Downloaded from SAE International by Brought to by the J. Robert Van Pelt Library / Michigan Technological Univ.

, Sunday, October 19, 2014

SAE TECHNICAL
PAPER SERIES

2003-01-2301

Full Vehicle Simulation for

Series Hybrid Vehicles
John A. MacBain
Delphi - Energenix Center

Joseph J. Conover
EDS, Delphi - Energenix Center

Aaron D. Brooker
National Renewable Energy Laboratory

Reprinted From: Hybrid Vehicle and Energy Storage Technologies

(SP-1789)

Future Transportation Technology Conference

Costa Mesa, California
June 23-25, 2003
400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 U.S.A. Tel: (724) 776-4841 Fax: (724) 776-5760 Web: www.sae.org

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2003-01-2301

Full Vehicle Simulation for Series Hybrid Vehicles

John A. MacBain
Delphi - Energenix Center

Joseph J. Conover
EDS, Delphi - Energenix Center

Aaron D. Brooker
National Renewable Energy Laboratory

ABSTRACT

Delphi and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory

(NREL) collaborated to develop a simulation code to
model the mechanical and electrical architectures of a
series hybrid vehicle simultaneously. This co-simulation
code is part of the larger ADVISOR product created by
NREL and diverse partners.

The series hybrid control strategy used for cosimulation and its integration into ADVISOR
Discussion of sample results from the co-simulation
of ADVISORs baseline series hybrid vehicle
Demonstration of the ability to co-simulate the
propulsion and electrical systems for ADVISORs
default series hybrid vehicle

INTRODUCTION
Simulation of the macro power flow in a series hybrid
vehicle requires both the mechanical drivetrain and the
entire electrical architecture. It is desirable to solve the
electrical network equations in an environment designed
to comprehend such a network and solve the equations
in terms of current and voltage. The electrical
architecture for the series hybrid vehicle has been
modeled in Saber to achieve these goals. This
electrical architecture includes not only the high-voltage
battery, generator, and traction motor, but also the
normal low-voltage bus (14V) with loads common to all
vehicles.
The co-simulation version of the series hybrid model
retains some of ADVISORs standard series vehicle
model elements such as the mechanical drivetrain, the
fuel converter, and the series hybrid control strategy.
The electrical architecture is simulated in Saber, which is
controlled via ADVISORs menu structure. ADVISOR
communicates with Saber through a co-simulation
arrangement, allowing a system-level solution to
progress. The open code permits the end user to
implement vehicle-specific series hybrid control
strategies.
This paper covers technical materials including:

A brief overview of the co-simulation concept

The electrical component and system models in
Saber necessary for the series hybrid vehicle
architecture

Simulation and analysis are commonly performed during

the early stages of new vehicle development. Systems
and components can be optimized individually, but a
higher-level system analysis tool is needed to study the
vehicle-level interaction of the individual components.
ADVISOR is very well suited for this purpose. ADVISOR
is a well-established vehicle-level simulation program
created by the U.S. Department of Energys National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). It analyzes the
propulsion systems of conventional and hybrid vehicles
at the macro power flow level.
ADVISOR performs a mix of backward/forward vehicle
power flow modeling and analysis [1,2]. The macro
power required and available for each component is
calculated and returned via a feedback loop. Typical
mechanical powertrain components such as wheels,
body dynamics, transmission, and engine are well suited
for this type of power flow analysis.
However, using macro power flow to analyze electrical
components in detail is not adequate for one major
reason: the electrical component or electrical subsystem
is not allowed to solve in terms of voltage, current, and
directly the laws of physics (Kirchoffs node network
equations). This can be rectified by adequately
representing the electrical system as a model in an
electrical simulation package such as Saber.

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Delphi and NREL developed a link for ADVISOR to cosimulate with Saber. Co-simulation has been
demonstrated for conventional (traditional) vehicles.
Several papers have been written on ADVISORs cosimulation of conventional vehicles, which have singleand dual-voltage electrical architecture, and the
validation of the associated electrical models [3-5]. It
was shown that a co-simulation solution provided
ADVISORs conventional vehicle model with full dynamic
representation of the electrical system and its impact on
the propulsion system.
Several recent initiatives (Partnership for a New
Generation of Vehicles, Future Truck Challenge, and
FreedomCAR) have encouraged engineers and
scientists from academia, industry, and government to
collaborate and develop future vehicle technologies [68]. It is hoped that these efforts will lead to increased fuel
efficiency and improved air quality while reducing
dependence on fossil fuels. These programs have
spurred tremendous growth and advancement in hybrid
vehicle technologies. Several colleges regularly use
ADVISOR to analyze their designs for these hybrid
vehicle programs [9].
Hybrid vehicles, such as the Toyota Prius and Honda
Insight, are on the road today. The New York Transit
Authority, in collaboration with the U.S. Department of
Energy, recently completed a trial in which the
performance of 10 series hybrid diesel buses were
compared with standard diesel-powered buses over two
years of operation on New York city streets [10]. Several
package delivery companies are investigating the benefit
of hybrid vehicles.
System level analysis of hybrid vehicles is a vital step in
the design process. The co-simulation of ADVISOR and
Saber for the series hybrid electrical/propulsion
configuration will help optimize series hybrid vehicle
architectures.

CO-SIMULATION
A detailed explanation of co-simulation and how the Sfunction communicates has been presented in earlier
literature [5]. A simple explanation is presented here to
allow a fundamental understanding of the concept.
The ADVISOR side of the co-simulation builds upon the
historical
ADVISOR
implementation
in

MATLAB /SIMULINK . The equations underlying the

ADVISOR simulation are solved using the fixed time
step Euler (ode1) ordinary differential equation solver in
MATLAB. According to the on-line MATLAB help:
These solvers compute a model's continuous
states at equally spaced time steps from the
simulation start time to the simulation stop time.
The solvers use numerical integration to compute
the continuous states of a system from the state
derivatives specified by the model.

Thus, the Simulink model calculates macro power flow

according to a fixed size time step (usually one second
for drive cycle simulation).
Co-simulation relies on the fixed time step solver
methodology. A special S-function Simulink block is
inserted into the Simulink vehicle block diagram. This Sfunction block calls, controls, and exchanges information
with Saber during the ADVISOR drive cycle simulation.
When the S-function is triggered in the Simulink block
diagram order of execution, a communication file is
created that contains information to characterize a
component model in Saber. The Saber/ADVISOR cosimulation
assumes
that
Saber
reads
this
characterization file and maintains these values for the
entire fixed time step segment. However, because Saber
uses a variable time step solver for the electrical
equations, the electrical solution will capture all of the
fast dynamics associated with the electrical component
model. The exchange of information is analogous to a
ping-pong game.
In the series hybrid, for example, ADVISOR will
determine the power required to propel the vehicle and
meet the drive cycle trace. ADVISOR pauses while this
power requirement is sent to Saber via the S-function.
Saber then assumes a steady-state value for the power
requirement during the fixed time step interval and
reports back to ADVISOR the torque and speed that the
electric motor can achieve. ADVISOR senses that Saber
has finished a calculation and proceeds to advance
another fixed time step. ADVISOR repeats the power
requirement calculation and S-function call to send
another request to Saber. The ping-pong match
continues until completion of the simulation.

SERIES HYBRID ELECTRICAL ARCHITECTURE

The electrical architecture in a series hybrid vehicle is
typically a dual-voltage system. The high-voltage system
provides the bus for power generation and electric
traction power. The low-voltage system provides the bus
for typical automotive electrical loads, which run at 14V.
Figure 1 displays the electrical architecture for the series
hybrid vehicle as it has been modeled. The high-voltage
bus and the 14V bus are connected by a DC/DC
converter, which acts as the DC power source for the
14V bus.
Power generation for a series hybrid occurs in a
dedicated generator driven by a power source, most
often an internal combustion engine (ICE). The ICE and
generator are paired to run at a preset rpm, which places
the ICE in a high-efficiency operating point. The electric
generator model is an empirical model that can simulate
most classes of generators. The generator is provided
with two lookup tables. The first is the maximum
mechanical torque the machine can use for the given
rpm. The second is the efficiency as a function of rpm
and torque. The information for these tables is contained

Downloaded from SAE International by Brought to by the J. Robert Van Pelt Library / Michigan Technological Univ. , Sunday, October 19, 2014

c_pwl
ref:maxtorqueavail
mult

Traction

c_pwl

ref:load_user_defined_hiv

primitive:power_load

ref:user_power2_hiv

loadcontrol:0

Motor

ref:user_power3_hiv

ref:user_power1_hiv

primitive:load_speed_42v

loadcontrol:0

loadcontrol:0

ref:load_speed_hiv

loadcontrol:0

power_load:100

power_load:50

power_load:370

pwl:[0,0,.1,1]

maxtorqueavail

maxtorqueavail

42V Load

Traction
Motor

speed

Look-up Table

spd

max_trq

Power
Load

mc_v
i

Traction Motor

from ADVISOR

Starter
Motor

User Defined

shaft_rpm

Power

power_meter

Load

Load

ref:loads_hiv

1000000

engspeed
v

maxtorqmotor

Power

Power

Power

maxtorqgen

power_meter
ref:motor

Max Motoring Trq

eff

Power
Traction Motor

torquereq

Look-up Table

spd

power_meter

max_trq

ref:pm_battery_1

vset

m
soc

c_pwl
ref:mc_rpm

Max Regen Trq

NREL's
Empiric al - Internal
Resistance Battery
Model

mult

max_ess_chg_pwr

Traction Motor
Look-up Table

spd

mc_spd_req (rpm)

eff
X

trq

from ADVISOR

Power

power_meter

Efficiency

ref:gen

mc_trq_feedback

Power

in

DC
DC

battery_2_voltage

Power

out

com

power_meter

power_meter

ref:14v_sys

ref:pm_battery_2

LEAD-ACID
BATTERY

ref:battery_2
sg0:1.303
p

Power

vs et

Voltage Regulator
Curve

power_meter
ref:loads_trad

ref:regulator_hiv_usa1
vehicletype:5
gen_v

Generator

vehicletype:1

vehicletype:1

vehicletype:1

vehicletype:1

vehicletype:1

vehicletype:1

vehicletype:1

vehicletype:1

c_pwl

vset

ref:engine_rpm

mult

Look-up Table

Radiator
Fan

Misc.

Brake
Lights

Turn
Signal

External
Lights

Front
W iper

Combo
Loads

engspeed
m

torquereq

loadcontrol:0

torq_max_gen
max_trq

loadcontrol:1

loadcontrol:0

loadcontrol:0

loadcontrol:0

loadcontrol:0

loadcontrol:0

loadcontrol:0

loadchoice:1

loadchoice:1

loadchoice:1

Power

eff
power_load:370

gc_spd_req

Starter
Motor Engine
Running

speed

Generator
spd

Induction
Generator

Max Gen Trq

vehicletype:1
p

Rear
W iper

from ADVISOR fc

vehicletype:1

vehicletype:1

vehicletype:1

vehicletype:1

Load

ref:extra_14v

vehicletype:1

loadcontrol:0
p

Rear
Defrost

Front
HVAC

Rear
HVAC

Heated
Seat

Radio
1000000

Generator
spd

Look-up Table
loadcontrol:0
Z

loadcontrol:0

loadcontrol:0

loadcontrol:0

loadcontrol:0

loadcontrol:0

eff
loadchoice:1

loadchoice:1

loadchoice:1

trq

Efficiency
gc_trq_feedback

Figure 1. Saber Electrical Architecture for Series Hybrid Vehicle Co-simulation

in the standard ADVISOR m-files for generators, and the

tables are built automatically. Although the present
implementation assumes a constant ICE rpm, the
generality of the lookup tables is available to address
future control strategies.
The high-voltage battery model is an internal resistance
generic battery model, which can be calibrated to any
chemistry. The battery depends on lookup tables for its
dynamic behavior. The lookup tables include charge
resistance, discharge resistance, Coulombic efficiency,
and open circuit voltage. The information for these tables
is contained in the standard ADVISOR m-files for
batteries, and the lookup tables are built automatically.
The battery lookup tables are temperature dependent.
The model itself has many calibration parameters, such
as the number of cells, which allows the user to
construct a battery for any application.
The traction motor/generator is the third significant
component on the high-voltage bus. The traction
motor/generator can operate as a source of traction
power or as a generator. The traction motor/generator is
connected to the drivetrain of the vehicle and receives its
commands via the torque requirements of the drivetrain.
When propulsion is required, the torque command is the

positive amount of torque required for the vehicle to

meet the trace. When drivetrain braking is required, a
negative
torque
command
is
issued.
The
motor/generator then generates as much power as the
battery and loads are able to absorb; the power will not
exceed the high-voltage set point. The traction
motor/generator is built upon lookup tables, which give
the flexibility to calibrate the model to any motor class.
The first table is the maximum torque for motoring at a
given rpm. The second table is the maximum torque for
generating at a given rpm. The third table is the
efficiency as a function of rpm and torque. These tables
are built automatically from information in the ADVISOR
m-file for motors.
There are several loads on the high-voltage bus,
including loads where current is a function of voltage, a
load which is speed dependent, a constant power load,
and a starter. Although no high-voltage loads have been
calibrated, the flexibility is present to add or modify the
default high-voltage loads.
The low-voltage bus includes all the 14V loads found on
typical vehicles. Beyond those loads, there are also a
constant power load, a 14V starter, and composite

Downloaded from SAE International by Brought to by the J. Robert Van Pelt Library / Michigan Technological Univ. , Sunday, October 19, 2014

climatic load values as a function of voltage. Detailed

descriptions of the 14V bus are available [3-5].

SERIES HYBRID CONTROL ADVISOR

IMPLEMENTATION
The Saber/ADVISOR series hybrid co-simulation is
designed based upon ADVISORs existing series hybrid
model. The same battery SOC (state of charge)
thermostat control strategy has been implemented. To
the degree possible, the Simulink model implementation
is the same and the method of specifying the vehicle and
control parameters to the simulation code is the same.
THERMOSTAT CONTROL STRATEGY
The Saber/ADVISOR series hybrid co-simulation is
modeled after a thermostat control strategy. The fuel
converter powers a generator at a specified torque and
speed. The fuel converter turns on and off based on two
battery SOC set points. The fuel converter remains off
until the batterys lower SOC set point is reached. The
fuel converter then turns on and charges the battery until
the batterys upper SOC set point is reached. Once the
upper SOC set point is reached, the fuel converter turns
off again.
Although these rules governing the fuel converters
on/off state are generally followed, there is an exception.
The fuel converter torque goes to zero during braking
regeneration events. The amount of regeneration energy
captured by the battery is often limited by the power that
the battery can absorb. By eliminating the torque from
the fuel converter, it eliminates the amount of power the
battery already has to absorb. Then it is left with more
capacity to absorb regeneration power. This is the major
exception to the pure thermostat control strategy.

Figure 2. The Saber/ADVISOR Series Hybrid Cosimulation Evolves from ADVISORs Default Series
Hybrid Model
The link to Saber communicates once every time step
with the Saber model. The Saber model includes
equivalent components such as a generator, a motor, a
high-voltage battery, and auxiliary loads. Two input lines
go into the link to Saber (Figure 3). The first line carries
the requested speed of the generator. The input
generator speed is based on the user-defined set point.
The second line carries the speed and torque that the
powertrain needs from the motor. Saber also outputs two
signals. The first signal is the required generator torque
and speed to the fuel converter. The second signal is the
achieved motor torque and speed for the powertrain.

MODEL IMPLEMENTATION
The Saber/ADVISOR series hybrid co-simulation is
based on ADVISORs default series hybrid model, with
two major differences. First, , all the electric models from
the series hybrid configuration were replaced with a link
to Saber (Figure 2). Second, the control strategy
implementation was modified.
Figure 3. Signals Sent to and from the Link to Saber
Unlike the Saber component models, ADVISORs default
series hybrid component models are called twice during
each time step. There is a backward calculation flow and
a forward calculation flow. The backward calculation flow
starts at the drive cycle block. It first calculates the
torque and speed required to accelerate the vehicle
along the drive cycle while overcoming aerodynamic
drag, rolling resistance, and ascent. It then passes that
torque and speed requirement to the wheel block. The
wheel block calculates the torque and speed required
from the axle, accounting for friction, inertia, and traction
limits of the wheel. Similarly, the torque and speed
requirements are passed through each component until

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they reach the fuel converter. Here the forward

calculation begins by calculating the achievable torque
and speed of the fuel converter. The torque and speed
achieved is then passed back through all the drivetrain
components to the vehicle block. At the vehicle block,
the final speed achieved of the vehicle is calculated. This
model architecture requires the calculation flow to go
through each component twice during each time step.
Because the components in the Saber model are
designed to be called once and ADVISORs model
architecture is designed to perform calculations for each
component twice, a custom control was created for the
Saber/ADVISOR series hybrid. With the custom control,
the user specifies the fuel converter speed. In the model,
this speed is first limited by the maximum fuel converter
speed and then the maximum generator speed. This
eliminates the need for both a required speed calculation
and achieved speed calculation because the request is
limited by what the components can achieve. The
generator and fuel converter torques are limited
similarly.
CONTROL PARAMETER SPECIFICATION
The control parameters are specified for the
Saber/ADVISOR series hybrid co-simulation using the
same graphical user interface (GUI) as in ADVISORs
default series hybrid. Selecting the powertrain control
button in the GUI opens a text file where the control
parameters are specified (Figure 4).
The control parameters include:

SOC limits
Voltage regulator set point
DC/DC converter values
Fuel converter operating points

By default, the pulley (or gear) ratio between the fuel

converter and the generator is automatically determined.
It is set to run the generator at its most efficient
operating point for the fuel converters specified power
(Figure 5). However, the user may overwrite it in the
data file.

Figure 4. Utilization of the Same Control Parameter

Specification Strategy and Files

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GC Eff For FC Pwr Setpt

Best GC Pt
Max Trq

Eff: 87 % Trq: 60 N*m Spd: 314 rad/s

60
Vehicle Speed

mph

40
1

20
0.8

Efficiency

0
0.6

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

0.84

0.4

Hi Voltage Battery SOC

0.82

0.2

0.8
0.78

0
150

0.76
500

100
400
50

200

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

0.8

100

Torque (N*m)

0.74

300
0

14V Battery SOC

Speed (rad/s)
0.79

Figure 5. Automatic Optimization of the Pulley Ratio

(FC = fuel converter, GC = generator)

0.78

0.77

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

SAMPLE RUN
6

As with traditional (non co-simulation) ADVISOR, all the

plots are controlled by the ADVISOR results screen. The
format looks just like that of traditional ADVISOR. All of
the Saber traces of significant interest have been passed
back to ADVISOR and can be plotted therein.
Figure 6 shows some basic plots for this sample run.
The vehicle traversed an FTP-75 EPA drive cycle. Both
batteries initially had an 80% SOC. As the traces show,
the high-voltage battery is depleted until the SOC is
75%, at which point the fuel converter runs the generator
to recharge the battery. Once an 80% SOC has again
been achieved, the fuel converter and generator cease
operation. Regenerative braking also provides charge to
the high-voltage battery. The 14V battery discharges
slightly during the drive cycle. The motor speed is
directly related to the drive cycle because the motor is
the source of propulsion torque for the vehicle. The
relationship is a 1-to-1 conversion because the motor is
direct drive without a transmission. Note that the FTP-75
drive cycle has a significant rest period during which the
vehicle and its loads are turned off.

RPM x 1000

Motor speed

The example chosen for this simulation is the default

vehicle in the ADVISOR co-simulation for series hybrids.
Thus, any ADVISOR user can recreate the results
shown in this paper if questions arise concerning
variables that have not been displayed. The default
vehicle has been simulated on an FTP-75 drive cycle
with ambient initial conditions (ADVISORs preset option
for a cold engine start). The preset city-summer load
suite has been chosen with its preset choices of 14V
loads and their cycling programs. Both batteries were
preset to 80% SOC. The maximum output current of the
DC/DC converter was set at 80 amps.

500

1000
1500
Time [seconds]

2000

2500

Figure 6. Basic Plots for the Sample Run

The set of traces shown in Figure 7 relate to the highvoltage electrical system of the vehicle. The plot of the
torque of the fuel converter is directly related to the use
of the generator. The choppiness of the torque plot
occurs because the generator is disabled during
regenerative braking events to enable the battery to
absorb the electric power being generated by the motor.
The generator current is negative by convention
(sources have negative current). The generator voltage
plot shows the behavior of the high-voltage system
during charging and discharging periods.

Downloaded from SAE International by Brought to by the J. Robert Van Pelt Library / Michigan Technological Univ. , Sunday, October 19, 2014
80
14V Load Current

FC trq out a

60

Amps

Nm

60
40
20
0

40
20

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

0.84

500

1000

2500

Amps Out of DC/DC Converter

0.82

-20
Amps

0.8
0.78

-40
-60

0.76
0

500

1000

1500

2000

-80

2500

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

5
Generator Current

14V Battery

-5

0
Amps

Amps

2000

0
Hi Voltage Battery SOC

0.74

1500

-10
-15

-5

-20
-25

500

1000

1500

2000

-10

2500

330

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

12.8
Generator Volts

14V Battery
12.75
Volts

Volts

320

12.7

310

12.65
300

500

1000
1500
Time [seconds]

2000

2500

Figure 7. High-Voltage System Data for the Sample

Run

12.6

500

1000
1500
Time [seconds]

2000

2500

Figure 8. 14-Volt System Data for the Sample Run

CONCLUSIONS
Figure 8 shows traces related to the 14V electrical
system. The load power follows the preset city-summer
load profile while the vehicle is active but is zero during
the rest period of the FTP-75 drive cycle. The DC/DC
converter is not active during the rest period. The
amperage out of the DC/DC converter is negative
because the converter is acting as a power source to the
14V bus. The 14V battery current is positive when the
battery is charging and negative when it is discharging.
The 14V battery voltage is the open circuit voltage
during the rest period of the drive cycle.

An improved series hybrid vehicle model now exists. It

takes advantage of the most appropriate type of
modeling environment for each component of the model.
The electrical components reside in Saber, a tool
designed for electrical analysis. The remaining
components reside in ADVISOR, a tool designed for
simulating power flow among vehicle components and
computing vehicle fuel economy. The result is a more
realistic series hybrid simulation for predicting fuel
economy and performance.
The improvement is the refinement of the representation
of the electrical system simulation. Placing the electrical
simulation within Saber permits the highly detailed
modeling of each electrical component. The electrical
architecture simulation is based on Kirchoffs laws, thus
permitting a solution in terms of voltage and current
throughout the architecture. This representation of the
electrical architecture enables the user to view the
performance of all key electrical parameters in the
electrical architecture, thus gaining a thorough
understanding of the performance of each aspect of the
electrical architecture for the scenario under study.

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CONTACT
John A. MacBain holds BS degrees in physics and
mathematics from Case Institute of Technology (1971),
M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in applied mathematics from
Purdue University (1974), and an MSEE degree from the
University of Dayton (1978). John served in the Air Force
as an Associate Professor of Applied Mathematics at the
Air Force Institute of Technology. Since that time, John
has worked in industry spending eight years in advanced
seismic and electromagnetic exploration development in
the oil industry. The balance of the time has been with
General Motors and Delphi Corporation with
assignments ranging from the GM Research Laboratory
to managing the Low Observable program at Allison Gas
Turbine. John has chaired the Delphi Analysis Guidance
Team from 1996 to 2001. John is a senior staff research
engineer at the Energenix Center where he has
responsibilities for systems analysis. John can be
contacted at john.a.macbain@delphi.com.
Joseph J. Conover received BS and MS degrees in
mechanical engineering from Southern Illinois University
in 1991 and 1994. He joined Electronic Data Systems in
1994 supporting advanced engineering projects at
Delphi Corporation. Joe currently holds the position of
Applied Engineering Specialist, performing computer
simulation and modeling. Joe may be contacted at
joseph.conover@delphi.com.
Aaron D. Brooker received a BS degree in mechanical
engineering from Michigan Technological University in
1998 and an MS degree from the University of Colorado
at Boulder in 2000. He currently performs vehicle
modeling and analysis as a Research Engineer on the
vehicle systems analysis team at the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory. Aaron can be contacted
at aaron_brooker@nrel.gov.

REFERENCES
1. Markel, T. et. al., ADVISOR: A System Analysis Tool
for Advanced Vehicle Modeling, Journal of Power
Sources, V110, pages 255-266, 2002
(http://www.ctts.nrel.gov/analysis/).
2. Wipke, K.; Cuddy, M.; Burch, S. ADVISOR 2.1: A
User-Friendly Advanced Powertrain Simulation
Using a Combined Backward/Forward Approach,
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2000, pages 9-18 (SAE paper number 2000-013051).

4. MacBain, J., Conover, J., Johnson, V., CoSimulation of Electrical and Propulsion Systems,
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published in: The New Automotive 42V Powernet
Becomes Reality, proceedings of the 3rd International
42V PowerNet Congress, November 2003, pages
168-187.
6. PNGV Partnership for a New Generation of
Vehicles http://www.USCAR.org.
7. Future Truck Challenge
http://www.futuretruck.org/competition/index.html.
8. Advanced Technologies Fuel FreedomCAR
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http://www.cartech.doe.gov/pdfs/o/200.pdf.
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10. NYCT Diesel Hybrid-Electric Buses, Final Results,
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al.pdf.
________________________________________
ADVISOR is a registered trademark of the United States Government
and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
SABER is a registered trademark of American Airlines, Inc., licensed
to Synopsis Corporation. Information on the Saber electrical simulation
package can be found at www.synopsis.com.
MATLAB and SIMULINK are registered trademarks of The
MathWorks, Inc.