative goodness and badness of actions by their
relationship to pain and pleasure
increase of pleasure- good, increase of pain- bad
purpose of our actions is to increase pleasure
you can correctly estimate the pain and pleasure, and therefore make an ethical decision, using
the following seven criteria
1. Intensity: those that increase/have more intense pleasures are more valuable than mild
pleasures
2. Duration: pleasures that last longer are worthier than pleasures that pass quickly
3. Certainty: it is better to aim for pleasures that are more likely to achieve than for
pleasures it is unlikely to again results from
4. Propinquity: the sooner/closer this pleasure is to you, the better it is to make that choice
5. Fecundity: the greater the likelihood that the achievement of one pleasure will yield
additional pleasures as a result, the more consideration we should give it
6. Purity: if it only brings pleasure and no pain, then that is the best action. However, that
is rare, so the smaller the mixtures of pain in our pleasure, the better
7. Extent: the moral value of a pleasure increases with the number of people who
experience it, including all sentient beings
Proximity Principle
you care/feel morally responsible about people more if you are emotionally or physically closer
to them
we feel less morally responsible about people that we aren't close to them emotionally or
physically
some suggest this is selfish vs others saying it is only natural
THE DEGREE OF MORAL RESPONSIBILITY WE HAVE TO A PERSON IS
PROPORTIONAL TO OUR RELATIONAL CLOSENESS TO THAT PERSON

The Principle of Double-Effect


the principle of double effect rests on the idea that separating actions of an action that were
intended from those that were merely foreseen
eg- telling someone something with good intentions, but their feelings get hurt
an action that has both good and bad results may be morally justified if it was performed with
the intention of bringing about good results, while the bad results were foreseen but not
intended
doctrine is often used by deontologists in order to explain cases where duties conflict and rights
are infringed upon
Act-Omission Doctrine
moral difference between what you do and what you allow to happen is the moral omission
doctrine
those who insist that the moral worth of an action should be judged purely on its consequences
typically reject it
those that do tend to be deontologists- looking at them regardless of consequences and only the
duty we have to perform them or not
our actions may be blameworthy even if the consequences were unintended, but the same
actions are likely to be judged just as harshly if the consequences are intended
aborting a baby to save the mother (intended)
killing Saddam Hussien, but unintentionally killing innocent civilians (foreseen)
The Just War Theory
1. Just Causes:
morally sound
rescue mission
defence/self-defence
retaliation
defending national sovereignty
2. Discrimination of Combatants:
only soldiers/enemies are legitimate targets
innocent civilians are never just targets
3. Principle of Proportionality:
action taken must be proportional to the circumstance
4. Right Intention:
just wars are entered into for reasons of justice and peace
unjust wars are entered for self-interest or self-promotion
5. Reasonable Success:
must have a reasonable prospect of winning
without damages or losses excessive to those that were anticipated
the less causalities, the more just the war is

Abortion
For

Rebuttal

Against

Rebuttal

Murder
foetus does count as a
human being
they are forming as a
person
to take their life
counts as murder
prevents a human life
from occurring
the child could be just
fine in the troubled
home?
not giving them a
chance to live
life begins at
conception
okay if your life is at
risk if the baby is
delivered
rape abortionpunishing the child for
something the assailant
did

preventing lifeNot Murder


not immoral- what is
prevents them from being
born into a potentially
immoral is forcing a
harmful situation
women to become a
mother may not be
mother
only focus is on the
stable or be able to care
for the baby
baby, not on what the
self defence murder is
woman has to go through
genocide- comes from
not immoral- this counts
as self defence?
Latin, means murder of
clump of cells
races, therefore it is not
genocide
dissecting foetal pigs
they are not fully
for science-is that
developed, and they
immoral?
cannot process memories
women do not want
until the age of two to
children from rape or
four
incest
what if the woman's
children born from
potential is being
rape may have
squandered?
psychological issues after
the potential and
finding out how they were
chance that they may
conceived
have does not exist until
you're born

A womans rights
should not outweigh the
future child's
discriminates against
the unborn
we have to start
somewhere
not the point that
he/she won't feel, but the
chance they are given if
they are born

Other Choices
welfare if the mother
can't afford it
other help from govt.
adoption
you should look into
other options before
abortion
parents that adopt
WANT the child

Adoption- social and


Scientific Evidence:
When conceived, baby
psychological issues
drug and alcohol abuse
not considered human
being.
increase in adopted
Once it develops
children
stunted growth
organs, and is then
physically born.
parents sometimes can
Embryo is not person
keep their children and
because it can't function
be abused anyways
on its own.
friend that does not
Cluster of cells
feel wanted, feels like
42 million abortions
she killed her mother
who died in childbirth
worldwide

clump of cells- it's not


a tumour

Dangerous After-Effects

Choice
if made legal, it would
become much safer
would not have to
worry about
decreasing amount of
suffering children
reduces debt- children
cost approx. $250000
from birth to 18
birth control can fail

What civilized society


allows another human to
be harmed without
consequences? (but it's
not a human yet?)
a lot of places you can
go for help financially
birth control (but they
can't do that if they're
raped??????)

Legalization of Marijuana
Against

Rebuttal

Against

Rebuttal

Medical Effects
Contains 60 different
chemicals
single joint causes as
much damage as five
cigarettes
more likely to cause
cancer
temporary sterility in
men
birth defects

Can be smoked with Positive Medical Effects


cancer
filter
only killed two people HIV
worldwide
aromatherapy
many people that
stress
smoke marijuana also
depression
smoke cigarettes
been used for 8000
years
used to help with pain
and depression

It's already legal to


use it for medical
reasons

Addictive
regular users prove it
is
they crave the high,
but it wears off
current leading cause
of substance
addiction other than
alcohol
12 and older identify
as being addicted on
average
withdrawal
other alternatives for
happiness (egexercise)

It makes people feel Industrial Hemp


we import it, but it is
good, so why should
we put it aside?
illegal to grow it
People do get
special licensing is
addicted to it (but
hard to get
you're agreeing?)
1 cannabis plant can
what about people
save 10 trees
that are addicted to
you can make paper,
eating? (Two
rope, carpet, insulation,
Wrongs)
clothes
9% of users of
you don't smoke it
cannabis are addicted
it's becoming more
normal so it's not
bad?

Agree with the


products
difference between
smoking it and products
two different parts of
the plants for products
vs what you smoke
was made illegal
because it was being
misused

Mental Health
Temporary psychotic
reactions
worsens
schizophrenia
causes depression,
anxiety, suicidal
thoughts
contributes to injury
and death
use of marijuana
decreases mental
abilities as they age
the earlier they start,
the earlier the mental
decline

Little to no effect on Economics


taxing of medical
driving
increases memory?
marijuana brought 3.5
million to Colorado
Causes mental

money being put


problems because of the
towards schools and
added substances
rehab
it only makes you
hungry and not crazy?

The priority should


be the wellness of the
people, not the money
many other ways to
improve the economy
more people are
going to become sick if
they smoke, costing the
government money
(Slippery Slope)
they need to fix their
problems and not
getting help from
harmful substances

Cloning
For

Rebuttal

Against

Rebuttal

Natural
normal animals could
be removed
changes human's
relationship to nature
could create ecosystem
problems

slippery slope
Medical
waiting times for heart we already have
3,000 on the waiting list,
diseases that can wipe
2,000 available
out things
if cloning was legal,
just because we can
one could be created
clone does not mean
effectively
we will wipe out other
no guarantee it will
breeds
we are smart enough to work
don't have to wait for
not destroy all genetic
variation
death
need
clone stem cells to cure
cancer
cloning cells to cure
degenerative diseases
can learn from failures
just because there are
failures doesn't mean that
we should stop trying

Are there cases of this


being done? (no, just
research)
attempt to clone sheep277 attempts, one success
still have a lot of
deformities and
malfunctions in the
process
sheep grew too
quickly- could this
happen with cells?

High Failure and Expense


90 to 98 percent
failure
3D printers could be
used
procreation to make
new organs
health insurance does
not cover organ
cloning
would be unavailable
to most

Technology will
Food
produce more food
improve
unethical to procreate
stop hunger in third
in order to
world countries
organs are living things

who would clone the


food for third-world?
expensive
inefficient
not nutritious

Unethical
morally wrong
too sci-fi?
army of clones???
couldn't they just
clone the food?

majority of cloning
Animals
endangered animals
would be not
would have to have a
back
secure animal
very good reason to
clone it
populations
if a country decides to
control diseases within
use cloning for an army,
animals
they still have the

expenses of humans
people will still abuse it
if it's outlawed

already talked about


food though
natural selection

Euthanasia

For

Rebuttal

Against

Rebuttal

Cost
life support is costly
alternatives are still
being developed,
euthanasia is still cheapest
cost $35 for druginduced euthanasia
life support- 24,000 to
110,000 dollars
small chance of
survival
family burden
surrogate- person that
can make decision for the
patient if they cannot for
themselves

doctors must take oath Search for Cures


doctors are constantly
and sustain purity of life?
quality of care
searching for cures for
cancer
to say it is cost-effective
euthanasia will waste
goes against the oath
the work of others
is that money worth the
if we start giving them
life of the person?
the right to die, we'll start
monetary is more
not caring about the cure
important than human life?
(SLIPPERY SLOPE)
(BUT IT COSTS A LOT
we should keep them
FOR THE FAMILY)
alive
illness= depression=
suicidal thoughts (HASTY
GENERALIZATION)

Quality of Life
free will to die
obligations limit their
rights, but it should not
prevent their right to
refuse medical
treatment
3000 people in the
Netherlands seek to be
euthanized- 1.7% of
deaths
58% of people
supported euthanasia in
1978

right to life- charter rule Best Interest


patient may receive
meant to preserve life,
not to take it away
improper diagnosis
no real right to die?
improper prognosis
Laws reflect societal
improper medical
values (BUT euthanasia
treatment
is a majority value)
unaware of other nonfatal options

Euthanasia in Holland
is carried out by a doctor
and an ethics counsellor
it is their choice
most people that seek
euthanasia are not
euthanized (two thirds)

Tradition?
Been in practice since
ancient times
die on their own
without committing
suicide
competent- can decide
for themselves
incompetent- can't
decide for themselves
suicide is legal, so
euthanasia should be
too

people are already


Doctors
oath that they already
killing themselves, so we
should let them?
talked about?
people are incapable of
doctors cannot suggest
making decisions
euthanasia

Death Penalty

Are depressed people


incapable of making proper
decisions?

euthanasia is a choice
dignified
treatment costs more
huge failure rates

Against
Cost
trial time
90,000 per year to
keep someone in prison
for life w/o parole
137 million annually
average time from
sentencing to death is
10.1 years
20 times more
expensive for DP trials

Rebuttal

For

Rebuttal

costs so much so the


Cost
?
not posing risks to other
wrong person is not
killed
people
1.26 million for the entire
families are given
process
compensated if the wrong
person is killed
justice for the suffering
family

Too Risky
false testimony
biased judges
social pressure
racial prejudice
better to jail them
for life and get
them out if they're
innocent, than to
kill them
two wrongs fallacy
(eye for an eye)
worse to put them
in prison???
killing them is not
going to bring back
the dead person
family members
have to endure the
long death penalty
trials, causing them
more pain

Does not teach a lesson


statistics show that the
death penalty is not a
deterrent
states with- higher
murder rates
states w/o- lower
murder rates

since 1976, all


executions have
been 57% white
why should the
justice system not
dole out an equal
punishment?

More humane to kill the


prisoner
not inhumane- gives
them the dignity they
do not have in prison
gives them privileges
before the death day
prisoner feels nothing
when they die due to
injection

would you give


terrorists a second
chance?
doesn't affect the
way you feel

Incentive for defendant to


co-operate
?

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