Daniel DOBRE, Ionel SIMION

SYMMETRY MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS AND APPLICATIONS

IN TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Abstract: This article discusses the relation between the concept of symmetry and its applications in
engineering. "Symmetry" is interpreted in a broad sense as repeated, coplanar shape fragments. An
analysis of symmetry, which justifies its applications in engineering is given and discussed. After a brief
explication of group theory and symmetry types, we show that there are industrial workpieces where
symmetry is omnipresent. The analysis of symmetry can also be utilized for future research concerns the
combining symmetry information with other functional characteristic of digital 3D design.
Key words: symmetry, space group, automorphism, screw symmetry, regular polyhedron.

1. INTRODUCTION
Symmetry is a vast subject, important in art and
nature, based on mathematics. There are a wide variety
of applications of the principle of symmetry in art, in the
inorganic and organic nature.
The notion of symmetry is equivalent to the harmony
of proportions, defining the idea that man has tried, over
time, cover and create order, beauty and perfection. It is
seen in various forms: bilateral symmetry, translation
symmetry, rotational symmetry, ornamental symmetry,
crystallography symmetry etc.
An object or structure is symmetrical if it looks the
same after a specific of change is applied to it. The object
or structure can be material, such as living organisms
including humans and other animals, crystal, regular
polyhedron, pavement tiles, or it can be an abstract
structure such as a mathematical equation.
The nature of the change can be similarly diverse,
ranging from such simple operations as moving across a
regularly patterned tile floor, to complex transformations
of equations.
This paper describes symmetry from two
perspectives. The first is that of mathematics, in which
symmetries are defined and categorized precisely. The
second perspective looks at the application of symmetry
concepts to engineering [2] [3].

displacement as composition, forms an infinite order

commutative group, the continuous spatial displacement
group. The group of similarities leaves the shape of a
figure unchanged. The size of a figure is invariant with
respect to the group of congruencies [1].
In mathematics, there is a major difference between
discrete and continuous groups. Examples of discrete
groups are the finite rotation groups of polygons and
crystals.
In one dimension, ornaments of stripes are classified
by seven groups, which are systematically produced by
periodic translations in one direction and reflections
transverse to the longitudinal axis of translations (fig. 1).
2.2 Geometric symmetry
In geometry, symmetric properties of figures and
bodies indicate invariance with respect to automorphisms
like rotations, translations and reflections.

2. MATHEMATICAL CONCEPT OF SYMMETRY

An object is symmetric with respect to a given
mathematical operation, if, when applied to the object,
this operation does not change the object. Two objects
are symmetric to each other with respect to a given group
of operations if one is obtained from the other by some of
the operations (and vice versa) [1].
2.1 Group theory
In modern times, symmetries are defined
mathematically by group theory. The symmetry of a set
(e.g. points, numbers and functions) is defined by the
group of automorphism that leaves unchanged the
structure of the set (e.g. proportional relations in
Euclidean space, arithmetical rules of numbers).
The set of all displacement transformations in space,
including the identity transformation, with consecutive

Fig. 1 Symmetries in one dimension.

(1-translational symmetry; 2-reflection symmetry;
37-composite symmetries)

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Symmetry mathematical concepts and applications in technology and engineering

In two dimensions, there is an axis of symmetry. The
axis of symmetry of a two-dimensional figure is a line
such that, if a perpendicular is constructed, any two
points lying on the perpendicular at equal distances from
the axis of symmetry are identical.
Another way to think about it is that the shape was to
be folded in half over the axis, the two halves would be
identical: the two halves are each others mirror image.
Thus a square has four axes of symmetry because there
are four different ways to fold it (fig. 2).

A reflection in [P] is the application of space itself,

S: A A1, which leads arbitrary point A in reflection of
A1 vs. [P].
A reflection point reflects a point V to the opposite
side of the point, as illustrated in fig. 5. All three
reflection symmetries associate exactly one reflected
point A1 with each point A on the surface [4].
The axial symmetry associates each point A with an
entire circle of points A1, which includes A. The center of
the circle intersects with the symmetry axis. The plane of
the circle is orthogonal to this axis (fig. 6).

Fig. 2 Symmetry lines of polygons.

In 3 there exist three basic symmetry features: a

point, an axis and a plane. Each of these features
establishes equivalence classes of multiple surface
points. We also distinguish reflection, axial and spherical
symmetries.
In detail, reflection symmetry associated each point A
on the object surface to another surface point A1 on the
opposite side of the object.
For example, a reflection line reflects points across a
line. Fig. 3 illustrates such a reflection line, which
reflects a point D to a reflection point D1 on the opposite
side of the line.

Fig. 4 Symmetry of pyramid given the symmetry plane.

Fig. 5 Symmetry of pyramid given the symmetry point.

Fig. 6 Axial symmetry.

Fig. 3 Symmetry of prism given the symmetry axis.

Plane reflection symmetry reflects points to the

opposite side of the symmetry plane. This is illustrated in
fig. 4, which shows an object with an associated
symmetry plane [4].
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The rotation transformation acts on a 3-dimensional

system by rotating the whole system through a given
angle about a given axis, called the rotation axis.
A 3-dimensional system might be symmetric under
rotations by any angle about one or more axes or only by

Symmetry mathematical concepts and applications in technology and engineering

a minimum angle of 360/n, where n is an integer greater
than 1, and multiples of it. Such a rotation axis is called
an axis of full or n-fold rotational symmetry,
respectively.
A sphere, for example, has an infinite number of axes
of full rotational symmetry all axes passing through its
center. Systems having this type of symmetry are said to
posses spherical symmetry. Spherical symmetries reflect
each point A on the object surface to an entire sphere,
whose center is the symmetry point.
Figure 7 illustrates a spherical symmetry. A number
of axes of full rotational symmetry are indicated.

Fig. 7 Spherical symmetry.

A cylinder has full rotational symmetry only about a

single axis, the longitudinal axis of the cylinder. Also a
cone possesses this symmetry called axial symmetry
(fig. 8).

A regular tetrahedron has three axes of 2-fold

rotational symmetry (through the midpoints of pairs of
opposite edges) and four 3-fold rotational symmetry axes
(through each vertex and the center of the opposite face).
To calculate the order of the group, observe that a given
vertex can be moved to one of four positions. Hence, the
order of the group of direct symmetries (all rotations) is
S(T) = 24.
A cube has six 2-fold axes (through the midpoints of
pairs of opposite edges), four 3-fold axes (through pairs
of opposite vertices) and three 4-fold axes (through the
centers of pairs of opposite faces.
2.3.1 The symmetry group of the cube or octahedron S(C)
They both have the same number of edges, being 12.
The number of faces and vertices are interchanged.
Because these two solids are dual to each other they
have the same symmetry group. The order of the group
of direct symmetries (all rotations) is S(C) = 24. The
elements are:
- 3 rotations (by /2 or ) about centers of 3 pairs of
opposite faces;
- 1 rotation (by ) about centers of 6 pairs of opposite
edges;
- 2 rotations (by 2/3) about 4 pairs of opposite
vertices (diagonals).
Together with the identity this accounts for all 24
elements.

Fig. 8 3-dimensional systems with axial symmetry.

Fig. 9 Regular polyhedrons.

An infinitely long cylinder with no ends has, in

addition to its axial symmetry, displacement symmetry
by any interval in the direction of its axis. This
combination of symmetries, displacement symmetry by
any interval along an axis of axial symmetry, is called
cylindrical symmetry.

2.3.2 The symmetry group of the dodecahedron or

icosahedron S(D)
They both have the same number of edges, being 30.
Because these two solids are dual to each other they have
the same symmetry group.
The order of the group of direct symmetries (all
rotations) is S(D) = 60. The elements are:
- 4 rotations (by multiples of 2/5) about centers of 6
pairs of opposite faces;
- 1 rotation (by ) about centers of 15 pairs of
opposite edges;
- 2 rotations (by 2/3) about 10 pairs of opposite
vertices. Together with the identity this accounts for all
60 elements.
We define the dual of a regular polyhedron to be
another regular polyhedron, which is formed by

2.3 Symmetry of regular polyhedrons

In three dimensions, rotations about a common axis
give us the cyclic groups Cn. For n3, Cn is the rotational
symmetry group of the pyramid built on a regular n
gonal base (with axis of rotational symmetry passing
through the apex and the center of the base).
All the Platonic solids are symmetric about their
centers (fig. 9).

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Symmetry mathematical concepts and applications in technology and engineering

connecting the centers of the faces of the original
polyhedron (fig.10).

Fig. 10 Dual of a regular polyhedron.

3. SCREW (HELICAL) SYMMETRY

interval h. Since there are n steps per turn, each step is

essentially a wedge of angle 360/n (fig. 11). So a
rotation of the staircase about its axis by 360/n puts each
step exactly in a position either above where the step
below it was.
A displacement by interval h/n along its axis can
return the staircase to its original appearance.
Three main classes of helical symmetry can be
distinguished based on the interplay of the angle of
coiling and translation symmetries along the axis:
infinite helical symmetry (an object has infinite
helical symmetries if for any small rotation of the
object around its central axis there exists a point
nearby the translation distance on that axis at
which the object will appear exactly as it did before);
n-fold helical symmetry (objects of this type will
exhibit a symmetry after a rotation by some fixed
angle and a translation by some fixed distance, but
will not in general be invariant for any rotation
angle;
non-repeating helical symmetry.

Helical symmetry is the kind of symmetry seen in

everyday objects such as springs, drill bits and spiral
staircases. It can be thought of as rotational symmetry
along with translation along the axis of rotation (fig.11).

Fig. 12 Helical staircase.

4. SYMMETRY IN ENGINEERING

Fig. 11 Screw transformation.

Consider a helical staircase (fig. 12). Let h denote the

change of height involved in each complete turn of the
staircase and n the number of steps in one complete turn.
The height of each step above the one below it is then
h/n. If it were infinitely long, it would have displacement
symmetry along its axis with minimum displacement
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Lots of metallic parts such as flexible membranes

from the structure of elastic couplings, sprocket wheels,
cars rims etc, used as pieces for devices, mechanisms and
machines have been designed according to the principle
shape follows function and the beauty of these objects
increased at the same time with their functional
efficiency [3].
An aspect of beauty is symmetry, which represents
relative simplicity within complexity. We illustrate this
in fig. 1318. The membrane is formed from thin spokes
by making radial indents in the central portion, connected
by inner and outer diameters of the shape (fig. 13) [2].
Many logos start with a basic shape, a rectangle, a
diamond or an oval, and then the graphic artist uses
symmetry to create the design.

Symmetry mathematical concepts and applications in technology and engineering

The Mitsubishi company logo (fig. 18) began with a
diamond that was rotated 120 degrees, than another 120
degrees from that. Toyota logo has horizontal reflection
symmetry across a vertical line through its center. The
logo is made up of three ellipses. The two inner ellipses
are 900 rotations of each other.

Fig. 13 Spoked membrane for elastic coupling.

Translation

Rotation

Fig. 14 Three dimensional object with translational

and rotational symmetries.

Fig. 17 Rims with multiple spokes (rotational symmetry).

Fig. 15 3D model with axial symmetry [3].

Fig. 18 Corporate logos.

5. CONCLUSION
Fig. 16 Objects with helical and rotational symmetry [5].

Symmetry is a very important concept in mathematics

and can be applied in many different areas including
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Symmetry mathematical concepts and applications in technology and engineering

equations, shapes, workpieces and aero dynamical
buildings.
Symmetry also plays an important role in human
visual perception and aesthetics.
Knowing that a shape or object has symmetry can help
us solve problems involving that shape (e.g. technique for
segmenting objects into parts characterized by different
symmetries).
We believe that for many common objects, the
construction of 3D surface shape using symmetries types
is necessary for practical applications.
The use of 3D modelling and simulation concepts and
tools can highlight the design in the machine building
process
REFERENCES
[1] Thrun S., Wegbreit B. (2005), Shape from symmetry,
Proceedings of the 10th IEEE International Conference
on Computer Vision (ICCV), pp. 1824-1831.
[2] Dobre, D., (2008), Development Basics of a Product
(Bazele dezvoltarii de produs), Bucharest, Romania.

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[3] Dobre D., Simion I., (2009), Special applications of

fair surfaces representation, The 3rd International
Conference on Engineering Graphics and Design, in
Acta Technica Napocensis, Series: Applied
Mathematics and Mechanics, no. 52, vol. Ia, pp. 273278, Cluj-Napoca, Romania.
[4] Aldea, S., (1984), Descriptive geometry. Bodies and
surfaces study (Geometrie descriptiv. Studiul
corpurilor i al suprafeelor), U.P.B., Romania.
[5] Simion, I., (1998), Engineering Graphic (Grafic
inginereasc), Bren Publishing House, Bucharest,
Romania.
Authors:
Eng. Daniel Dobre, Ph.D, Lecturer, University
POLITEHNICA of Bucharest, Department of
Descriptive Geometry and Engineering Graphics, E-mail:
ddobred@yahoo.com.
Eng. Ionel Simion, Ph.D, M Eng, Professor, University
POLITEHNICA of Bucharest, Head of Descriptive
Geometry and Engineering Graphics Department, Email: ionel.simion@gmail.com.