Souvenir. 7 Dec 2013 Symposium (ITPI WBRC)

National Symposium
On
Managing Lands in Urban Fringes:

Controlling Urban Sprawl
Organized by
West Bengal Regional Chapter (WBRC)

Institute of Town Planners, India
7th December,
2013
Rabindra Tirtha,
New Town, Kolkata
Published in National Symposium on Managing Lands in Urban Fringes: Controlling

Urban Sprawl; Venue: Rabi Tirtha, Newtown, Kolkata; 7 th Dec. 2013; ITPI, WBRC
Preamble
The Institute of Town Planners, India established in 1951, is the apex body of professional
town and country planners in the country with twenty one regional chapters located mostly in
the state capitals including West Bengal Regional Chapter, at Kolkata. The main objective of
the Institute is to foster professional activities, so as to promote planned economic, scientific
and artistic development of town, cities and rural areas.
West Bengal Regional Chapter, Institute of Town Planners India, is continuously engaged in
series of research and planning activities on Sustainable Urban and Regional Development,
through various state level and national level symposiums for last 29 years. Some important
symposiums organized by this chapter within last few years are on Urban Strategy for West
Bengal, Adoption of Scientific Methodology for LU&DCP and Urban Planning for
Kolkata Metropolitan Area: Setting an Agenda for KMDA, National Mission on
Sustainable Habitat and Urban Green Spaces for Eastern Region of India, Kolkata.
As a part of the regular activity of the Chapter, we have chosen the most burning agenda to
plan and accommodate urbanization on the depleting land resources. The symposium is
organized with the objective of discussing the emerging issues, challenges and responses
towards formulation of a Land Management Strategies to control unplanned urban growth in
urban fringe areas, ensuring better utilization of lands.
Peri-urbanization is an inevitable phenomenon particularly in developing countries.
Contemporary international experiences do show that the problems have to be approached
with innovative ingenuity and solved through novel strategies which are consensual and
adaptive to the socio-economic and cultural setting of the target population.
This workshop would attempt to raise concern about the uncontrolled growth of human
habitation outside the city especially within un-serviced lands. The focus would be to identify
strategies for optimum utilization of urban and peri urban land through proper management
of Land.
The idea is to exchange thoughts that would aid tovisualise the Management of system of
Land for the trends and patterns of unplanned urban growth, extent and nature of sprawl
taking place in a region and the drivers responsible for the growth.
This would also perhaps enable the planning machineries to plan for appropriate basic
services and help developers and town planners to project appropriate growth patterns.
This workshop also would also look into the issues of:
i.
ii.
Analyse causal factors of urban sprawl in India and analyse the urban sprawl pattern
(spatially and temporally) through remote sensing and geographic information system
techniques
Land Management System to meet the population growth and controlling urban
sprawl.

Message from Sri Debashis Sen, IAS,

Principal Secretary, Urban Development
Department, GoWB

Message from President, ITPI, New Delhi

Message from Secretary General, ITPI, New Delhi

Message from Chief Planner, TCPO,

Government of India

Message from former Secretary General, ITPI

Message from Chairman, ITPI, WBRC

Executive Committee of 2013-14,

Institute of Town Planners, West Bengal Regional Chapter
Chairman
Secretary
Treasurer
Vice Chairman
Members:
Joint Secretary
Sri Ranjan Chattopadhyay

Dr. Goutam Banerjee
Smt. Santa Biswas
Dr. Souvanic Roy
Smt. Indrani Chakrabarty
Sri Arabinda Debnath
Sri Partha Pratim Datta
Sri Sirsendu Manna
Sri Sourav Sen
National Symposium December 2013, Organizing Committee

Organizing Chairman
Organizing Vice Chairman
Workshop Conveners
Finance Sub Committee:
Souvenir Sub Committee:
Logistics & Food Sub Committee:
Public Relation Sub Committee

Cultural Sub Committee
Dr. Souvanic Roy

Sri Subhrajit Banerjee
Sri. Rahul Bysack
Dr. Haimanti Banerji
Sri Partha Pratim Datta,
Sri Soumendu Biswas
Sri Subrata Pal
Sri Soumen Mitra
Sri Sourav Sen
Sri Premjeet Dasgupta
Smt. Sandhatara Saha,
Smt. Anumita Mohanty
Sri Arabinda Debnath
Sri Sirshendu Manna
Smt. Indrani Chakraborty
Sri Sutanu Sen
Dr. Biman Bandopadhyay
Sri Tapas Guha
Sri SutanuSen

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who work because work is useful to our fellows,
we live well because in such living we pay our contribution
to the worlds wealth, leaving earth richer than we found it.
for in that labour is its own exceeding great reward.
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Architecture for Humanity
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CONTENTS OF THE PUBLISHED ARTICLE

Theme Paper:
Urban Sprawl, Social Polarization and Governance in Metropolitan
and Megacities
Dr. Souvanic Roy
Page no.
18
Theme 1: Land Management Techniques and Governance

Mechanism: National Scenario
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Where Will 7 Billion People Live? (The) Un-sprawl Global Initiative

Koichi Paul Nii, Shizuo Harada, Samir Mondle
Dynamics in Metropolitan Fringes: In the context of Urban Sprawl
B.K.Sengupta & Janani Thiagarajan
Land Management Legislations in Urban India: Prevailing
Distortions and Key Issues
Prof.(Dr.) Sibabrata Halder
Urban Fringe of Shimla: Concerns to Control Urban Sprawl
Dr. Ashwani Luthra and Ruchi Vasudeva
Urban Sprawl - A Phenomenon
Asfa Siddiqui
Land Management Systems in India: Some Issues
Basudatta Sarkar, Dr. Haimanti Banerji, Dr. Joy Sen
Application of Land Management Models
Rahul Bysack & Dr. Madhumita Roy
9 18
19 30
31 38
39 49
50 - 59
60 - 65
66 - 75
Theme 2: Metropolitan Fringe and Megacity Governance: The

Kolkata Case
8
9
10
11
Economy at the Fringe: Kolkata Metropolitan Area

Dr. Mahalaya Chatterjee
Strategies for Controlling Sprawl in Urban fringes in the context of
Kolkata and West Bengal
Sourav Sen & Dr. Souvanic Roy
Accommodative fringes: Vibrant city
H Mandal
Metropolitan Fringe and Megacity Governance: Few observations in
case of Kolkata
Dr. Dilip K. Maulik
76
77 - 85
86 - 88
89 - 91
Presentations and Articles Infrastructure Management and

Governance
12
13
14
15
Peri Urban Areas Issues and Challenges

Dr. Sanjukta Bhaduri
Urban Water Management: Approaches in sustainability
Kaushik Ghosh & Prof. Dr. Arup Sarkar
The Energy Concern for Housing in India
Sumana Basack & Dr. Arup Sarkar
Challenge in Health Infrastructure Governance in Kolkata
Metropolitan Fringe Area:
A Case Study Of Thakurpukur
Maheshtala Block
Moumita Saha
o
92 96
97 - 101
102 - 104
105 - 111

Student Papers
16
17
18
19
20
Urban Sprawl and its Smart Management

Mani Dhingra
Land Management Techniques and Governance Mechanism:
National Scenario
Shubham Arora
National Scenario
Palak Thakur
A Comparative Framework of Management options for Urban
Sprawls in India
Arjun Satheesh
Planning and Urban Sprawl in the Eastern Fringes of Kolkata
Arpita Podder
112 - 117
118 - 125
126 - 132
133 - 139
140 - 146

THEME PAPER
Urban Sprawl, Social Polarization and Governance in
Metropolitan and Megacities
Dr. Souvanic Roy1
1.0 INTRODUCTION
During the first half of 20th century, growth in Indian cities primarily confined within
municipal boundaries. This trend of growth and absorption of population, especially in 4
largest metropolitan cities of Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai and Delhi have changed significantly
over last 3 decades. These cities have grown both in terms of population and areal spread. The
lateral spread of large cities in India is reflected in the census data that indicate the area under
urban use have increased from 38,504 sqkm. in 1961 to 64,026 sq. km. 1991 ( Shaw,2003).
The data based on 2001 census reveals that most large metropolitan cities in the country
continued to grow laterally and are described as urban agglomeration (UA). This term
indicates a continuous urban spread and comprises of a city and its adjoining outgrowths. It is
observed that in the 4 largest metropolitan cities the UA has been growing faster than the
main city engulfing several villages and smaller towns in the surrounding area.
The outward expansion of the largest metros has meant increasing and more complex
interactions with the surrounding rural areas and gradual changes in their land use and
occupations, transforming them into semi-urban or peri-urban areas. Such areas have been
studied in the past, particularly in terms of their economic and social linkages with the city.
The positive aspects of these flows and interactions at the rural-urban fringe are also captured
in McGees concept of the desakotta where both regions gain, the rural areas through
increased earnings and larger markets and the urban areas through savings on housing cost
and less congestion in the built-up areas (Ginsberg, Koppel and McGee, 1991).
Since the 1990s, however, concerns have been raised about the possible negative impact of
spreading urbanization and this has come from scholars working on the environmental impact
of the spreading city and its effects on the peri-urban (Bentinck, 1996). Concerns are also
voiced by international development agencies for they seem to be common to developing
countries, threatening the quality of life of a significant proportion of the population and
endangering life systems over considerable areas (Allen, 2003). Yet, these areas located at the
fringe of the city, far away from the corridors of political power and often without any official
urban status, generally lack the institutional capacities and governance structures to enable
them to respond to the processes of change in a positive way and not be overcome by them.
The article highlights three major sets of issues connected to the transformation of peri-urban
areas of metropolitan and megacities today. The first is urban sprawl or extensive growth
producing number of challenges for the governance agenda of these cities. The second issue
Professor, Department of Architecture, Town and Regional Planning and Founder- Director, School
of Ecology, Infrastructure and Human Settlement Management, Bengal Engineering and Science
University, Shibpur
1

relates to land development and land development control policies and third relates to the
governance structures and challenges of these giant cities.
2.0 URBAN SPRAWL
One of the most significant changes in patterns of urbanization during the last half century has
been the spread of space-extensive urban development over larger areas at lower densities.
Urban sprawl is not just an issue for rich countries with high levels of automobile ownership.
For example, although the population growth of Mexico City is slowing, the land area
continues to grow rapidly: between 1990 and 2000 an 18% increase in population was
accompanied by a 31% increase in urban area. In Teheran over last 50 years, the population
has grown fivefold, while municipal areas grew sevenfold (Sorensen, 2011).
Managing the urban forms of growth is extremely difficult in megacities everywhere.
Extensive patterns of growth are in large part the product of the search for affordable housing
by millions of newcomers who settle in ever-more-distant urban fringe locations. In most
megacity regions these newly urbanizing areas are almost always outside the planning
jurisdiction of the central city, in municipalities that are suddenly confronted with huge
development pressures and infrastructure demands. Such conditions mean that larger scale
patterns of regional growth are extremely difficult to plan and adequately service. The
outcome is in part a function of fragmented governance in megacity regions, which often
include several municipalities, each with its own planning functions. In most of the
developing and poor countries, in addition to jurisdictional fragmentation, the difficulty of
planning is compounded by the fact that most areas in suburbs are settled informally, through
organized and unorganized invasions of available space. Planning becomes a somewhat
abstract exercise, urban form becomes more or less uncontrollable and infrastructure deficits
increase. How can a city be subject to regulation when more than a third of the
population lives in informal settlements with extra legal land tenure and infrastructure
arrangements? Cities become product of extreme wealth and poverty more than
planning and regulation. Informal settlements also emerge in places where settlement is
formally prohibited, or in locations that are simple too dangerous or inaccessible to be of
interest to formal land markets. These areas include seasonal floodplains, riverbeds, mountain
slopes and toxic waste dumps, where the risk of disaster or ill-health is high, and there are no
services such as water supply or schools. In cities like Kolkata, Mumbai, Mexico City,
Bangkok, Jakarta, Buenos Aires and other major infrastructure is primarily provided to
enclave developments for the wealthy, in a perverse skewing of public investment towards
the needs of the rich rather that the poor.
Although the poor traditionally crowded into central city slums in order to be near their work,
growing polycentricity with the spread of peripheral gated communities and large scale
planned developments for the wealthy in many developing countries is creating employment
in the service sector for the poor residents of informal peri-urban settlements, allowing their
increasing dispersal. In most megacities, informal development represents an ever increasing
share of new urbanization. Processes of peripheral land development are diverse, but
megacities everywhere are experiencing a trend towards ever more dispersed development at
lower densities. Peri-urban development is a profoundly contested process in most megacities
because undeveloped land at the urban fringe presents an opportunity: for the poor the
2

affordable opportunity to create some life space, or for landowners and developers the
opportunity to generate a profit.
3.0 POLYCENTRICITY AND SOCIAL POLARIZATION
The second important trend in urban form is increasing polycentricity associated with
growing socio-spatial polarization. A polycentric form of development has long been seen as
an ideal pattern for very large cities, as it can provide access to high level services and
employment opportunities without the need for long distance travel to metropolitan centre by
residents of a city region. In some rich megacities of developed countries like Seoul and
Toronto polycentric development has been the product of strategic planning and long-range
infrastructure investments. Also common is the fragmented, unplanned, postmodern
polycentricity of Los Angeles, and newly emerging large-scale private enclave development
developments such as Gurgaon outside Delhi, the dozens of shopping-mall centered
developments around Jakarta. In these cases, growing polycentricity is driven by private
investment rather than planning, and is closely associated with one of the most profound and
disturbing trends in megacities everywhere: the increasing spatial sorting of classes into
different areas. This is in part a function of a largely unplanned dispersal of informal
development by the poor into urban peripheries, and the growing scale of private- sector
comprehensive developments for the wealthy associated with the securitization of real estate
investment.
One of the most significant urban technology developments of the last 40 years has been the
emergence of a range of technologies that allow small-scale deployment of high quality water
supply and waste water management outside monopolistic municipal grids. The useful
advance could have facilitated better provision of clean water to an ever-greater share of
megacity populations. In practice, however, it appears to have permitted the wealthy to
remove themselves from large-scale municipal networks and supply their own infrastructure
within gated and privatized communities, abandoning any shared responsibility for public
infrastructure. This stands in great contrast to earlier eras, when the fortunes of urban
residents were inescapably bound together, and self-interest compelled the urban elite to push
for infrastructure such as water supply and waste management systems that served all and
were affordable to all.
At the same time, however, other forces are at work in some places, moving towards the use
of land, land development and municipal powers to create new forms of network
infrastructure on a more equitable basis is discussed in the following section.
4.0 LAND DEVELOPMENT AND INFRASTRUCTURE BUILDING
Cities are machines for the creation of wealth through the appreciation of property values,
although usually characterized by inequality in the distribution of that wealth, and misery
because of the lack of affordable housing that rising land values routinely produce. Urban
policies, public investments, regulations and plans also have enormous impacts on patterns of
land value, quality of life and the distribution of the costs and benefits of urban life.
Among the most significant powers of municipal governments in cities around the world is
the regulatory power over land use, building standards, densities, public space standards and
infrastructure provision. Changes in permitted development on particular parcels of urban
land and the provision of public facilities can produce enormous increases (or decreases) in
3

land values. Larger projects, planning frameworks and investments can redistribute patterns of
land value over region. In principle, these powers can be used to benefit all urban residents. In
many cities worldwide, however, municipal policy levers have routinely been deployed to the
primary benefit of urban elites. As the urban growth machine literature (Logan and Molotch
1987; Jonas and Wilson 1999) argues, urban elites have huge incentives to influence local
government decision-making, and are often successful in doing so. The huge profits available
from land development has given rise to an almost limitless variety of creative ways- both
legal and illegal in which private interests draw on public resources to aid their schemes.
These range from simple pro-growth policies such as facilitating large scale new development
on the fringe, to investments in infrastructure (mass transit system, etc.) or policies favoring
investment such as tax breaks to major public land assembly (e.g. East Kolkata Township
Project in Kolkata) and redevelopment projects and public spectacles such as Olympics or
other international games and festivals (e.g. Asian and Commonwealth Games in Delhi).
Much less attention has been paid to the ways in which the regulation of urban land
development and municipal investment can be a positive force, a powerfully redistributive
mechanism that can promote social equity, livability and sustainability. In the greater urban
crisis at the beginning of the 20th century, many urbanists believed that municipal
governments and planning held the key to a more just society, good housing for all, and a
healthy environment. The essence of Ebenezer Howards Garden Cities Plan was not the
physical development plan or the green belts, but social ownership of land that would allow
the redistribution of land profits in the form of housing, public goods, and old-age pensions
(Hall and Ward,1998). In practice, the ambitious goal was not achieved, but there have been
many innovative approaches to the use of planning powers to improve the lot of the poor.
These include strategies that rely on direct municipal expenditure on resources and strategies
to impose conditions on private developers. Example of the former include providing
municipally owned land for social housing and creation of community open spaces, markets
and centres of poor neighbourhoods. More common are exactions on private development
projects as a condition of development permission. Common strategies include requiring
contributions of land from developers for roads, parks, public space and schools in newly
built areas, requiring contributions to other public goods such as schools, libraries and
community centres. The city of Vancouver in Canada has used such contributions to add
public amenities and public spaces during redevelopment and intensification of its downtown
and development its suburbs. There are many difficulties and shortcomings of such strategies,
however. First, while legal structures vary, in most cases municipalities are in a weaker
negotiating position that the developer, and generally receive only a small share of the
increased value that the developer acquires through changes to planning regulations. Second,
such strategies work only where there is strong market demand for space. Third, such
contributions may persuade municipalities to approve developments that are undesirable in
other ways. Fourth, without transparent management, such exactions create opportunities for
corruption. Finally, municipalities can become dependent on the revenue raised in this way.
Still, the benefits can be so great that careful examination of these strategies is important. In
Toronto, subdivision regulations were used to ensure that suburban developers provided or
paid for all the infrastructure necessitated by their developments. This contributed to the
evolution of a rational system of suburban development, with very high infrastructure
standards and large amounts of land set aside for schools, parks and green buffers along
4

rivers. In this way, far larger amounts of land could be allocated to these uses than would have
been possible if the suburban municipalities had been forced to buy such land in the open
market. It also meant, suburban home buyers bore the full costs of the new development of
suburban areas, instead of such costs were being passed on to other tax payers.
One way of solving the infrastructure and public facilities challenges in the fringes of
Megacities is to ensure that public receives a much larger share of the increase in land value
created through public actions (termed betterment in the UK and windfalls in the USA),
including regulation, investment, and infrastructure building. Most of the increase of land
values in cities is due to factors other than the actions or investments of land owners, yet in
most cities they are able to keep 100% of that increase. Not only is this arrangement
inequitable, but it also contributes to shortages of public goods that would help everyone,
including property owners. In many countries around the world, measures to capture a share
of such windfalls exist or new approaches are being attempted. This seems a promising
avenue for future policy innovation.
5.0 FRAGMENTED GOVERNANCE
Most of the metropolitan/megacities with its growing peri-urban areas have serious challenges
of unsustainability in terms of urban sprawl, worsening problems of social polarization, and
disastrous living conditions for the poor. The rapid growth beyond the administrative
boundaries of the central municipality or corporation has made governance much more
complex, involving several other urban and rural local bodies. In part, this is simply a
function of rapid growth, and municipal boundaries that are difficult to alter for one reason or
the other. Although such suburban growth transforms the larger urban structure, often placing
increased burdens on the centre and on the regional capacity, it is usually not regulated by the
central city at all. Most growth occurs in peri-urban municipalities and rural areas surrounding
the metropolis that has little governance or planning capacity and limited financial resources.
While many urban functions are best planned at the local level, such as parks, schools and
local shopping areas, many functions must be planned at the scale of the whole region to be
effective. These include large-scale transit and transport systems, water supply, waste
management and pollution control, among others. Metropolitan region fragmentation is
closely associated with urban sprawl, not only because of the inherent difficulties of
coordinated planning, and the weakness of the governments on the peri-urban fringe, but also
because smaller municipalities on the fringe often compete for developments that are
perceived to provide tax revenue, and are tempted to lower planning standards to win them.
Peri-urban municipalities also routinely avoid providing regional public goods such as green
space, public transit or low-income housing. Creating region-wide metropolitan governments
is not easy, and although often advocated, has seldom been successfully carried out. There are
many reasons for this: senior level governments may be unwilling to cede significant power
or tax capacity to another level of government; they may see it as politically unpopular to
interfere with municipal government powers; or they may be afraid of establishing another
large government that can challenge their policies (as did the Greater London Council in the
1980s just before the Thatcher government abolished it). Further, metropolitan governments
often lack legitimacy, as they may not correspond with what urban citizens consider to be the
place they live, tend to be top-down impositions of higher-level governments, and are usually
too weak fiscally or jurisdictionally to carry out their assigned functions effectively. Their
5

potential source of legitimacy- effectiveness in solving regional problems- is therefore

compromised. Further, one of their fundamental roles is to redistribute tax revenues
throughout their jurisdiction, form richer to poorer municipalities, and a task not easily
achieved.
London illustrates the challenges both of metropolitan governance and of frequent
interventions by a powerful central government. During the last 50 years, London government
has undergone three major restructurings, form the creation of the Greater London Council in
1963, to its abolition in 1986, and finally the creation of a directly elected Greater London
Authority (GLA) and a mayor in 2000. From 1986 to 2000 London had no citywide
government at all, with 33 boroughs taking full responsibility for planning within their areas,
leading to a range of conflicting plans for the capital as a whole ( Hebbert,1992). With the
new citywide GLA, these problems are not easily overcome. There are contradictions between
the need for large-scale planning of the whole urban structure with the need to maintain local
discretion and powers at the borough scale. In London, however, the clear need for integrated
strategic planning for transport and land-use was the major factor that pushed the need for a
unified government to the forefront. The new GLA is charged with developing and
implementing a new strategic planning approach for London, and has had considerable
success with a new congestion charge and rebuilding the deteriorating London underground
system. Even so, the national government has been careful about granting too much power to
the new authority, which remains a small body without a large budget or autonomous powers.
Significant planning power remains with the boroughs. Finally, the new GLA, while in charge
of the old 33 boroughs within the greenbelt, does not cover the whole functional urban area,
which has expanded virtually the whole of South-East of England. Still, during its first 10
years, the GLA appears to have successfully created a new planning and governance
approach, which will bear close scrutiny in the coming years.
6.0 INDIAN AND WEST BENGAL SCENARIO
Indian policy makers have been slow in responding to changing metropolitan forms and have
largely visualised urbanization as merely city expansion. As a result, metropolitan regions
which are complex entities with municipal and non-municipal institutional arrangements have
become mere creatures of state governments with neither the necessary strategic flexibility
nor political legitimacy. The 74th constitutional amendment does acknowledge the emergence
of metropolitan regions insofar as it envisages the formation of Metropolitan Planning
Committees (MPCs). Under the JnNURM dispensation, all state governments were compelled
to create enabling laws and constitute MPCs. In practice, MPCs have been set up only in 2
states- Kolkata in West Bengal after a delay of 5 years, and Mumbai, Pune and Nagpur in
Maharasthra after a delay of 16 years with a single term of reference, which is to prepare a
draft development plan for the region. The Kolkata MPC after initial meetings to consider and
endorse a development plan became preoccupied with sectoral and local issues. After
elections to the Kolkata Corporation and other municipalities in 2011, the MPC has not been
reconstituted. In the case of Mumbai, one meeting was held and smaller group meetings
followed. But these again have been preoccupied with local problems and seeking a voice in
the allocation of funds for projects. In the case of Bangalore, Chennai and Hyderabad
enabling laws were passed but no MPC was set up. Though the MPC is the only constitutional
recognition of a multi-jurisdictional metropolitan region, and contains some positive features
6

like spatially integrated planning and infrastructure provision, environmental conservation,

and resource mobilization it has had very few takers. The state governments do not have the
political will to consider MPC as an enabling coordination mechanism to overcome
fragmented governance in metropolitan region.
The other issue that plagues the governance in peri-urban areas is largely due to official
neglect and non-recognition of these areas as deserving of urban civic status. This is the
outcome of dichotomous way the census has defined urban areas. Only the statutory towns are
accorded municipal status while the census towns (or those settlements that are economically
and demographically urban) are not granted urban civic status and are governed by rural local
bodies. Many of the census towns are urban outgrowths and though they are organically a part
of neighbouring cities or large towns, they are not governed by municipal administration.
Thus a large part of the per-urban fringe of cities in India is not governed by municipal
administration but by rural bodies. Services such as water supply, sanitation, garbage
collection and disposal, street cleaning and lighting etc. are not a part of the responsibilities of
rural bodies. They are considered urban responsibilities. With the 74th constitutional
amendment, some hope for peri-urban areas has emerged with the Acts recognition of
transitional areas and the granting of civic status to them as Nagar Panchayats or town
panchayats. However, the central act has left it to the different states to create this new
category for the proper governance of per-urban areas. While some states have gone ahead
and classified many such areas as nagar/town panchayats, many states have still not created
this new civic category in spite of the rapidly changing configuration of areas adjoining the
largest metropolitan cities. West Bengal has not created a single nagar/town panchayat while
the highly urbanized state of Tamil Nadu has been found to be quite alert and responsive to
the emergence of peri-urban areas and till 2005, had created 636 town panchayats.
7.0 CONCLUSION
It is necessary to understand the diversity and importance of the links between social and
environmental sustainability, urban form and governance processes. The challenge for urban
governance is to ensure that urban policies, public investments, regulations and plans have
positive impacts on quality of life for the majority, and produce a more equitable distribution
of the costs and benefits of urban life. There are enormous differences between the conditions
and policy approaches of metropolitan and megacities in the developing countries and those
of developed countries, there are also profound differences among such cities in developed
countries and among those in developing countries. The issues faced by Kolkata are quite
different from those of Sao Paolo, and Tokyo and Toronto are equally dissimilar. So a
division into developed and developing is just as likely to obscure important issues as it is
to reveal them. It is past time to move beyond a conception of cities in developed countries as
models and those in developing country cities as problems. It is necessary to share the
challenges, ideas and innovations achieved in diverse situations of metropolitan and
megacities in developed or developing countries to find solution to their multidimensional
problems.

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Jonas, A.E.G. and D. Wilson, (eds.) (1999): The urban growth machine: critical
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University of California Press, Berkeley.
Shaw, A. (2003): Urban Growth, Basic Amenities and Waste Management in India
in R. Sengupta and A.K. Sinha (eds.) Challenges of Sustainable Development: The
Indian Dynamics, Manak Publications, New Delhi, pp. 298-338.
Sorensen, A. (2011): Megacity Sustainability: Urban Form, Development, and
Governance in A. Sorensen and J. Okata (eds.) Megacities: Urban Form,
Governance and Sustainability, Springer Publications, NY, pp. 397-418.

WHERE WILL 7 BILLION PEOPLE LIVE?

(The) Unsprawl Global Initiative
Koichi Paul Nii1, Shizuo Harada2, Samir Mondle3
1.0
OVERVIEW
Expansion into urban fringes is the traditional approach to urban growth. This method has
continued from the time humans first formed a settlement. The progress of human
development, from industrial revolution leading to modern living, disregarded the
environmental destructions. Realisation of eventual doom of our life style with the
continuation of present living practices has prompted search for alternative and innovative
approaches to, at least, maintaining the present quality-of-living standard and for its
improvements. The main focus has been to reduce the dependency on carbon and fossil fuels.
The research and production on innovative means and application has reduced the rate of
destruction but which are FAR FROM stopping and reversing the problems. This is due to
refusal of identifying or acknowledging the root of all problems.
Nothing has been done to what we believe is the ROOT of the problems. The root of the
problems is the human footprint which continues to expand at an alarming rate on earth's
surfaces. In other words, humans occupy too much land or inefficiently utilize land.
The concentration of the population is in the megapolis which comprises suburbs and cities.
The road networks connecting all the communities occupy 30% to 50% of megapolis. In the
major cities, the residential and its nearby commercial areas consisting mostly of two story
1
Architect, Tokyo JAPAN

Architect, Oakland, California USA
3
Engineer, New York, New York USA
2

structures and its traffic networks occupies 80% to 90% with the remaining in the urban core.
In suburbs, areas occupied by structures of less than 2 stories are 65% and by its traffic
networks is 30% to 35%. In the rural areas, the land for farms and ranches occupies at least
90% of land. Continual expansion into lands in urban fringes will eventually eliminate
fringes. Thus, to keep the land from development what is needed is the managing of land
already developed for redevelopment.
A very basic question is asked. WHAT IS LAND? The balance in nature has been destroyed.
The balance has to be restored. The human footprint has to be reduced. How can this be
done? One way is to construct equivalent land, surfaces that function as land.
Urban Sprawl is not an Indian concern only, but a global one. However, in no country, is land
more used for agriculture and livelihood than in India.
Where is sprawl in urban, suburban or peri-urban, even rural areas of Kolkata, West Bengal
and India taking us? Currently, we are satisfied with greening of building projects, using
the term sustainability. Sustainability for whom, may we ask? Whereas, self sustainability
is paramount, does it go far enough to address the impending crisis of rampant and
indiscriminate use of land and water? These are questions that visionaries must ask today,
more than ever. The help of all is required to restore a balance in nature, to live with better
ecology that must serve us and serve future generations to come.
These enormous questions of far reaching concern may be reduced to three considerations:
a. the inefficient use of land by our inability to apply green technology more
comprehensibly
b. inability to comprehend the extent of damage we are causing
c. our reluctance to consider an alternative to our present living style
What are our possible solutions? These may be resolved by three objectives: a. we maximize
use of green technology, b. we return land to nature allowing earth to heal, and c. we evolve
with a more convenient lifestyle.
Are we ready to make a paradigm shift, to usher in a new symbiosis and synergy, to make a
new concept of infrastructure for construction of homes well balanced with livelihood and
indeed life itself? Let us call it Earth City Visions.
Let us do innovative urban architecture that deals with earth, air, water, and our visions. Let
us call it our Earth City Visions.
Earth:
Give back land to nature. Create land and use less with every
development. This is efficient use of land. In time, sprawl is minimized,
and be begin the process of unsprawl.
Air:
Let us not pollute it. Minimise pollution. Let the air we breathe be
healthier.
Water:
Let us make the water body healthier. There is life in the waters. Let us
treat it well. Let us nourish it. It will serve us in return with nutritious
food.
10

2.0
INTRODUCTION
Expansion into urban fringes is the traditional approach to urban growth which has not
changed from the time human first formed a settlement. This single practice still continues
today. In the course of human development, from industrial revolution leading to modern
living, maintaining the natural balance on earth has been disregarded. This has resulted in
the present global warming which is causing much global destructions.
The developed nations wanting to maintain its "quality of life" standard and the developing
nations wanting to lead similar life style have realized that the rate of destruction cannot
continue. All nations have accepted that the main cause of the present global ecological crisis
is our dependency on fossil and carbon fuels.
Realization of eventual doom to the present life style with its continuation has prompted
search for alternative and innovative approaches to maintain and improve the present qualityof-living standard. The focus has been to reduce the dependency on carbon and fossil fuels.
Research and production on innovative means and their application have reduced the rate of
destruction but are far from reaching the point of stopping and reversing the problems. This
is because the solutions are a band-aid fix. The main problem is not being acknowledged.
The ROOT of the problems is the unchecked growth of human footprint on earth's surface
which continues to expand at an alarming rate. In other words, human occupies too much
land or human utilizes land inefficiently.
Thus, the land on urban fringes has to be managed to prevent expansion of human footprints.
Urban sprawl needs to occur within the city. Sprawl, by definition is to "spread out
awkwardly". Within the cities, there are blighted areas, residential areas, manufacturing and
industrial areas, commercial and office areas, and many others that are scattered awkwardly
all over the city mainly due to zoning regulations. These areas need to be redeveloped. These
redevelopments must not continue using the accepted practices.
Alternative approaches
which promote land conservation, are self sustaining. Compact cities must be created and
applied to correct sprawls within cities.
The major inefficient land utilization in the megapolis which comprises suburbs and cities,
occurs in the residential areas, the commercial areas outside of the urban core and the road
networks. These areas occupy more than 90% of land in a megapolis.
How are the additional facilities to be included in the limited existing areas within the packed
megapolis? We propose creation of man-made land or surfaces that functions as land.
Structures holding the surfaces are proposed. One is an enclosed high rise structure
categorized as vertical city and another is a mountain-shaped open structure categorized as
linear city. They are for, both, water and land surfaces. These structures construct compact
cities on them. Cities produce their own energy through solar, wind and wave power, have
farms, harvest rain-water, recycle wastes, provide institutional, commercial, industrial,
educational, medical, entertainment, residential and other facilities. These cities are
autonomous, independent and beyond sustainable and much more than just "Green".
11

3.0
INTERACTIONS AROUND THE WORLD
Pollution:
Electric power plants are the largest single source of global warming pollution in the country,
responsible for nearly 40 percent of greenhouse emissions.
U. S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Electricity generation = 33%; Transportation = 28%;
Industry = 20%; Commercial and Residential = 11%; Agriculture = 8%.
Quotes:
President Obama has stated
"United States and the world had a moral imperative to take "bold action" to slow the
warming of the planet. The grim alternative affects all nations --- more severe storms, more
famine and floods, new waves of refugees, coastlines that vanish, oceans that rise. This is the
global threat of our time."
Jerry Brown, Governor of California quoted
"The world is fast approaching a tipping point after the damage caused by climate change
can't be undone. Five years from now, it's over unless we change our ways sooner." This
statement is supported by Bill Magavern, the Coalition for Clean Air policy director. There
are key problems that need to be addressed; (1) climate disruption, (2) extinction of species,
(3) transformation and loss of ecosystems, (4) pollution and (5) population growth and
consumption.
Sunday Times of India, 10 Nov, 2013 quotes
Most Polluted Cities in the World: Ulan Bator MONGOLIA, Kanpur, Ludhiana, Peshawar
PAKISTAN, Quetta PAKISTAN, Yasouj IRAN, Ahwaz IRAN, Kermanshah IRAN, Sanandaj
IRAN, Gaborone BOTSWANA. Not surprisingly they are all in the developing world, and
half of them are in the Indian sub-continent, featuring, water pollution that causes 14,000
deaths a day. 25% of all deaths in the developing world are related to environmental factors
and million people are poisoned by pollution every day in the developing world.
Trivia:
Population will continue to increase even if the birth rate decreases since the life span is
longer. One out of every three child born in the USA from 2013 will live to be 100 years
old.
Currently world population is 7.1 billion. If all these people lived as densely as Parisians
do, how much land would be required for the entire world's population today?
Paris, with few skyscrapers within its city limits, the city has a population density of 54,
892 people per square mile. That makes it the most densely populated of major cities in
the Western World. If the entire world population lived at the same population density as
Paris, it would fit into128,982 square miles of land. That is roughly equal in size to the
combined area of just two midsize states in the Midwestern United States - Missouri and
Illinois. (Oakland Tribune, Sunday July 21, 2013.)
Forest loss contributes as much as 12% to 15% to annual gas emission, about the same as
the entire global transportation sector. Carbon dioxide released each year from forest loss
12

is greater than that released by yearly transport emission. With the death of forests, a loss
of key climate protection occurs, with results that as follows:
a. disease and parasites increases due to climate warming
b. wild fires
c. In Amazon, "once in a century" drought occurred twice in 5 years.
d. Forests absorb 25% of all carbon dioxide due to fossil fuels and emissions from all
the world's cars and trucks.
e. slowing human emissions of green house gases
Most of the nations participated in the 1992 Global Environmental Treaty but 20 years in
practice yielded scant results.
o Forests are being cut down for farming and logging.
o In 2005, forest occupied 3.69 billion hectares or 30% of global land.
o Mountains, water tower of the world provide water for 50% of the world population.
o Glaciers are melting.
o Ocean takes out about 1/4th of co2 from the air. Result, oceans are becoming acidic.
o Between 1990 and 2005, expanding desert ate up other lands at a rate of 10 football
stadium per minute or 72.9 million hectares.
o Gas in air is up 40% from the Industrial Revolution. Fear it could double or triple this
century.
o Rate of Progress: Changes took place very slowly until the Industrial Revolution.
Since then, changes occurred quickly. Now, the changes occur fast. So fast, that the
industrialized nations cannot afford to introduce better ways. What is now obsolete
were built less than 50 years ago. Cost is prohibitive to deconstruct the past and build
new.
4.0
STRUCTURED LAND
The primary objective of the structured-land-system is to free land from human and restore
land back to nature. We must assist earth in healing itself. We are not yet powerful enough to
control nature. We must reduce our footprints on earth's surface and plant trees and other
vegetations on land where we have vacated. We are to live above ground and leave land for
all other life. We are just one life on earth.
As we decrease our footprint, quality-of-living standard for all people must improve. All
people must be able to earn decent wages in order to eliminate the basic concerns for the need
of clothing, foods and shelters. New employment opportunities in numerous fields are to be
created, especially in those vocations where degrees in higher education are not needed. For
constructed-land to succeed, majority of people have to want to live on it and can afford to
live on it. New compact cities must provide desirable things and must eliminate undesirable
things that are the products of the present land utilization. One item is to reverse the "timedistance" factor from traveling long distances in short time by using motorized vehicles to
13

traveling short distances in short time without the use of vehicles dependent of fossil fuels.
Another is to produce energy without depending on carbon fuels.
The objectives of these compact cities are as follows:
Produce more surfaces for human habitation over land and water.
Preserve existing untouched land.
Decrease human occupied land areas.
Improve quality-of-life standard.
Reduce dependency on carbon and fossil fuels.
Increase usage of clean, non-depleting renewable energy.
Provide frameworks for easy installation of all products.
Reduces road areas.
Eliminate development in open and untouched land.
Provide more open space.
Preserve natural areas.
Provide new jobs such as:

a. Modular framing components' productions.
b. Modular panels' productions.
c. Vertical transport systems.
d. Delivery systems.
e. Water collection systems.
f. Sunlight distribution systems
g. Energy production systems.
h. Waste management systems.
i. Maintenance.
j. Deconstruction.
14

4.1
VERTICAL CITIES, LINEAR CITIES AND FLOATING CITIES
Vertical, linear and floating cities represent the new paradigm in how we think of land,
specifically how we use land to support our homes, communities, and economic
infrastructures.
The basic concept is to provide an improved foundation for all of the structures that we as
humans require to live in and to conduct our commercial and civic business activities. At the
same time reducing the overall footprint (amount of land required) and energy use for the
entire community. Not only do these cities allow for less stress on the natural environment,
but it also provides a greater level of safety for all of their occupants by lifting them up and
out of harms way in the face of catastrophic floods, mud slides and earthquakes.
When considering these structures, it is important to keep in mind that they are not buildings
or architectural edifices. They are constructed land. They provide an ideal substrate not only
for homes and other architecture to rest upon but also for the integration of modular
subsystems that are located within the structure itself. Additionally, it is important to
understand that the fundamental nature of the structured land systems are that they are
scalable and modular in size and scope. That is to say that, even though illustrations show
them as huge, they can, in fact, be constructed using the very same methodology and
materials.
15

Life in the Cities
Residences will be located at the perimeter of the structure facing the parks on natural ground.
Businesses, civic support services and community based activities will be located in the core,
adjacent to the residences.
The core areas present a very large volumetric space for an infinite number of urban design
possibilities. They are the ideal environment for unrestricted architectural expression to take
place. When designing office buildings or retail stores, architects will be able to take
advantage of the unique support system that runs throughout the structures. This built-in
foundation enables the architects to utilize lighter materials for the floors and walls of
buildings.
The relationship between the residential areas and the core introduces a new paradigm for
how community members can have immediate access to local businesses, retail stores and
recreational areas. This new paradigm is created by adding a third dimension traversing
network to the traditional two dimensional networks.
The third dimensional traversing networks consist of pathways and mechanical transport
systems that are horizontally and vertically traversing throughout the city. People living,
and/or working, within the cities can easily walk, ride a bike or use other types of personal
transport systems when going to and from their homes and places of work and/or play.
Existing technologies of conveyance will be employed, such as; elevators, escalators and
moving sidewalks. Additionally, there is an opportunity to invent and innovate new forms of
transportation to navigate within the environment. As the cities provide an enhanced
experience for 3D connectivity inside, it also accommodates external transit systems e.g.,
High Speed Rail, Light Rail, roadways, etc. The structures can in fact serve as a
transportation hub for any combination of these transit systems. In this respect, the cities
change the landscape for implementing Transit Oriented Development concepts.
As we've seen, the structures not only redefine the space of our human activities by opening
up new dimensions, but they also improve the quality of life by bringing our activity venues
closer together and more accessible. And yet, this is only a portion of the beneficial aspects
that the structure has to offer.
16

Modular Subsystem
While creating a structure that reduces the urban footprint is beneficial for the local
environment, creating a structure that consumes less energy and produces less CO2 emissions
is beneficial for the global environment. Energy efficiencies are realized by integrating
modular subsystems.
Modular Subsystems represent a wide range of technologies. These technologies include
utility systems for handling distribution of electric power, natural gas, water & waste,
telecommunications and energy generation systems e.g., solar panels and wind turbines.
In most cases, these modular systems can be existing products that require little or no
modifications in order to be located within the frame. However, with a new paradigm come
new opportunities for creating new solutions. It is inevitable that these cities will spawn a
new breed of niche businesses that take advantage of these opportunities.
We live in a world of finite resources. And, as the human population continues to grow the
stress on these resources increases exponentially. As we enter this new century we must also
deal with global climate change, rising sea levels and nature's propensity for catastrophic
events. We must embrace innovative solutions if we're to avoid a continual state of crisis
management.
The most effective solution for meeting the challenges of the 21st Century is Structured Land
Systems.
Terraced Structured Land (TSL) In Brief
TSL is a product composed from a system consisting of modular framing members and joints
to form platforms that function as ground. The system allows variety of designs with total
surface areas that are multiples of the ground area on which TSL stands.
PURPOSE
Produce more surfaces for human habitation over land and water.
Preserve existing untouched land.
Decrease human occupied land areas.
Improve quality-of-life standard.
Reduce dependency on carbon and fossil fuels.
Increase usage of clean, non-depleting renewable energy.
Provide frameworks for easy installation of all products.
CONSTRUCTION
NEW BUSINESS OPPORTUNITIES
Framing system composed of standardized

pipes and IP joints.
All members precisely manufactured.
Constructed by standard method.
Assembled by labor intensive method.
Facilities built from manufactured modular
products.
Temporary framing structures minimized.
Materials' and supplies' storage areas reduced.
Underground works lessened.
17
Modular framing components' productions.

Modular panels' productions.
Vertical transport systems.
Goods delivery systems.
Water collection systems.
Sunlight distribution systems.
Energy production systems.
Waste management systems.
Maintenance.
Deconstruction.
Products and systems resulting from new life style and

environment.
Site preparation decreased.
HOUSES ON TERRACED PLATFORMS
FACILITIES ON CORE PLATFORMS
Freedom in designs.
Modular partitions compose spaces.
Easy to add, remove, remodel, relocate
and recycle.
Benefits of hillside homes and those on
flat lots.
Secured to platforms above and below.
Societal infrastructure spaces formed by modular

partitions.
Networks of escalators, moving belts, elevators and
walkways.
Interconnecting traversing network on every tier.
Merchant rows on many levels.
Facilities at various levels and locations.
Level separation between pedestrian and human
powered vehicles.
LAND USAGE
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Occupies fraction of area.

Reduces road areas.
Minimizes land development.
Provides more open space.
Preserves natural areas.
Reduce existing residential areas.
Reduce existing shopping areas.
Size and shape as needed.

Autonomous corporate community.
Reconstructed sustainable community
disaster stricken areas.
Redeveloped sustainable community
revitalization of city district.
OPEN PUBLIC SPACES
LIFE ON TSL
On different levels and locations.

Parks running parallel on ground.
Parks continuous below 1st tier.
for
Distances between residences and community spaces

reduced.
Time-distance factor changes to traveling shorter
distances to destinations.
Living in the urban core having suburban lot with
yard and house.
When securing products on the ground, foundations and frames are needed. TSL, being
secured to the ground, is the foundations and frames to which the products are attached. Thus
creation of varieties of spaces forming communities on TSL is easier and faster than on
ground.
18
for

DYNAMICS IN METROPOLITAN FRINGES: IN THE

CONTEXT OF URBAN SPRAWL
Prof B.K.Sengupta1 & Janani Thiagarajan2
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Throughout the developing world, the largest migration in human history is currently
underway. Urban areas account for 52.1% (3.63 billion) of the worlds population and
predictions by the Global Health Observatory suggest that by 2050 this will increase to 70%.
The urban population in that year will be about 6.4 billion with the developing countries alone
contributing to 5.4 billion i.e. 84%. Thus developing countries like India are facing pressures
of urban growth and development.
In India, as per 2011 Census, 377 million people live in urban areas of which 160 million live
in metropolitan areas distributed as 53 cities. The urban growths here are majorly in form of
urban centres that expand continuously due to population increase. Data trends indicate a
consistent rise
2.0
METROPOLITAN FRINGE
L Smiths used the term urban fringe to signify the built up area just around the
corporate limitsof the city of Louisana in 1937. Later George Wehrwein devised the concept
of rural-urban fringe in 1942 as the area of transition between well recognised urban
uses and the area devoted to agriculture. After significant study on urban fringes Balk
introduced the term ruburbanization in1945. Thus the term has different meanings in
literature in terms of its definition, characteristics and delimitation. However in this context
the term metropolitan fringe is defined as the dynamic interface starting from the
metropolitan city limit till the rural areas, where metropolitan expansion is expected in the
near future.
Metropolitan fringe development is not a simple process where land undergoes a transition
from rural to urban uses. Rather it is a complex phenomenon that involves many concerns
like change in landownership pattern, land transfer process, types of development, regulatory
measures and their enforcement. (Fahria Masum, 2009). Fringe areas are deeply affected by
developments within the municipal corporation limit and land conversion variables like
minimum land value of residential land, population density, geographical location &
agricultural land capacity. (Surawar & Kotharkar, 2012).
Characteristics of Metropolitan fringes:Metropolitan fringes are characterised by
1
2
Fast and unplanned growth

Ambiguity of jurisdiction in terms of planning, land tenure and land transfer
Tenure of residents is not based on defined and enforceable titles
Lack of planning & building guidelines & regulations
Professor, Dept. of Architecture & Regional Planning, IIT Kharagpur

Student, MCP, Dept. Of Architecture & Regional Planning, IIT Kharagpur
19 Published in National Symposium on Managing Lands in Urban Fringes: Controlling
Significant portion of low income categories

Unplanned settlement caters to the rental market which solely caters to demand
Land use: Certain land uses will be pushed from the city core to the fringes where
large tracts of land are available. The predominant land use characterises the fringes as
urban or rural.
Distance from city core: The nature of the fringe itself translates from urban to rural
depending on the distance from urban centre.
Issues of Metropolitan fringes:Problems of fringes are more frequent and of similar nature in developing countries. Some
issues of fringes are:
Informal Development of land which do not conform to state rules and regulations
Lack of infrastructure
Poor urban fringe management: Effective management is hindered by the following
factors;
Large size of fringe areas
Lack of community vision
Lack of sense of place
Social conflicts and rapid population growth
Scattered development (sprawl)
Lack of proper resources for planning
Outdated planning and zoning techniques
Cheap land availability that leads to exploitation of land resources by under utilization
Road access: Development occurs only along provincial roads as maintenance of these
roads is paid for by the provincial government, relieving the residents from responsibility
and taxation.
When the city expands into the fringe areas one of the following outcomes are generally
observed:1. The metropolitan expansion absorbs the surrounding areas leaving its fundamental
characteristic intact.
2. There is a migration of people from the rural areas into the fringe that becomes a
transitional space for the incoming population. In this case the area is characterised by
low or middle income group people who depend on the urban centre for employment but
are unable to reside there.
3. There is migration of people from the city core to the fringes; a process termed as sub
urbanisation due to the decay of urban core and advancement in transportation that
facilitated commutation to the urban core. The high income groups migrated from the
core to the suburbs where they could (i) economize on land prices or rents, (ii) escape the
blight of the CBD and (iii) afford to commute to their work place.
3.0
URBAN SPRAWL
The Oxford dictionary defines the word sprawl as the disorganized and unattractive
expansion of an urban or industrial area into the adjoining countryside. Definition of urban
sprawl, however, takes different meaning in literature:20

Sprawl is composed of areas of essentially urban character located at the urban fringe
but which are scattered or strung out, or surrounded by, or adjacent to undeveloped sites or
agricultural uses (Harvey & Clark, 1965)
Sprawl is a development pattern characterized by scattered, unplanned, low-density
development that is not functionally related to adjacent land uses (Duncan et al. 1989)
Simply put, sprawl occurs where there is disproportionate consumption of land per resident
leading to excessive growth of cities (Brueckner).
Cause of Sprawls:Sprawls are caused by
1. Population growth: Increase in population lead to spatial expansion of the city which
due to many other factors may turn into sprawl
2. Rise in income: higher income levels demand larger space for housing leading to large
inefficient and resource consuming land parcels
3. Heavy suburbanisation caused by flight from blight and imbalances in planning
control (relaxation of planning controls in the suburbs) stimulate sprawl.
4. Transportation improvements: This induces people to suburbanise as commutation is
made possible from the suburbs to work place.
5. Speculation: - Sprawls are caused by the independence of decision among monopolistic
competitors, each acting independently and without collusion (O. Harvey & W. A. V.
Clark). The developers produce discontinuous residential developments as a result of
speculation and future expectation they possess.
6. Economic Growth: Rapid increase in the economic sectors indirectly increases the
income levels and employment that creates demand for housing.
7. Physical barriers: unsuitable physical terrain prevents continuous development and
encourages leap frogging.
8. Road width: Generally high rise structures are permitted along wide roads. This limits
the possibility of development thus leading to horizontal growth instead.
9. Improper policy planning that curbs high density developments and leads to lesser open
spaces thus compromising on the social aspects.
10. Non conducive taxation laws: local taxation laws impose only a fraction of the cost of
development on the developer making the development look artificially cheap and thus
encourage urban expansion.
11. Lack of fringe area planning, uncontrolled growth of city and lack of enforcement of
planning norms.
Characteristics of Sprawl:Urban sprawls are characterized by uneven and unplanned pattern of growth driven by
multitude of processes and leading to inefficient resource utilization. It is defined by certain
distinguishing physical features which are indicated by population density, residential density
and land use. It is essentially composed of areas having urban character which are located on
the fringes surrounded by agrarian uses. Such areas have very low population and residential
density as compared to the compact segments of the city. Sprawling occurs in three major
forms:
21

a) Low density sprawl: - This is the voracious use of land by few people leading to low
density developments.
b) Ribbon development: - In this there is development along transport channels leaving
the interstices undeveloped.
c) Leap frog development: - This is characterized by discontinuous development of
areas irrespective of the development density.
Effect of Sprawls:Urban sprawls are criticized for a wide range of reasons starting from environmental effects to
social aspects of life. The major effects of sprawls may be summarized as follows:
4.0
High infrastructure cost: Due to expanded development there is need to extend

infrastructure facilities like roads, pipelines and governance systems. This leads to
increased development costs and maintenance costs.
Traffic congestion: In fringes it becomes inefficient to operate public transit systems due
to low usage caused by low population density. This leads to increased vehicle ownership
rates and congestion of core city roads.
Environmental impacts: Increase of built up area lead to loss of vegetation by
deforestation and loss of eco system (wetlands, coastal areas etc)
Poor air and water quality: Air quality deteriorates due to increased traffic, loss of
forests and industrialization. Water quality is affected due to reduced percolation rates
that hamper groundwater recharge rates. Also the water from the urban areas is
contaminated and pose threats when let into reservoirs.
Urban heat island effect
Social segregation: it is a common phenomenon that in sprawled developments High and
low income groups are separated with the former congregating in the suburbs.
Poor Social and public health: reduced walk ability and high reliance on automobiles
increases health issues like obesity, breathing problems etc.
Other impacts: rural uses are affected by pressures of development. Sprawls also disturb
the visual appeal by giving rise to monotonous and ugly suburban landscape.
CASE STUDY
Bangalore:Bangalore is the administrative and cultural capital of Karnataka. It grew from a village in the
12th century to a metropolis having a population of 8.5 million. The city has grown from 69
Sq Km in 1949 to 800 Sq Km in 2011 which is about 11 times. Its economy is majorly driven
by secondary and tertiary sectors like Information Technology, education, textile, aviation,
bio technology, commercial sectors etc. Thus the area is highly urbanised and by ripple effect
the pressures of development are upon the adjoining rural areas. This heavy urbanisation of
the city has brought pressures on the infrastructure and natural resources of the city, especially
land resources to culminate as an urban sprawl.
22

Issues:The growth characteristics of development of Bangalore metropolitan area is of paramount

importance to identify with issues of development. Map 1 depicts the zone of developments
with Zone 1 being the former corporation area, zone-2 formed by combining 8 municipal
councils and 111 villages which is now a part of the Greater Bangalore City Corporation &
Zone-3 includes the rest of the Bangalore Metropolitan Area. The development characteristics
of these areas are summarised in Table 1.
23

Indicators of Sprawl for Bangalore:The indicators were built on the lines of indicators developed by TRB (Transportation
Research Bureau) and SCATTER (Sprawling Cities And TransporT: from Evaluation to
Recommendations). They are:
Demography and Economy: demographics (household size, housing condition,

densities) income levels
Environment and Resources: land use, waste generation, consumption of water &
energy, density of development
Mobility: transportation mode, travel time, travel distances,
Planning and Governance: preparation of plans, efficiency of governance, provision
of infrastructure, public participation.
The following table depicts the results of urban development under each indicator
24

Thus it can be concluded that the outer zones i.e. peri urban areas comprising of Zone-2 and
Zone-3 face pressures of development in terms of infrastructure, environmental issues, future
planning etc.
The persisting issues of the Bangalore metropolitan region may be summarized as follows:
5.0
Underutilized land: The Greater Bangalore City Corporation area only is a host for 324
slums which suggests underutilization of land and unhealthy environments. These lands
reduce development potential within the city and prompt sprawled development.
Low density developments: low and medium developments are more prevalent leading
to loss of vegetation and landscape.
Rapid expansion;- this is due to migrating population, who cannot afford to live in the
core city and hence prefer to settle in the peri urban areas where they can economize land
rents.
Lack of planning regulations: Zone 3 lacks planning regulations due to which
unplanned growth is happening coupled with speculation.
Lack of infrastructure: The inability of local authorities to provide infrastructure in
settlements around the industrial estates have triggered inefficient utilisation of land and
other natural resources.
METHODS FOR CONTROLLING SPRAWL
Three market failures may lead to excessive spatial growth of cities. This market point of
view help in formulating control mechanisms. The first failure is the inability to take into
account the social values of open spaces during conversion of land into urban uses. The
second failure is the failure of the people to recognize social costs of congestion caused by the
extra development. The third failure is the incapability of the developers to take account of
the extra cost of infrastructure generated by their projects.
POLICY PLANNING:
Taxation of Land conversions:
Value of open spaces are not realised as they do not fetch any monetary returns. The
intangible value is not recognised and is always compromised on being converted to urban
25

uses. This can be countered by charging development taxes and raising the cost of land
conversions. This may retard the rate of spatial expansion of cities.
Imposition of charges on road users:
Commuters incur cost of travelling, time cost and congestion cost. The travelling cost and
time cost are realized by the commuters as he himself bears this cost. But congestion cost
arises due to the fact that the commuter is one other person congesting the road, the cost of
which is not borne by him but by others on the road. Although congestion costs are small they
have a large impact collectively on the society. Thus there is no incentive for the commuter to
take it into account and commuting on congested roadways look artificially cheap.
Practical ways of dealing with the issue would be to manage traffic effectively. But to
discourage congestions on road commuters must consciously resort to using the public transit.
Congestion charges and toll charges may be levied on commuters. This indirectly increases
commutation charges due to which people will try to locate near their work place or switch to
public modes of transport. This ideally leads to a shrinking city with reduced air pollution and
traffic congestion levels.
Impact fees:
Developers and home owners do not realize the cost of infrastructure provision in the suburbs
as they pay a very small portion for infrastructure development in the form of property and
development tax. A large portion of the cost is borne by the government. The government in
turn shifts its burden on the existing residents of the area by taxing them. After the provision
of infrastructure the new dwelling units are sold at a higher price which earns profits for the
developers. This process continues till all the agrarian land uses are converted. Thus the
fundamental way of procuring finances for infrastructure must be altered.
Impact fees are imposed to recover the cost of infrastructure created by new developments. In
this the developer pays for the entire cost of infrastructure which eventually hinders their
interest in developing new lands.
Urban growth boundaries:
Urban growth boundary is a zoning tool that limits urban growth by restricting development
in certain areas of the fringe. This way the city is bounded by a limit up to which it can grow
and beyond which development is prohibited.
Though this mechanism is easy to implement it can be easily misused. The reason is that it is
very difficult to predict how much the city will expand. Thus the boundary so laid can be very
stringent, constricting the city from growing and resulting in unwarranted increase of housing
costs and density within the city. Growth boundaries cannot solely be functional but need to
be buttressed by impact fees, development charges and toll charges.
Provision of Urban amenities to Rural Areas (PURA):
Pressure of migration is upon metro cities as the rural population migrate to the city in search
of new opportunities and better quality of living. To prevent these migration rural areas need
to be equipped with infrastructure and services that promote economic activities within the
rural areas itself.
26

Control of vehicle ownership: Studies show that reducing vehicle ownership can
effectively control sprawl.
Participation in the provision of infrastructure costs:
Cost of providing new infrastructure is twenty times more for sprawl developments as
compared to normal growth. This cost must be distributed within the residents of the area.
Urban redevelopment:
In the current era where there is dearth of land, existing land parcels within the city core may
be developed or reclaimed. This may be in the form of abandoned industrial sites, dilapidated
commercial plots or abandoned properties.
Effective growth control and enforcement of planning laws:
Planning mechanisms like subdivision control, floor area ratio and zoning regulations must be
enforced strictly.
Creative and efficient management:
Urban policies must be formulated to reflect the needs of the people and also counter issues of
future development. Direction of development and the potential costs to be incurred must be
determined by planners so that appropriate policies can be formulated. Implementation must
be followed by effective management to ensure prolonged efficiency.
OTHER MECHANISMS:The measures discussed above were policy reforms that are implemented for controlling
sprawl. Other than these there are other concept and mechanisms that have evolved to combat
sprawls. The following are some of the mechanisms.
Transit oriented development:
Transit oriented developments are mixed use developments that guide growth by maximizing
accessibility to public transport. They are generally developed with a transit station at the
centre surrounded by high density areas.
Bicycle and pedestrian oriented developments:
Encouraging modes of transport like bicycles and pedestrianization reduce environmental
impacts. This is also a preferred mode of development as users dont incur travel costs. But
for successful bicycle or pedestrian oriented developments there is a need to provide facilities
like sidewalks subways, cycle lanes and proper development conditions like mixed land use
patterns, accessibility modes etc.
Compact city:Compact city movement had its inception in America where it was propagated by the work of
Leon Krier, Andres Duany, and Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk. It originated as a concept that
criticized the zoning and suburbanisation and as a tool to curb wastage of resources.
Compact city is an urban planning concept that promotes high density development, energy
efficiency and minimises pollution. It propagates mix use development where there is a mix
of land uses that enables the dwellers to walk for their work, thus reducing the dependency on
27

automobiles. Supporters of this concept claim that it promotes community oriented social
patterns (Katz 1994).
Some of the characteristics of compact cities are:
High residential and population densities

Mixed land use development
Proximity to various land uses coupled with small plot sizes.
Increases social and economic interactions
Continuous development with no waste of land between developments
Development is controlled within set limits
Presence of urban infrastructure
Multimodal transportation
Improved accessibility; regional and local
High built up area
Low open space ratio
Control of planning for land developments
Sufficient fiscal capacity of governments to finance urban infrastructure
Despite its promotion by numerous urban planners this concept still has drawback which is
famously known as the compact city paradox. It states that for a city to be liveable the
people must have a sense of openness, security, greenness which are absent in a compact city.
Smart growth:
This is an urban planning and transportation theory that is used to promote high density
developments with mixed use concept. It was advocated in USA and was extensively used in
their policies. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency defines smart growth as
development that serves the economy, the community, and the environment. It changes the
terms of the development debate away from the traditional growth/no growth question to how
and where should new development be accommodated
The following are tools used to promote smart growth:
Compact neighbourhoods
Mixed use developments
Transit oriented developments
Zoning ordinances
In addition to smart growth principles there must be smart growth policies. The former is the
concept while the latter is the implementation mechanism.
6.0
LAND MANANGEMENT TECHNIQUES
Most of the land in metropolitan fringes are largely under private ownership and irregularly
divided leading to land locking. Land management techniques are used to develop such land
to promote efficient utilization of resources.
Land pooling/land readjustment technique:
This method is widely practiced in South-eastern Asian countries like Japan and Korea and is
used for managing fringe areas to ensure proper servicing, sub division and design of
individual plots into planned development. In a typical case, the public body identifies an area
28

or private landholders approach them for development of an area. Individual land parcels are
pooled together and planned as one large estate wherein land parcels are serviced and sub
divided.
In the process of development individual land owners have to give up a part of their land
parcels for open spaces, roads, social facilities etc and as sites to be auctioned for the recovery
of development cost. Finally owners get their land shares in proportion to their original
contribution (by size and value considerations) which has higher market value than the
original plot. The advantage of this method is the elimination of the need of acquisition, thus
reducing development costs.
Plot reconstitution technique:
This method is similar to land pooling technique in many ways. The major difference is that,
in this, each land parcel is properly subdivided and provided with services by utilizing a part
of the original site which is compensated for by the government as per the original plot value.
The valuations of plots are done after the finalization of the schemes. The differences between
the new and original valuations are taken into account and the plot owner pays 50% of the
increase as betterment tax to the government. This is used extensively in states like
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
Land Banking:
In land banking government acquires lands in the fringes, which are bound to develop in the
future, to have control over land resources for promoting future projects and to prevent
speculation. Simply put the government can control the land market by holding land supply.
7.0
CONCLUSION:
It is observed through the presentation that urban sprawls are an inevitable part of urban
expansion, especially in the developing world where urbanization rates are high. Regardless
of the inevitability, sprawls, including fringe development and growth, have given rise to
problems in urban areas which range from environmental to social-economic concerns. The
inability of the government to monitor and regulate informal land parcelling, transactions and
development is a serious concern. Thus, the need of the hour is to employ creative mechanism
and policies that discourage sprawls and encourages sustainable development.
The State and the Centre have to take up active measures and put in place an institutional
framework for ensuring regulated development to protect future public interest in the rapidly
growing fringe areas. This framework must include collaboration with key actors like the
private sector so as to build on good practices. Formulation and enforcement of structural
guidelines and standards such as minimum allowable plot sizes and access road dimensions
can regulate future development and curb sprawls.
Mixed land use developments, transit oriented developments, smart growth strategies; proper
policy planning and land management strategies must be adopted. Public intervention
programmes must be undertaken in a manner that ensures deployment of the limited resources
available and support the initiatives taken by the poor to acquire shelter and improve their
livelihood. Further research must be encouraged with regard to understanding the dynamics,
characteristics, growth trends and indicators of urban fringes especially in the context of
sprawls.
29

REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
World Urbanization Prospects, 2011 Revision: United Nations, Dept of Economic

and Social affairs
Landowners on the Metropolitan Fringe: Results from a Survey of Owners in Four
US Metropolitan Areas: Jennifer Hrabchak Molinsky, Lincoln Institute of Land
Policy
Development Trends of Single Family Housing Estates in Izmir Metropolitan
Fringe: Hasibe VELBEYOLU
The nature and economics of Urban Sprawl: Robert o Harvey and W A V Clark
Causes, results and methods of controlling urban sprawl: S. Habibi, N. Asadib
Urban Sprawl: Diagnosis and Remedies: Jan K. Brueckner
The Compact City Fallacy: Michael Neuman
Studies on urban sprawl and spatial planning support system for Bangalore, India:
HS Sudhira
Urban Sprawl Management: Need for an Integrated Spatial Planning Support
System; H. S. Sudhira, T. V. Ramachandra and M. H. Bala Subrahmanya
Urban growth analysis and remote sensing: A Case study of Kolkata: Bhatta. B
Analysis of urban growth and sprawls from remote sensing Data: Bhatta. B
Others:http://www.who.int/gho/urban_health/situation_trends/urban_population_growth_text
/en/
http://indiagovernance.gov.in/files/urbandemographictransition.pdf
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transit-oriented_development
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_growth
30

Land Management Legislations in Urban India: Prevailing

Distortions and Key Issues
Prof.(Dr.) Sibabrata Halder1
1.0
BACKGROUND
Land is the central point for all settlement management issues - be they urban or rural. And
access to land is the key to tackling most forms of urban development problems. It provides
the physical location for peoples housing, commerce, industry, roads and transport system,
social infrastructure, places of employment and a host of other public and private services. In
the past, as population pressure on land was less, settlement management tasks were relatively
less difficult. Thus older urban units have demonstrated a remarkable ability to absorb large
volume of new population without major crisis. However, in recent past availability of
developed land - whose supply is limited by its very nature - has been subjected to rising high
demands. With rapid increase in population and fast dwindling land supply, apparently the era
of unlimited availability of cheaper land for accommodating urban growth, is gradually
drawing to an end.
By turn of the twenty-first century, India, holding about 17.2 percent of the total global
population over only 2.4 percent of worlds total land surface, is one of the most densely
populated countries in this globe. Though, nearly 69 percent of the Indian population lived in
rural areas, the situation of urban India is no less difficult. During last one hundred and ten
years (from 1901 to 2011) her urban population has increased from 26 to 377 million, an
increase by 14.5 times. And the number of towns has also increased simultaneously from
1916 to 7935, nearly a fourfold rise! The following table gives the dimension and direction of
urban population growth in India. The gross population density of India has increased almost
three fold from 134 persons per square kilometer in 1961 to 368 persons per square kilometer
in 2011. The situation in urban area is more critical.
As urban land becomes more and more scarce, commercialized and formalized, land value has
sky rocketed with increase in market demand. The urban poor are worst affected from such
dismal situation. Unless the government/s evolves a pragmatic and efficient land management
system for supply of developed land at reasonable rates with the help of her administrative
and management tools, the situation would deteriorate rapidly further. Yet most of the urban
local bodies and development agencies are ill prepared to accept this challenge of
accommodating phenomenal expansion of urban population. At the initial stage, a part of this
dynamic growth was either absorbed within the porous spaces of towns, which had left
many partly accessible or inaccessible empty pockets within the physical fabric of the towns.
Presently this unbridled development of spontaneous or peri-urban settlements along citys
periphery has increased significantly, mainly to accommodate the urban poor. This
phenomenon is reflected in Census-2011, through rapid increase in the number of Census
towns (which has increased from 1362 in 2001 to 3894 in 2011) and urban outgrowths
adjoining to older urban units.
Professor,
Bengal
Engg
&
Science
University,
Shibpur,
Howrah;
email:
halder.sibabrata@gmail.com
Table-1: Urbanization growth in India : 1901-2011 (All Population figures are in ,000)
Census
Year
Total
Population
Urban
Popn
% Urban
Net increase
in decade
% Growth
No. of
Towns
Nos. of
Metros
1901
1911
1921
1931
1941
1951
1961
1971
1981
1991
2001
2011
238396
252093
251321
278977
318661
361088
439235
548160
683329
846388
1,027,015
1,210,193
25855
25948
28091
33463
44162
62443
78937
109114
159463
217552
285355
377096
10.85
10.29
11.18
11.99
13.86
17.29
17.97
19.91
23.34
25.70
27.78
31.16
+93
+2143
+5372
+10669
+18281
+16494
+30177
+50349
+58089
+67803
+ 91741
0.36
8.26
19.12
31.98
41.40
26.41
38.23
46.14
36.43
31.17
35.30
1916
1908
2048
2220
2427
3060
2700
3126
4029
4689
5161
7935
1
1
2
2
2
4
6
9
11
23
35
53
Source: Census of India, 2011, Provisional Population totals.

Haphazard nature of these settlements has created another grave problem for the posterity. In
future it will be problematic for any local government agencies, either to superimpose an
orderly urban network or even to extend minimum basic civic services. However, before
going to an elaborate discussion on the various issues that has mired the land delivery process
in our country it would better if we get some basic ideas relating to emerging issues relating
to land management in India.
2.0
EMERGING ISSUES OF URBAN LAND MANAGEMENT (ULM)
If the cities are to continue to be efficient platforms for future economic growth and to
accommodate the rising demands for land for habitation of the burgeoning urban population
in coming decades in a sustainable manner, radical changes are required within the present
land management instruments and their administration to accomplish the transition of
organized urban development. The present land management system is badly hampered by a
number of inadequacies. Of these the key issues are:
(i)
(ii)
Land is very often not perceived as a commercial good (due to general ignorance
about the land market by land owning population) and hence there is little concept of
land having a use-value for a particular purpose in a particular place at a particular
time among the majority of middle and low income urban and rural land owners.
Conventional market forces therefore, do not function well in bringing these lands into
settlement uses economically.
One of the major limitations for developing an efficient land delivery system for urban
areas is inadequacy on proper Land Information System. Information about land is
often backdated and unreliable. Further due to continuance of an obsolete system of
land record keeping, the land registry offices are unable to keep pace with updating of
the volume of land transactions or keep track of rapidly changing pattern of urban
land-use associated with the accelerated urban growth. Land-records updating in
fifty years is an unacceptable proposition when land demands are increasing very fast
and ownerships/use rights are also changing fast. Recently significant efforts were
made by some governments to digitize the land records. But just digitization of the old
records without any updating does not fulfill the purpose. As a result a number of
32

(iii)
(iv)
peripheral problems relating to land have cropped up, like: inability to increase land
revenue base, distortions of urban land markets and long delay for land acquisition in
urban development projects etc.
Land transaction procedures in our country are greatly hampered by old, outdated laws
and unclear legal/administrative frame works, like the laws on land acquisition,
registration, mutation (i.e. the change of ownership) and change of landuse rights,
transfer formalities and mortgage procedures. Thus acquisition of land for
implementation of urban development works of any form could be an enormously
cumbersome, time consuming and frequently an uncertain process.
And lastly, except for a very few properly planned and administered townships,
elsewhere most civic bodies or development agencies have no coordinated program
for extending basic necessary civic infrastructure to all areas within the civic limits to
convert raw land into usable and serviced urban land. As a result most people
(including the new population) try to squeeze themselves within the developed
portions of the city, making land value extremely high there. The private developers
also avail this limitation of the public agencies to speculate on the land prices.
While the rationale for undertaking some drastic reform measures in present land
management procedure is well recognized, but progress made towards this end during last six
decades was precious little. Stiff oppositions, mainly from the lawful or otherwise land
owners, politicians, and other stakeholders were formidable. With advent of electronic
technology only some state governments have taken significant initiatives towards
computerization of the land records for increase in land revenue and digitization of ownership
registration records. However, despite attempts at computerization, land records continue to
be outdated, inaccurate and in comprehensive, giving rise to several disputes and litigations.
No states so far has done much on the issue of security of land tenure, dispel the fear of
multiple registration of same land or could come up with end-use maps of total lands within
the state. Arguably the states play a very significant role in the efficient functioning of the
land markets through determination of a balanced land management policy and through
creation of an appropriate legal and regulatory frame work on land supply. Within short span
of this paper some of such archaic land laws and their new amendment/replacement
legislations have been discussed in the following.
3.0
CONSTITUTIONAL POSITION OF LAND IN INDIA
Possibly a writings of Plato, the famous Greek philosopher of fourth century B.C, could be a
convenient starting point for initiation of discussion on the right of ownership on land as a
personal property of an individual. In his book Republic he wrote the landed property of the
city-states should be distributed in equal proportions among all the citizens. But one of his
best known pupil, Aristotle, did not subscribe to this idea and he said an individual can
definitely hold landed property but there should be laws restricting the maximum amount of
land which an individual might possess. Because Aristotle had acknowledged how vastly
more pleasant it is to be able to regard something as ones own! Great French philosopher,
Rousseau, in book Discourse on Inequality (1754 A.D.) wrote that the politics and property
(ownership) are indivisible the first man who enclosed a piece of land and bethought
himself of saying this is mine and found that the others (were) simple enough to believe him
- was the real founder of a civil society. However, it was not until the Industrial Revolution
33

and rise of an urban society, legal perceptions regarding the lands were conceived in terms of
commercialization of land like present context. Since evolution of a post-industrial society
from mid eighteenth century the perception of land for that matter urban land has changed
drastically.
While framing the Constitution our Indian predecessors have broadly followed the British
precedence. In India we follow the English common laws on land matters. According to this
understanding all lands ultimately belongs to the State and individual land owner draws his
hereditary and perpetual right over the property from the State through payment of required
taxes. In India this procedure has been continuing since enactment of laws relating to the
Permanent Settlements by Lord Cornwallis in1793A.D. So as per the original Indian
Constitution land is a State subject and it is registered under article no. 246 of the Seventh
Schedule, listed as item no 18 of the State List. Our Constitution had originally recognized
that right to property, including the landed property, as a fundamental right of every Indian.
Article 19(1)(f) of the Constitution guarantees the right to property for citizens of India by
declaring all the citizens shall have the right to acquire, hold and dispose of his property
subjected only to the reasonable restrictions to be imposed by law in the interest of general
public. Thus the property right was never absolute but subjected to certain restrictions
imposed by the State in the nature of reasonable restrictions. This idea flows from the
Article 39 of the Directive Principles of State Policy of the Constitution, which stipulates that
ownership and control of the material resources of a community should be distributed to best
serve the common good and such that the operation of the economic system does not result in
the concentration of wealth and means of production.
This property right was further reinforced against any possible State actions by guaranteeing
the right not to be deprived save by the authority of law and without payment of
compensation. Even if the State desires to acquire any land in the interest of general public,
the Article 31 of the Constitution also guarantees about the adequacy of the compensation to
be paid to the land owners. However, after independence our democratic rulers have preferred
to amend several provisions of the Land Acquisition Act, 1894 a number of times through the
Constitution amendments. One of the most important amendments in relation to todays topic
was the 44th Constitution Amendment Act of 1978, wherein the right to property was reduced
to the status of a legal right. It removed the clause relating to right to acquire, hold and
dispose of property from the Constitution and retained the property as a legal right under
article 300A (that is no person shall be deprived of his property save by the authority of law).
Presently right to land no longer enjoys a Constitutional guarantee.
The Land Acquisition Act of 1894 (LAA) is the principal legislative instrument in India for
land acquisition for urban developments. Here the governments power of eminent domain
becomes more explicit. (Eminent Domain is the inherent power of the State to acquire a
citizens private property legally with due payment of monetary compensation). The
jurisprudence around eminent domain has always recognized the right of fair compensation to
those being dispossessed of their property for a public purpose. While the power of
acquisition inheres to the principle of states sovereignty, the right to fair compensation
inheres to individuals fundamental right to property. To elaborate this point I may be
permitted to quote a Supreme Court observation (the State of Bihar vs Kameswar Singh case
of 1952), in which the court had held, the concept of (land) acquisition and that of
34

compensation are two different notions having their origin in different sources. One is found
on the sovereign power of the State to take, and the other is based on the natural right of the
person who is being deprived of the property, to be compensated for his losses.
Surprisingly at the end of colonial rule in 1947, Indian government allowed most colonial
laws to remain in force through Article 372 of the Constitution. Successive governments
thereafter did not bother either to bring a fresh legislation to replace this archaic law nor to
bring about significant changes in the Land Acquisition Act through amendments until
occurrences of several public protests in recent times. Right after the independence, in very
First (Constitution Amendment) Act of 1951 all the land reform laws pertaining to take over
of property by the State were removed to IXth schedule of the Constitution vide insertion of
Article 31A-C. This insulated the government from any judicial challenge and invalidation.
However, it was not possible for the government to enjoy a blanket protection from the
judicial challenge for long. And right to property was eventually removed as the fundamental
rights vide Forty Fourth Constitution (Amendment) Act of 1978.
4.0
THE LAND ACQUISITION ACT OF 1894
The genesis of land acquisition legislations in India lies with the Bengal Regulation Act (I) of
1824, which was enacted during the East India Companys rule, by Earl Amherst, the then
Governor General of Fort William. Purpose of this act was clear - exploitation of natural
resources of India to promote the Companys commercial interests and undertaking empire
building works. When Marquis of Dalhousie became the Governor General of India the
earlier act was repealed and replaced by another act, i.e. Act (I) of 1850. So that the land
needed for undertaking public works within the town could be easily obtained without any
legal problems. Through its provision this act was extended to all the major Presidencies
including Town Calcutta, the capital of British India. By 1857 this law was further modified
and reappeared as the Act IV to strengthen the acquisition procedure for laying railway lines
and highways across the country in reduced time. Later this law was extended to whole of the
British India. Finally a more comprehensive legislation on land acquisition was enacted on
1894, through the Land Acquisition Act (LAA), which had replaced all other previous acts
and which is still in force even in post independent India save some amendments thereafter.
It is not difficult to guess the key concerns of the British colonial rulers in framing this
legislation. The law enabled the State with power to acquire land more swiftly while
minimizing the amount of compensation which the colonial ruler always thought as an
unnecessary drainage on the state exchequer for demonstrating benevolence to the natives.
Further, there was urgent and genuine need for mobilizing large tracts of lands for rapid
expansion of railways and mining activities throughout the country. Therefore, I would say,
very purposefully terms like public purpose and compensation was kept vague and
undefined; the amount of compensation was at the discretion of the District Collector and
his award was final. Albeit the act had helped to speed up the acquisition procedure, with
minimal compensation to the land owners, as we have seen in case implementation of various
land acquisition for carrying out General Improvement Schemes by the Calcutta
Improvement Trust in pre-independent India.
During the Nehruvian period, the constitutional provision relating to land acquisition was
amended further. One more important amendment was enacted in 1962 - to allow bulk land
acquisition for the national and private companies under section 17 of the said act under the
35

umbrage of public purpose, in spite of a Supreme Court judgment (R.L. Aurora vs the State
of U.P.) on the contrary!. As a result the governments (both State and Union) started
acquiring large tracts of land on behalf of the public as well as private companies and
categorizing every excuse as the public purpose. At this juncture we must be clear that
private entities do undertake projects for private profit, while the public purpose clause was
to secure the development and welfare of all citizens, particularly the poor, downtrodden and
deprived of access to basic necessities of life. The government officials usually claim that
their goal was to get the best price (read cheapest) of the acquisition for government.
Unfortunately the popular protests have, in recent past, been frequently politicized by
complex interplay of vested interests.
5.0
NEW DEAL: RTFCTLARR -2013
To end the century old colonial legacy of injustice and land deprivation of people and to
remove several anomalies and imperfections that had mired several post-independent land
acquisition projects, a new bill was introduced in the Indian Parliament on 2007. But the same
could not be passed due to lack of consensus as some provisions of this bill invited very
stormy criticism. Thereafter a fresh legislation in the form of the Right to Fair Compensation
and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement (RTFCTLARR) Act
was passed in the Parliament on 2013 and it requires only the government notification to
come into force in 2014. The new development in land acquisition was long overdue a full
sixty seven years after the independence! It is everybodys knowledge that before and after
the independence it was the dalits, adivasis, landless peasants and the urban poor who bore the
maximum brunt of this state acquisition.
In spite keeping provisions of some contentious sections, like land acquisition for the
private, on paper this new act has made a significant development from the older act in the
realm of three things: these are (i) provision of a fair compensation to the land losers, (ii)
elaboration of public purpose clause and Inclusion of rehabilitation and resettlement of the
affected persons/families. It has been at last recognized that the ownership of land provides
significant economic and social benefits to the land owners and persons earning livelihood
from the land, beyond mere financial valuation.
The new act stresses on fair compensation and proposes that farmers and the original
land owners be paid up to four times the market value for land in rural areas and two times
of the market value in urban areas. That is how it addresses widespread and historical
injustices of the past.
Another key feature is that the consent of eighty per cent land owners is necessary for
acquiring land for the private projects and that of seventy percent land owners for
projects undertaken in PPP modes.
The act expands the scope of eminent domain in elaborating the public purpose; which
includes (i) Iand for infrastructure development projects, declared by the Center; (ii) land
for defense; (iii) land for State and Central Government departments and PSUs; (iv) land
for agriculture and irrigation related projects; (v) land for transportation and industrial
corridors; (vi) land for building a host of facilities for the common man, like schools,
hospitals, sports, tourism development, housing and implementation of development plans
of various categories; and (vii) land mining development and National Investment and
Manufacturing Zones (NMIZ).
36

The act attempts to address rehabilitation and resettlement problems of the affected
persons/families to safeguard the land and livelihood losers, as this was considered as an
unacceptable situation in a country that professes to usher in inclusive growth through
reforms. The R & R considerations were completely absent in previous act. Yet it leaves
the matter to the appropriate state governments to determine it. Further the principles like
no force displacement and scope of free, informed prior consent of the owners have not
been included within the scope of the act. However it has stressed in conducting social
impact assessment (SIA) before undertaking the land acquisition projects, which is
unique and well deserved.
The industry, political parties and various interest groups have reacted to this new law in
different manners. While the urban researchers say the law is heavily tilted in favour of rapid
industrialization and industrial development and would increase inequalities of ownership,
access and wealth and exacerbate conflicts. Instead of fostering equitable and sustainable
development for all the RTFCLARR 2013 may saw the seeds of more discontent in the land
matters; the economists and potential investors say this act will make their task more difficult
for enhanced cost and time; the political parties and social action groups say that in a country
of 1.2 billion plus, where a minimum of 50 percent live below the poverty line and where
agricultural sector engages as much as 60 percent of the total labour force, more attention
should have been paid for agricultural reforms. But strangely, the land owners the intended
beneficiaries and main stake holders are yet to voice their response in the passage of this
legislation. The bottom line here is its fair implementation.
6.0
OTHER LEGAL CONSTRAINTS
Under law, compulsory registration is required for any land transaction through the Indian
Registration Act of 1908. This act provides for registration of deeds, which establishes the
public record of transaction but not the validity of transaction. The registration is done not for
the land title but of the deed of transaction and the same is treated as a mere fiscal mechanism
to realize a fee from the buyers by the state. It does not require verifying the history of land
ownership from the seller/s, thus weakening protection mechanism for the buyers as this
makes the land title in India presumptive and not conclusive. The Registration office is
under no obligation to check veracity of the claims and as such it does not enjoy access to the
latest land records or cadastral maps. Further under section 18 of this Registration act it is not
mandatorily required to register transactions for all categories of land, like the state acquired
and leased lands, court decrees, land orders, mortgage, agreements on sale, etc. All these
lacunas combine to weaken the security of tenure and leading to proliferation of cases of fraud
in real estate transactions significantly. Though in August 2008, the Government of India has
decided to amend this act on private property rights through the National Land Resource
Modernization Programme but its impact is yet to be felt in the land and real estate market.
Another important which is considerably acting as the deterrent to the clean the land delivery
system is the Non-Agricultural Transfer (NAT) Act prevailing in different states. For
purpose of this act clearance is necessary from either the state government or local
government for changing use of the land from agricultural to housing, commercial or industry
or any other uses. Original purpose of this act was to protect indiscriminate transformation of
the costly agricultural lands for the purpose of real estate development and to control the
urban sprawl in cities. Incidentally it is only given to the buyers, who come up with the
concrete proposals for putting the agricultural land to non-agricultural uses. The original
37

sellers of the land are never benefitted from this value accretion due to this conversion
process, as rarely have the ability to come up with such proposals nor do they have capacity
for pursuing the alternative uses. This act gives scope of the state mediated transfer of wealth
through a regulatory mechanism the buyers from what is legitimately due to the original
sellers of farmers!
Besides there is the Urban Land (Ceiling & Regulation) Act of 1976, (which attempted to
impose a ceiling on the vacant agricultural land to prevent speculation and profiteering and to
ensure equitable distribution of land in urban agglomerations. It came into force in 64 UAs in
India. The excess land identified was to have been acquired by t5he government after
compensating the owners and used to provide housing to various sections of the people.
However the act has failed to achieve its objective due to its poor performance. Out of
estimated 220,675 hectare of estimated excess land only 50, 046 hectare of land was vested
with the government and only 19020 hectares (9 percent) were acquired by government. Its
dismal performance led to repeal of this act in most states, with exception of a few states, like
West Bengal.
Lastly the SEZ act 2005, supported by SEZ rules came into force on 2005 providing
simplification of procedures and for single window clearance on matters relaing to central and
state governments. While accepting the positive gains of this act in some states, for majority it
has led to locking and underutilization of large land acquired under this act. And another
obvious fall-out was that those who lost their land, rarely got jobs neither in the new
enterprises nor even in supporting services that came up within the SEZ.
7.0
CONCLUSION
Land is the most valuable natural resource, whose proper planning and management offer
major prospect of economic development and social justice to the people, especially the vast
poorer sections of Indian populations. There are certain inherent limitations regarding proper
land management due to its characteristics i.e. locational advantages, unique nature, nonsubstitutability, etc. These natural factors to a certain degree tend to impede the efficient
functioning of land markets normally. On top of it a set of defective legal and regulatory
frame framework imposed by the state only aggravate the problems. Limitations of land
related legislations in India have been described above. In spite much advertized notion
regarding the shortage of land, it can be said that there are countries which have a much
higher population density than ours yet they have solved their settlement problems through
adoption of advanced technology and better land management techniques. Therefore, one
main hypothesis of this paper is there is rarely an absolute shortage of land: there are
generally supply bottle necks in delivery of affordable serviced land in appropriate prices and
desired locations. While recently undertaken reforms by the government on land have left
many sensitive and disputed areas untouched. As a result existing land market continues to be
highly distorted and inefficient, because most of the legislations are half hearted,
incomprehensive and enacted on the grounds of extraneous considerations. Elimination of
these legal and administrative limitations would go long way towards making our land
delivery system more efficient and people-friendly.
38

URBAN FRINGE OF SHIMLA: CONCERNS TO CONTROL

URBAN SPRAWL
Dr. Ashwani Luthra1 and Ruchi Vasudeva2
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Land is a precious urban resource, which is used number of ways to meet mans socioeconomic needs and sustainable habitat. Planned and organized use of land leads to longevity
and optimum utilization of parcels of land to different uses. But unfortunately, since past few
decades, land has not been put to its highest and best use in many human settlements,
especially urban, across the globe. Global trends reveal that world is heading fast towards
urbanization. Hence, land as a natural resource is under severe pressure to accommodate the
growing needs of the urbanites. But sincere urban land use planning and development efforts
have been significantly minimal. Unprecedented increase of urban population has resulted in
increase in housing demand, deficient urban infrastructure, increasing pollution levels, etc.
Unplanned, haphazard, whimsical and unpalatable approach to development and lack of
enforcement have caused numerous urban problems such as congested/ high density
developments giving filthy looks, dingy habitats, filthy streets, absent green spaces,
marauding traffic, inadequate physical & social infrastructure, etc. As a consequence of these
problems and inability of city limits to accommodate rising population, urban spill over starts
occurring in large volume beyond municipal limits in unplanned and haphazard manner
having no regard to physical and social infrastructure. Such spill over in the suburban, periurban and rural areas has been termed as urban sprawl by different researchers. Most of
these areas develop on their own, without having concern to natural resources, thus making
sprawl development vulnerable to hazards or disasters. Wahlstrm M [2010] described that
As the urban sprawl of rapid urbanization expands outwards and upwards, it provides ready
opportunities for hazards such as floods, storms and earthquakes to wreak havoc.
Urban spill over in hilly terrains is more vulnerable to disasters as they are prone to
landslides, earthquakes, floods and volcanic eruptions. Shimla City is highly vulnerable to
earthquake as it falls under the high risk seismic Zone IV and V. Apart from earth quake it is
exposed to multiple natural and human induced hazards. Remoteness and difficult
accessibility in certain areas of the city, along with lack of awareness on disaster risk
reduction and preparedness have also contributed to increased risk to citys population. The
present paper attempts to highlight the developmental characteristics of urban sprawl of
Shimla that has proved to be disastrous in the spatial planning and developmental context.
2.0
DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF SHIMLA
Shimla, the capital of Himachal Pradesh, is situated on the last traverse spur of the Central
Himalayas. Endowed with high altitude, vested and varied vegetation, scenic beauty,
charming climate and everything that nature could gift, this hill station has its own identity
and character. Shimla is characterized by rugged topography, steep slopes, deep valleys and
elongated spurs. Due to its geological features and location, Shimla is exposed to various
1
Associate Professor, Guru Ramdas School of Planning, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar,
Punjab. ashwaniluthra1@gmail.com
2
Freelance Urban Planner, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh
natural hazards like earthquake, landslides & sinking, cloudburst, thunder light, etc. Shimla is
a multi-faceted city that has administrative, educational, institutional and tourism primacy in
Himachal Pradesh. Consequently, it has witnessed tremendous growth since its establishment
as Capital of the State. A small town in 1956 has become a city in 2011.
Development and population growth are wedded to each other. Shimlas connectivity by road,
rail and air services, which creates potentials for its growth and development. Hence, its
population has trebled in last four decades
i.e.1971-2011 (refer table 1). Population of Shimla Table 1: Population Growth of Shimla City
Growth Rate
rose from 0.53 lacs in 1971 to 1.02 lacs in 1991.
Year
Persons (Lacs)
(%)
From 2001, the scenario has changed and
--1971
0.53
population has grown to 1.69 lacs in 2011. But the
1981
0.71
33.96
growth trends show a declining growth rate from
1991
1.02
43.66
1991 onwards. The town that was having growth
2001
1.42
39.22
rate as high as 43.66% in 1981-91 is growing at
2011
1.69
19.01
19% in 2001-11. It is worth noticing that the Source: Census of India, 2011
increasing population is settling in the suburbs of
the city leading to high pace of urban sprawl.
Fast growing population has spread across its municipal boundaries and influx of population
has spilled over to its suburbs in the Planning Area.
To understand the nature and extent of urban sprawl
of Shimla, its growth trends are worth examination
for past two decades between Municipal
Corporation Limit, 1994 and the present Planning
Area Limit, called as study area or sprawl area
(refer figure 1). Though city population has been
rising continuously but its spill over is worth
noticing because with improved means of
transportation growing population of the city prefers
to settle in the suburbs rather than within the city
limits. Sprawl is spread over 8583 hectares of land all around Shimla city. Interestingly, of the
total area, 61.12% area is under forests and 2.21% area is under water bodies &
undevelopable land parcels.
Table 2: Population Growth in Study Area
Like that of Shimla city, population of Shimla
Study Growth
SPA
City
Planning Area (SPA) has also grown by more than
Year
Area
Rate
(Lacs) (Lacs)
three times during 1971-2011. Notably, population
(Lacs)
(%)
of SPA has increased very rapidly during 2001-11
1971
0.73
0.53
0.20
---1981
0.96
0.71
0.25
25.00
i.e. from 1.75 lacs in 2001 to 2.36 lacs in
1991
1.30
1.02
0.28
12.00
2011(refer table 2). It is clear from the table that
2001
1.75
1.42
0.33
17.86
about 40% of the SPA population is residing in the
2011
2.36
1.69
0.67
103.03
study area in 2011, which has been 23% in 2001. It
Source: Census of India, 2011
is also clear that in 2001-2011 study area has
registered an increase of 103% in its population. Hence, suburbanization has been increasing
in Shimla, which reflects outward trends of growth of its city. The population of the city and
migration to it has increased manifolds and is putting heavy pressure on land and basic
40

infrastructure. Following sections reflect the volume, nature, composition, physical and socioeconomic characteristics of urban sprawl of Shimla.
3.0
CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN SPRAWL OF SHIMLA
3.1
Volume of Development
Shimla has experienced large volume of urban spill

over in the past two decades. This spill over has been
the result of improved highway network, absence of
master planning and inadequate enforcement. Shimla,
known for its beauty, has lost its glory because of
unplanned and haphazard development of hills. Once
known for its natural lush green environment, its hills
are losing their beauty due to unchecked construction
and depleting forest cover. The development has come
up in haphazard manner on forest or agricultural lands
giving no regard to development controls and
regulations (refer figure 2).
Figure 2: Volume of Development
Development in the sprawl area started with the shifting of government offices to NH.22 near
Kusumpti area i.e. Panthaghatti and Mehli-Vikasnagar area. Later, development of physical &
social infrastructure, commercial and public/semi-public activities, led to massive
constructions in these areas. Accessibility improvements with the construction of Dhalli
Bypass also gave boost to similar type of development. Government run service industry at
Tara Devi and Dhalli acted as a major economic node to attract new developments in these
areas.
Table 3: Development along Roads
Despite all physiographic constraints, Shimlas
Total Area
sprawl has consumed about 816.15 hectares of
Name of Road
Percentage
(Hectares)
land. Whichever development is coming in the
NH-22
100.59
12.92
suburbs is coming on the forest and agricultural
NH-22 Bypass
396.95
50.99
land parcels largely. Also, urban sprawl of Shimla
NH-205
62.58
8.04
has occurred along the major roads and eventually
NH-5
26.45
3.40
SH-13
130.79
16.80
spread away from these corridors in different
SH-16
23.21
2.98
volumes. It is clear from table 3 that out of total
Link
Roads
37.88
4.87
816.15 hectares developed area, about 778.45
Total
778.45
100.00
hectares is built along major roads of Shimla and Source:
Computed Values from Map in GIS Environment
remaining is sporadically developed in the sprawl
area. The development along different roads has not occurred uniformly. Variations in
developed area along different roads are on account of their relative importance in the region.
NH-22 is the longest road passing through the study area. Hence, majority of the development
has come up along it only. Total developed area along it is 497.54 hectares (63.91%), out of
which 396.95 hectares (50.99%) is along NH-22 bypass (refer table 3). SH-13 is another
important highway from the point of view of suburban development of Shimla. About 130.79
hectares (16.80 %) land area has developed along it. NH-205, SH-16 and link road are other
major roads along which the development has come up. The total developed area on these
roads is 62.58 hectares (8.04%), 23.21 hectares (2.98%) and 37.88 hectares (4.87%)
respectively.
41

3.2
Existing Land Use
Shimla is an important cultural, educational and institutional centre for which it is developing
very fast but in an uncontrolled manner. Hence, a large amount of land has got developed for
residential uses in the sprawl area. A mixture of
residential, commercial and public/semi-public uses
is witnessed at important nodes to meet the
requirements of inhabiting population (refer figure
3). The commercial development has got developed
along the major roads and is either exclusively
commercial or residential-cum-commercial. Study
reveals that of the total developed area about
411.88 hectares (50.47%) area has come up as
residential. About 257.34 hectares (31.49%),
Figure 3: Existing Land Use
109.23 hectares (13.38%) and 38.04 hectares
(4.63%) land is developed as commercial, public & semi-public and transportation use
respectively. The study also reveals that commercial and public & semi-public uses have
come up along major roads/ highways (refer figure 4). There is no area developed as park or
open space in any of the residential developments. Hence, settlements in the sprawl area are
developing as satellite settlements to Shimla city, which are dependent on it for cultural,
social, educational, economic, medical, and economic purposes. The development in the
sprawl area has converted the soft green picturesque into concrete form.
3.3
Land Use Conversion
Lower land value, inherited land, socio-economic

and environmental factors are some of the important
factors responsible for the development in the sprawl
area of Shimla, which has led to land use conversion
by the new land uses. Its direct and immediate
impact can be seen on its previous land cover, which
has been forest, agriculture or barren land in the past
(refer figure 5). The study reflects that the existing
built up area (778.45 hectares) has developed on
either of these land parcels. However, most of the
Figure 5: Land Use Conversion
development has come on barren land, followed by
forest and agricultural lands, which is 312.44 hectare (40.14%), 250.14 hectare (32.13%) and
215.87 hectare (27.73%) respectively. Thus, precious forest and agricultural land is under
42

attack by urban development in the suburbs of Shimla. Land use conversion has been
occurring very fast along NH-22 because with the construction of its bypass in the south of
Shimla city, there has been significant improvement in accessibility to different parts of the
city. With increased affordability to own a private vehicle and availability of public transport
system suburbs of Shimla have become favourable locations for development. As a result,
unauthorized encroachments on the forest land and sale of farmers barren & agricultural land
has led to voluminous development in the sprawl area.
3.4
Nature of Sprawl
Massive spatial growth is occurring all over the Shimla sprawl area and its character is
reflected by the nature of development, planned or unplanned. For the present study, any area
approved by any Development Authority, as designated in the Interim Development Plan of
Shimla (2021), is considered as planned area, else unplanned. The study confers that majority
of the development, except for New Shimla and Vikas Nagar in the sprawl area, is unplanned
and basic facilities such as water supply, sewerage, well developed road network,
public/semi-public and commercial facilities are
absent (refer figure 6). Interestingly, many
buildings have come up in different parts of the
study area after getting their Building Plans
approved from the competent authority, even
though the area or locality remains unapproved.
Study reveals that except for 41.06 hectares
(5.27%), which is planned, all the developed area
i.e. 737.88 hectares (94.73%) is unplanned.
Haphazard and organic developments in different
Figure 6: Composition of Development
parts present whimsical picturesque of the suburban
area.
3.5
Terrain and Sprawl
The development has been disturbing the natural

profile of land due to ruthless cutting of terrain.
Constructions is carried on steep slopes, congested
built up areas, filth, etc. As per Interim
Development Plan of Shimla, 2021, construction of
buildings having slope as high as 350 to 450 should
be restricted as it will be dangerous for life of the
inhabitants. Figure 7 clearly reveals that almost
whole of development in the sprawl area does not
comply the said restriction. Being falling in high
seismic zone such developments are disastrous for
safety and security of the residents of these areas.
Figure 8 reflects a picturesque of development on
steep and sliding zones.
43

Figure 7: Unplanned Construction in Shimla Sprawl Area

3.5
Other Developmental Characteristics
Developmental characteristics such as plot size, plot coverage and height also present the
responsiveness of development to hazardous conditions. Study shows that majority of the
population (43%) living in sprawl area own 169-275 square meter plots, 18.57% population
lives in more than 426 square meters plots and 11.97% respondents have plot size 426-1000
square meters. Thus, sprawl area of Shimla has been accommodating each section of the
population.
As against the regulations prescribed for building height in Interim Development Plan for
Shimla (2021) permissible building height is upto G+2. But mostly the buildings in the sprawl
area have heights more than three stories (56%). There are only 20% structures that are
double storied. Violations are also on account of covered area where about 56.38%
respondents have covered 100% of their plot area and another 14% respondents cover 76%99% of their plot area. Thus, Shimlas urban sprawl presents congested and violating
character. Areas near highways are more vulnerable to violations of byelaws. Shimla being
vulnerable to natural hazards may lead to more casualties in case of natural calamities as
localities are thickly built with utmost disregard to roads, setbacks, etc. Relief and rescue
operations shall be difficult to be carried out.
4.0
ISSUES
Volume, land use and nature of development in the sprawl area of Shimla reveal precarious
conditions with respect to its planning and controls. Following are some of the important
issues emerging out of development occurring in the sprawl area that requires immediate
attention.
Development is coming up in the sprawl area to accommodate the fast growing

population of Shimla city. But its haphazard, unplanned, unsupportive and uncontrolled
nature presents an insuperable suburban scenario. The volume in which urban sprawl is
occurring in Shimla is surmounting and is a cause of worry for urban planners and
policy makers. Since majority of the development is residential, therefore, it makes it
44

yet more concerned issue because unplanned, uncontrolled development, which is

devoid of basic infrastructure in no way presents better quality of life to the inhabitants
of these areas.
Development along highways creates hurdles in movement for highway traffic and
sometimes results into disastrous situations like accidents. Direct openings on highways
lead to unsafe traffic and living conditions in these areas. NH-22 bypass is the most
vulnerable stretch followed by SH-13 and NH-22 as they are thickly developed roads.
It is observed that commercial developments are coming up in patches along different

roads which results into parking on the highways. Vehicles parked along the highway
and in no parking zones not only reduces the effective road width but also create traffic
jams and endanger lives of the people at times. Unplanned and unauthorised parking
along the highways consume about half lane of the highway, thus reducing the carrying
capacity of the highways significantly. At times, jams upto 1 or 2 kilometer are
experienced on these highways, thus resulting in loss of time & energy on the one hand
and vehicular pollution on the other. As a consequence of heavy regional traffic on the
highways and jamming conditions, the residents along these highways face
environmental pollution (air and noise) as well. Thus, liveability conditions are not
healthy in these areas.
Even government offices developed in the study area are flouting regulations and norms
of highway access controls and provision of basic infrastructure such as parking. The
visitors park their vehicles on the roads, which cause trouble to the highways traffic at
these places.
There is no regard to access controls as proposed in the Interim Development Plan

2021. No development is permitted within 10 meters from the National & State
Highways and 7 meters from Major District Roads. But due to delay in the approval of
the Development Plan the development is occurring adjacent to the carriage way along
all the roads of the study area leading to unsafe traffic and liveability conditions.
As per the regulations prescribed in the Interim Development Plan, 2021 each plot in
the residential area should have access from 3.5 meter path. But no such pathways exist
in 95% of the development in the sprawl area. Motorable roads are absent and katcha
paths or steps are used to reach different localities of the sprawl area. In case of disaster,
it will be extremely difficult to reach the effected persons and properties.
Linear form of development along different roads coupled with high commercial or
mixed land use result in ribbon type of development. Mixture of land use along major
roads presents ribbon development which according to planning principles is unwanted.
In the absence of any control on access to these properties living in these areas has been
very unsafe. Also, it is not possible for the authorities to expand the roads in case it is
required.
Similarly, in case of dispersed development it is not possible to provide infrastructural

facilities, as it will be highly costly to make provisions for the same and also supporting
population is not there.
45

Development in the sprawl area has also come up on unprotected forest lands.
Deforestation of forests has led to environmental degradation and Shimla has been
reduced to a hazardous city. Citys spread over seven hills/spurs, resulting in depletion
of green cover due to massive constructions, has vanished the wild life. Uncollected
garbage finds its way to the ravines, spoiling the entire peaceful environment provided
by the natural landscape. Land, water, air and noise pollution & vegetation loss have
grossly affected Shimlas eco-system.
The development in these areas has come up on agricultural lands. Therefore, there is a
loss of green cover of Shimla and uncontrolled conversion of land use is in full swing.
The green areas are converted into concrete jungles. Loss of agricultural land adversely
affects the agro-economy, which in turn affect the agro industry and economy of the
region.
As per City Disaster Management Plan Shimla (2012), seismic codes have been
introduced by the Public Works Department but the buildings in Shimla flout the design
as well construction codes. Even after the introduction of the codes, most engineers,
masons, and other persons associated with building construction are either unaware
about the earthquake resistant structures or are flouting them because of no action from
the governments side. As a result of all this, more than 80% of all existing buildings do
not meet the seismic code standards. So, haphazard & congested development,
construction on steep slope and on sinking & sliding zone within the study area are
susceptible to major natural hazards like earthquakes etc. More number of storeys with
high FAR in unplanned developments having inadequate light, air and ventilation
adversely affect the liveability conditions in the localities.
Areas that are geologically week and prone to high sinking are meant for low density
plotted development. Where 2-3 storied dwelling units are supposed to be developed, 79 dwelling units have come up in 168 to1000 square meters area. As localities within
the study area are thickly built, with utmost disregard to roads & setbacks,
encroachments on roads, more casualties are expected during hazards. Population may
have to face risks due to overcrowded conditions. Difficulties in evacuating and getting
services, including emergency vehicles through narrow roads will increase enormously
during disasters.
More number of storeys with high plot coverage and mixed land use not only alters
planning principles drastically but also increase the problem of low level of access to
basic infrastructure like absence of drainage and sewerage, shortage of drinking water,
absence of proper solid waste management, no light, air, ventilation, etc. It results in
deteriorating quality of life and may lead to environmental chaos. These conditions can
easily turn a natural hazard into a disaster, with impacts including deficient basic
services.
Unplanned and unauthorized development in the study area presents a dismal picture of
the Queen of Hills. The buildings have been developed on steep hills, which are not
permitted by the regulations prescribed in the Interim Development Plan or even
practiced in Shimla. As Shimla lies in seismic zone IV, a high intensity earthquake will
result in massive causalities. The rate of causalities shall also be higher because
46

accesses to these areas are narrow and development has occurred on steep hills. Nearly
40% of the total development in the study area falls in this category.
5.0
Construction on sliding and sinking zone is direct invitation to hazard and causality.
Development in Panthaghatti area falls in this category where about 50% of the
development has come up on such hills.
SUGGESTIONS
Shimlas sprawl has caused various problems and issues pertaining to access controls, traffic
hazards, environmental degradation, unsafe built ups, infrastructural deficiencies, etc. Lack of
planning and inadequate enforcement of controls and regulations are the important reasons for
these problems. Following planning measures are suggested to control urban sprawl of
Shimla.
The Development Plan of Shimla Planning Area should be approved immediately so

that the planning proposals can be implemented and planned development can be
attained in the suburban areas of the State Capital.
As development in different areas is not uniform and is not expected to be uniform,

therefore, the Development Plan for the city should be supported by the Zonal
Development Plans. The Plans should provide separate zoning regulations and other
Development Controls (Byelaws) for respective zones.
As most of the area does not have proper motorable roads, it is proposed that sector
planning should be done in the sprawl area so that main roads can be developed in the
areas to attain better accessibility to the areas.
As proposed in the Interim Development Plan of Shimla, 2021, construction of

buildings should not be allowed on steep slopes. Constructions in the areas having slope
as high as 350 to 450 should be restricted as it will be dangerous for life of the
inhabitants. Seismic codes as proposed in the City Disaster Management Plan Shimla
(2012) should be followed and enforced strictly for safety and security of the residents
of these areas.
No building plan should be approved in the unapproved colonies without getting

approval from the Town and Country Planning Department, which will check its
conformity with the planning proposals as mentioned in the Development Plan.
Unplanned and unauthorised development must be made accountable for better quality
of life of the inhabitants.
Since development has come up to G+4 storeys, therefore, it indicates that such type of
development is need of the hour. It is proposed that building height be permitted upto
G+4 with structure designed as per the prescribed norms for the seismic zone in which
Shimla falls. Also, guidelines as prescribed in City Disaster Management Plan Shimla
(2012) should be followed strictly.
Eco-sensitive zones such as forests and water bodies should be protected from
unplanned and unauthorised developments. Separate guidelines should be framed for
forests (protected and unprotected) in the Shimla Planning Area. They should be strictly
enforced to control unauthorised development in the study area.
47

Since most of the development has come up along the major roads radiating from the
city, therefore, transit oriented development is proposed for these roads. The existing
development should be regularised and unauthorized constructions and encroachments
within 10 meters from National & State Highways and 7 meters from Major District
Roads should be removed at the earliest possible. Also, in future no development should
be allowed within these restricted areas.
As prescribed in the Interim Development Plan of Shimla (2021), areas 10 meters and 7
meters away from the centre of the National/ State Highways and Major District Roads
respectively should be declared as Environmental Corridors and only restricted
development should be allowed within this corridor on the pattern of Punjab Scheduled
Roads and Controlled Areas Restriction of Unregulated Development Act, 1963. Green
buffers should be created along highways and other major roads to restrict development
on the one hand and check pollution (air and noise) due to traffic on the other hand.
Any commercial or public & semi-public development should be allowed along the
road only having the required infrastructure such as parking spaces. A comprehensive
Parking Policy should be prepared for urban and suburban areas of the State.
Ribbon development should be checked as far as possible. The same can be done by not
allowing any development to come up without prior approval of the Town & Country
Planning Department, Himachal Urban Development Authority and Disaster
Management Department of the State. These agencies should be made accountable for
planned and controlled development along the highways.
6.0
CONCLUSION
Shimla owns multifunctional primacy and there is a heavy pressure on suburban land due to
urbanization forces. But unplanned, haphazard and uncontrolled development of citys sprawl
is leading to disastrous conditions. As city is susceptible to natural disasters like earthquakes,
landslides and cloudburst, social disaster has deteriorated the living conditions of the
inhabitants of the city. Marauding land use conversion has led to economic disorder, which
not only adversely affects the economy of the city but also affects the eco-system of the city.
Due to constant physical, environmental and aesthetic degradation of land, the citys suburbs
demonstrate it as a hazardous city. Most serious issue concerning urban sprawl of Shimla is
disturbance to natural profile of land by cutting of terrain for constructions. Increased
commercial and residential activity, unplanned physical growth and influx of population are
eyesores to the State Capital. Numerous buildings are coming in a haphazard and unplanned
manner. The worst part is the new constructions that are coming up on dangerous slopes
because buildings may dislocate or fail to cope up with the gravity of geo-hazards like
earthquake, landslides etc. As development in the hilly terrain comes on different contours, so
in case of demolition of structures due to earthquake (say), a chain effect of collapse is
expected to cause large scale destruction. Shimla has highly sinking zones where any further
addition of building loads could be disastrous. These include the northern slope, especially the
famous Ridge, New Shimla, etc. Thus, very serious note should be taken on unplanned and
uncontrolled sprawl of Shimla city and rigorous planning and development strategies are
needed to minimize the effect of disaster, be it liveability conditions in the localities. Planning
proposals of Development Plan of Shimla (2021) and guidelines of City Disaster Management
48

Plan- Shimla (2012) should be strictly followed so that the glory of magnificent hill city is
retained and pronounced for its sustainable development.
References
[1]
Margareta Wahlstrm (2010), How Urban Sprawl Intensified Floods in the

Philippines, http://www.theatlanticcities.com/ neighborhoods2012/08/how-urbansprawl-intensified-floods-philippines, accessed on 2013 August, 24.
[2]
Shekhar, Shashi (2011), Urban Sprawl and Other Spatial Planning Issues in Shimla,
Himachal Pradesh, ITPI Journal, Institute of Town Planners India, New India, vol. 8,
no. 3, July, pp. 53-66.
[3]
United Nations (2004), Note on Terminology of Disaster Risk Reduction, drawn from
The Review of Implementation of the Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action for a
Safer World of 1994, Inter-Agency Task Force on Disaster Reduction, Ninth Session,
Geneva, 4-5 May.
[4]
Vasudeva, Ruchi (2013), Planning Strategies for Urban Sprawl of Shimla,

unpublished M. Tech (Urban Planning) thesis, Guru Ramdas School of Planning, Guru
Nanak Dev University, Amritsar.
[5]
City Disaster Management Plan Shimla (2012), Municipal Corporation, Shimla,

Himachal Pradesh.
[6]
Interim Development Plan for Shimla, 2006, Town and Country Planning
Department Shimla, Himachal Pradesh.
[7]
http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/disaster, accessed on 2013 September,

21.
49

URBAN SPRAWL - A PHENOMENON

Asfa Siddiqui1
1.0
INTRODUCTION AND NEED TO STUDY SPRAWL
India has only 2% of global land and 4% of water, but it has 16% of the population of the
world, the statement in itself explains the urban scenario in our country today.
Urbanization is an indicator of the level of development of any region. More and more towns
and cities are blooming with a change in the land use along the highways and in the
immediate vicinity of the city. Urbanisation, as such, is not seen as a threat to the environment
and development, but it is the unplanned urbanisation and subsequent urban growth, or the
sprawl that affects the land-use of any region prone to extensive urbanisation with loss of
prime agricultural lands.
Developing countries, unlike developed countries, are in the middle of the transition process,
when growth rates are highest. In the initial stages, development in the form of service centres
such as shops, cafeteria, etc. is seen on the roadside, which eventually become the hub of
economic activities leading to sprawl. This type of upsurge caused by a road network
between urban / semi-urban / rural centres is very much prevalent and persistent in most
places in India. Biggest challenge is to ensure adequate housing, sanitation and health, and
transportation services in a habitable urban environment in developing countries. Sprawl is
seen as one of the potential threats for such development and for better management of
resources in developing country. Government Intervention is often required to guide urban
development for achieving an orderly development of the different areas of the city so as to
improve the quality of the city and the standard of life of the people. The current practice of
efforts towards planned development, generally, involve spatial planning to ensure the best
land use, distribution of necessary urban infrastructure and services judiciously, proper
implementation of the plan and smooth management of urban functioning of the services. In
practice, all these matters are not achieved as they should have been. Consequently, the
situation of urban emerges. The area of urban sprawl is characterized by a situation where
urban development adversely interferes with urban environment which is neither an
acceptable urban situation nor suitable for an agricultural rural environment.
The need for managing urban sprawl also arises out of the global concerns of achieving
sustainable urbanisation. The study of this kind reveals the type, extent and nature of
sprawl taking place in a region and the drivers responsible for the growth. This would help
developers and town planners to project growth patterns and facilitate various
infrastructure facilities. In this direction, an attempt is made to identify the sprawl pattern
and the reasons for this growth outside defined boundaries which results in fringe
development. Therefore, the paper has tried to explore and understand the overall mechanism
or the phenomenon of Urban Sprawl through analyzing the various factors responsible for
the growth of the city. The paper is just an initiative towards understanding this complex
process that evolves with time and becomes all the more difficult to be understood and
comprehended.
1
Architect & Urban Planner, Lecturer in NIT, Calicut (August, 2013)

50

2.0
TYPES OF URBAN SPRAWL
There are three types of sprawl:

Low
density
Continuous
development which is generally
clustered in nature, ribbon
development along the major
corridors
and
leap
frog
development which is in the
form
of
patches.
These
developments, outside the city
limits on the outskirts bring about changes in the city as well are a result of various activities
taking place within the city. Land values change, development patterns are initially nonidentifiable, density of the city is affected, infrastructure load increases, there are socioeconomic changes, load on environment and conversion in land uses generally from
agriculture to non-agriculture use and many other implications.
3.0
IMPLICATIONS OF URBAN SPRAWL
Sprawls have been criticized for increasing public costs. Populations living in urban sprawls
commute to cities in their automobiles. This has resulted in heavier traffic on the roads
leading to traffic congestion, increase in air pollution and automobile related accidents.
Sprawls have triggered concerns over environmental issues. Houses in sprawls are larger than
those in urban centers. This is viewed by some, as waste of cultivable land and displacement
of wildlife. As large area of land is covered with impervious material, such as concrete, there
is lesser percolation of rainwater to reach the groundwater. These are believed to cause
disintegration of the social capital. Houses in the sprawls are big with large backyards that
tend to separate neighbors. Hence social interactions among neighbors are much less in these
regions than the cities
4.0
MANIFESTATION OF URBAN SPRAWL- FRINGE DEVELOPMENT
The urban fringe is a borderline area between the true urban and true rural landscape, lying on
the periphery of town and surrounding it. It consists of two zones; rural fringe and an urban
fringe with overlapping boundaries. These two are constantly changing in morphology,
culture, services, and occupational pattern change and while the urban fringe gradually
absorbed into the urban zone with the temporal expansion of the city, the rural areas are
constantly changing into the fringe belt with growth and expansion of transport and services.
As the fringe is a bridge between the rural area on the one side and urban centre on the other,
all the characteristics of urbanity and realism are medium in the fringe area. These
characteristics are travel time, urban habits, landvalues, public utility services, commuting
population, nonagricultural activities, population density, primary activities, built up area and
sex ratio, literacy and agricultural activities, etc. The characteristics may vary from town to
town on the basis of the physical and cultural status of the town.
Therefore: Fringes suggests a border which lies at the periphery of urban areas. There are
many definitions to Fringes- T.L. Smith said: fringe signifies the built up space just outside
the corporate limits of the city"
51

5.0
FACTORS OF SPRAWL
It is of interest to understand the driving forces behind urban sprawl, in particular because
these aspects have close relationship with each other contributing to dynamics of city. The
various factors are: Demographic, Economic, Social and Environmental, Governance related
and Spatial/Physical
Table 1: Factors responsible for Sprawl
ASPECT
DEMOGRAPHIC
FACTORS
POPULATION
1. Natural growth
2. Migration (employment, education, other)
PHYSICAL
REGIONAL SETTING
1. Flat topography /Unhindered topography
EVOLUTION
1. Change in Boundaries
2. Evolution of the city/history, growth pattern
LAND AND DENSITY
1. Shortage of land in the city limits
2. Dead/unused pockets of land
3. Higher land values near the city core
4. Higher rental values
5. Dense core of the city
HOUSING
1. Housing Shortage in the city
3. Defined smaller plot sizes/aging housing stock
TRANSPORT and INFRASRUCTURE
1. Better connectivity within, to outskirts
2. Better connectivity to other regions
3. Traffic Congestion in the city
ECONOMIC
1. Rising paying capacity of people/growing affluence

2. Lack of Affordable housing
3. Higher taxes in the city
3. High labour rates in the city
4. Load on single CBD of a city(mono to polycentres)
5. Liberalisation policy leading to investments
SOCIAL/ ENVIRONMENT
GOVERNANCE
52
1. Higher pollution level in the city

2. Lack of open spaces within a city
3. Reliance on private services and infrastructure
4. Other factors
1. FAR/FSI restriction in the city
2. Land transaction difficult in the city
3. Lack of proper land management in the city
4. Lack of vision by policy makers
5. Government interventions like MRTS/BRTS etc.

6.0
CASE STUDY ANALYSIS- LUCKNOW
The analysis concluded the factors

responsible for sprawl revealed that in India
the Tier 2 cities are attracting population,
large rate of rural to urban migration is seen,
the growth has seen its rise after the free
market economy in 1970s for most of the
cities, and the pattern of development is
radial/corridor. An interesting fact noticed
was that the growth in any city was backed
by a trigger like IT boom, industrial advent,
real estate boom etc. Also, as a result of
sprawl the average trip lengths are
continuously increasing for the cities.
6.1
City Introduction-Lucknow
Lucknow is the capital to Indias most

populous state Uttar Pradesh. Uttar Pradesh
houses 75 districts. Lucknow is the capital
city of Uttar Pradesh in India, also the
administrative headquarters of Lucknow
District and Lucknow Division. The Gomti
River, the chief geographical feature,
meanders through the city, dividing it into
the Trans-Gomti and Cis-Gomti regions.
While Lucknow city has an area of 310
sq.km in 2011, the Lucknow Agglomeration
consists of the Cantonment as well. The
Urban Agglomeration area is 340 sq.km.
The population of the city is 28.15 lakhs
(Census 2011) and 22.45 lakhs for the urban
agglomeration.
6.2
Figure 1: Land Use Lucknow 2021; Source: Lucknow Town and

Country planning Department,UP; LDA
Factors leading to Sprawl
The city structure is expanding its urban

fabric on the adjoining areas engulfing the
nearby villages and hence occupying the
agricultural lands in the subsequent process
of expansion. Lucknow is considered as a
magnet to all surrounding areas to gain the
benefits of living standards, medical
facilities, nominal cost of living, educational Figure 2: Boundaries of municipal area, planning area and urban
facilities and all other services (transport and growth; Source: Master Plan 2021, Lucknow Development
Authority, Google Earth 2013, Wikimapia 2013
electricity being the most important). This
led to rise in population and built up area.
53

6.3
Demographic factors:
The population of Lucknow City was 8.27 lakhs in 1971 and has risen to 28.15 lakhs in 2011
(Census of India, 1971, 2011). The great influx of population is a factor that poses a demand
for land and hence may be one of the reasons for sprawling city. In 2011, the density is 91
pph for the city. The population growth projected varies between 3.51 to 4.37 percent per year
over different 5-year periods until 2021, somewhat higher than for the average growth rate of
cities of similar size in the country and the state. Migration into Lucknow accounts for 37%
increase in population over the last decade i.e from 2001 to 2011 and 36% in 2001. The
Population growth rate of the planning area (39%) is more than the growth rate of the
UA/City (29%). Hence fringe is growing at a rapid rate. Migration of family is one another
important factor leading to population influx.
6.4
Spatial/Physical factors:
Change in Boundaries: The Municipal boundary of the city has been revised thrice engulfing
more and more villages. The various boundary changes decide the area to be designated as
sprawl. Hence, if the uncontrolled growth takes place outside the planning area boundary it is
sprawl for sure since no plan has been prepared for it for planned development. But if
uncontrolled growth takes place outside the jurisdiction of the services and piecemeal
development activities come in near the outskirts it is also referred as sprawl. (refer Figure 3
and 4)
Topography: There is no physical barrier that restricts growth of the city except some
reserved forests and flood plains.
Evolution: Lucknow has always been a multicultural city, and flourished as a cultural and
artistic capital of North India in the 18th & 19th centuries. The setting up of the various
institutions and important occasions in history has implications on the development of the
city.
Figure 3 & 4: Growth from 18th century till 1992 and till date
Source: Master plan 2001, 2021
54

Growth Pattern: The maximum growth in developed land is evident in 1981-91. There has
been a constant rise in the growth percentage but declined after 1991 considerably. The
growth pattern remained organic till 1981-91 and suddenly after 1991 the pattern drifts into a
ribbon development enjoying benefits of Transit Oriented development and accessibility.
(Refer Figure 3 and 4)
Transport and Linkages: The Inter District Linkages suggest that it is connected by 3 NHs
and 4 SHs. City is spread in 15km radius only. Trip length is 6 km for the city and maximum
up to 11 km. All villages in the fringe are approachable by paved roads as per Census 2001.
Sprawl likely to increase in the future due to increase in the spread of the city and hence
increasing traffic load on the city main.
Land Use: For planned development of the city, three Master Plans have been prepared for
the city. All the master plans suggest high percentage of residential land use showing the
demand for housing in the city. The third Master Plan 2021 was prepared in 2001, proposing
413.60 sq.km (68% of 608 sq.km planning area) of built up area.
Density: Overall density of the city is 91 pph in 2011 when pop is 28.15 lakhs (Delhi had
density of 90 pph in 1981). The density of the city is more towards the old areas with
minimum density towards the fringes. The peripheral wards in the city are rapidly changing to
higher density ranges. The city can be categorized as low density low rise development city.
(Refer figure 5 and 6)
Figure 3 & 6: Density (ward wise and village wise) in 2001

Source: Ward wise population, LMC; Village Directory, Census 2001; LDA
Housing: The demand of housing is rising due to increase in population and migration or
other market forces but the demand is being met as the shortage is declining every decade.
This indicates that lack of housing shortage in the city is not a grave reason for people to
move outskirts.
Land Value: For City- The residentail land value is highest in Central Lucknow and Year on
year appreciation ranged from 8-35% increase. For Fringe- The land prices are 1/15 times
55

that of the city. The House Price Index reveals that the HDI for Lucknow was 6th but position
of Lucknow upgraded to 4th in 2011-12 of the cities studied.
Infrastructure: The infrastructure provisions were pretty bad before JNNURM in 2006. After
the GoAP and Urban Renewal Mission the status of infrastructure has improved to a large
extent. Hence, the availability of good infrastructure provision is not the reason for people
moving to the periphery.
Therefore, the spatial factors combined with demographic features impose a demand in the
city. This demand translates in demand for land and its availability is on the fringes.
6.5
Economic factors:
Per Capita Income: Per capita income for 2010-2011 in Lucknow is Rs 39,432. There has
been a growth of 146% from the last decade in the per capita income. This suggests that
growing affluence of people helps them to invest in property and land buying.
Growth in CBD: In terms of CBD the most ancient and important is Chowk, Aminabad and
Hazratganj flourished during the Britishers in the core city. Later new civic centers like
Aliganj and Gomti Nagar developed as newer CBDs
Investment scenario: Pvt. Developers like OMAXE, ANSALS, SAHARA, DLF are investing
in the Integrated and High Tech township Scheme of the Master Plan 2021 proposals. Other
developments in the form of Government Schemes are coming up on the major transport
corridors.
Others: The work force participation has risen from 1981 and the economic base is dependent
on the tertiary sector of the city.
Therefore, economic factors have a great influence on purchasing capacity and hence
investments.
6.6
Social/Environmental factors:
Built to open ratio: The percentage of open space is less in the city as compared to the fringe.
Hence people move to the outskirts to live in a better atmosphere.
Pollution Levels: The pollution levels in the city are more than the desired standards
prescribed by NAAQS for Air Pollution and Noise Pollution Norms by MoEF. This indicates
that the city is highly polluted and in comparison with the fringes, these areas have adverse
impact on health.
Others: There are many such non-quantifiable factors that may also be the cause of people
indulging in buying land and housing in the outskirts like Status symbol, reliance on private
infrastructure and other services, futuristic approach and investment purpose, High HDI (Lko
ranks 4th in UP), Better Health care facility in Central UP, Electricity supply is better, Cost of
living is low.
Hence, social factors contribute to the thinking of people by and large and to escape all
problems people tend to move to the outskirts.
6.7
Governance factors:
The development of the fringes is handled predominantly by the private agencies for fulfilling
the infrastructure requirement. LDA and UPAVP are responsible for contributing to the
56

housing stock. The land development is through the Land Acquisition procedure by the
government. The Hi tech and Integrated Township Policy of 2003 and 2005 is a new step
towards involving private sector in the development process for the government to act as
facilitator and attracting the private developments in the growing cities of the State of UP.
The regional outlook towards managing the city is missing.
7.0
INFERENCES
With case specific Lucknow, some of the main triggering factors behind the fringe
development gaining pace were the administrative and political importance of the city
attracting people, Unhindered topography, transport corridors allowing ribbon development,
land use escalation within the city and lesser in the outskirts, available land in the outskirts at
cheap price and all other economic benefits relieving a family from tax payment and at the
same time enjoying all environmental benefits of fresh air and low density. However, these
factors are subject to vary with every city and each factor shall have a different impact as the
reason for outspread growth.
8.0
ISSUES
Some of the major issues that hinders the social wellbeing of the individual as a result of this
unplanned development and as a result of the unhealthy city fabric leading to this unplanned
growth are: lacking green spaces within the city, depleting water resources, rising pollution
levels, land value speculation, development on ecologically sensitive areas, lack of integrated
development, unoccupied but engaged plots in the periphery, insufficient infrastructure and
piecemeal construction, lack of 74th CAA, no Zonal Plans for detailed planning area
supervision, illegal colonizer development and Lack of an Integrated and Holistic Policy
Framework for fringe development. It will not be wrong to say, that all these issues can be
minimized to a larger extent or channelized in a suitable manner to reduce its impact and
reduce the chain effect ruining both the city and the outskirts.
9.0
PROPOSALS
Since, it is the triggering factors within the city that favours or allows considerable expansion
of the city; the recommendations are given at City level and fringe level both. If the city is self
sufficient to accommodate the people, they would restrain themselves from moving outwards.
At the city level, certain policies of developing the open spaces, managing the pollution level
and improving infrastructure, Extended master plan for the planning area and beyond and
having a holistic consolidated approach can be adopted so as to have an overall screened and
checked development.
At the fringe level, it shall be a mandate to check development over ecologically sensitive
areas, making Zonal Plans and its implementation, infrastructure provisions to be extended in
a planned manner beyond municipal limits, developing activity nodes in the fringes to prevent
scattered development, DPC and MPC to be framed to keep a check on transitional areas and
special financial assistance to be provided to develop the fringes and avoid city
problems/aggravate fringe conditions.
57

10.0 CONCLUSION
Hence, it can be said that sprawl is an urban development pattern. It depicts the development
continuum and a process rather than a static condition. It is a phenomenon that grows with
time and is evident with expansion of urban area. It is still unclear that it is an intentional,
necessary, inadvertent consequence of fragmented governance of growth. Parts of urban area
passes through sprawl stage eventually before thickening and diversifying so that they are no
longer called sprawl.
But always to think sprawl in a negative way will not be justice to the word. After all, it is yet
to be found whether the phenomenon is natural or triggered by certain other push and pull
factors. And it has yet to be proved whether these forces are leading to an uncontrolled
haphazard growth or towards an area of great potential in terms of economic centres or other
centres for that matter.
Further the question raises its standards by arising a next question that whether this sprawl is
for good or bad of the city? What are its effects on the city-its form, its structure, its function,
its fabric, its infrastructure, its governance and all other related social aspects as well?
As of now, it can only be said that sprawl and development of fringe is an essence, a
natural phenomenon which can only be channelized and not restricted.
REFERENCES
[1]
Randhawa, Pritpal et. al. (2009), On the Edge of Sustainability: Perspectives on
Peri-urban Dynamics, STEPS Working Paper 35, Brighton: STEPS Centre
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
Datta, R.N. (September,2009), Financing and Management of Infrastructurein

Peri-Urban Areas of Indian Cities, Institute of Town Planners, India Journal
Marchand, Claude and Charland, Janine (August, 1992), The Rural-Urban Fringe:
A Review of Patterns and development Costs, The Intergovernmntal Committee on
Urban and Regional research, ICURR Press, Toronto
Anderson, William D.,Development at the Urban Fringe and Beyond: Impacts on
Agriculture and Rural Land, Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of
Agriculture. Agricultural Economic Report No. 803.
Franz, Gerald et.al., Urban Sprawl, How useful is this concept?, Vienna
University of Economics and Business Administration, Vienna, Austria
Bhatta, B. (2010), Analysis of Urban Growth and Sprawl from Remote Sensing
Data, Advances in Geographic Information Science, Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg
Chadchan J, Shankar R., Analysis of urban growth trends in post-economic reform
period in India,
Dutta Dr. Venkatesh (2012), War on the dream-How land use dynamics and peri
urban growth characteristics of a sprawling city devour the Master plan and Urban
Suitability, University of Maryland, College Park, USA
Arbury, Joshua, From Urban Sprawl to Compact City An analysis of urban
growth management in Auckland
58

Huyen, Nguyen Thai (May,2007), The phenomenon of urban sprawl, understand

aiming to control it, International Conference on Sustainable Architectural Design
and Urban Planning Hanoi Architectural University, Vietnam
[11]
Goswami, Sushmita (May, 2007), Integrating Peri-urban area to a metropolis:
Surat, Unpublished Thesis, Dept. of Urban planning, School of Planning and
Architecture, Delhi
[12]
Hasan, Omair (May 2004), Development of fringe, Case Study- Bhopal,
Unpublished Thesis, Dept. of Urban planning, School of Planning and Architecture,
Delhi
[13]
Kapadia, Gagan Kumar (2005), Strategy for fringe Area Development, Case StudyIndore, Unpublished Thesis, Dept. of Urban planning, School of Planning and
Architecture, Delhi
[14]
Mahamuni, Anoop (May, 2011), Infrastructure Development in the Urban fringe of
Pune, Unpublished Thesis, Dept. of Urban planning, School of Planning and
Architecture, Delhi
[15]
Census of India, 1971, 1981, 1991, 2001, 2011
Government Documents
[16] Lucknow Development Authority, Lucknow Master Plan 1991, Government press,
Lucknow, India,
Lucknow India Government press, Lucknow
Lucknow India Government press, Lucknow
[19] Lucknow Development Authority, Lucknow Extended Master Plan 2021, Government
press, Lucknow India Government press, Lucknow
[10]
[20]
[21]
[22]
[23]
Lucknow development Authority, Building Bye Laws, 2008

Human Development Report (2003), Planning Department, Govt. of Uttar Pradesh
The Status of Human Development and Economic Well Being , Directorate of
Statistics,2009, Uttar Pradesh
City Development Plan, 2006: Lucknow
59

Land Management Systems in India: Some Issues

Basudatta Sarkar1, Dr. Haimanti Banerji2, Dr. Joy Sen3
1.0
OVERVIEW
In recent days with the increased population pressure, high pace of urbanization and ruralurban migration, the land resource management has become a critical issue in India. The
reason is the scarcity of urban land, which creates a strong demand for urban land
accompanied with improved social and physical infrastructure. Hence, there is a need to
develop urban lands for balanced and planned growth and urbanization in future. There are
several town planning schemes addressing the matter. Plot reconstitution, land ceiling, rent
control are some of them. But there also arise some issues and dissatisfaction of users at the
time of implementation of the schemes. Therefore, it is important to address the issues and
nullify them by providing good governance at local level. The present paper tries to outline an
overview of Indias existing land management systems, curve out the related issues and
finally establish the importance of good governance.
2.0
INTRODUCTION
By 2030, the population of India is expected to be increased from 1.2 billion to 1.6 billion.
Consequently, the urban population will also increase. The statistics show that, the rate of
urbanization increased from 28.53% to 31.16% in last ten years i.e. from 2001 to 2011.
Additionally, a survey by UN State of World Population Report (2007) enunciates that the
percentage of urban population will rise up to 40.76% of the total population in India in 2030.
The rapid urbanization requires a strong land resource management for future balanced and
planned growth. Hence, there is a need to develop urban land with improved social and
physical infrastructure which will suffice the requirements of rapid urbanization. To meet the
requirements, the only way is the land management and improved governance. As described
by Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations, land management is the appropriate
use
of
land
resources
to
meet
the
changing
human
need
(http://www.fao.org/nr/land/sustainable-land-management/en/). It also has been perceived as a
process of controlling, managing and planning for the land resource for better utilization and
transaction (Mahubane, 1998; Sisya, 1998). Among the varied dimensions of land
management, the developing nations like India mostly focus on the land-use driven and
participatory approaches. In India, different schemes of land management have already been
introduced. But, there arise several issues on economic development, land productivity, water
resources, environmental degradation, transport congestion etc. The present paper will discuss
the land management systems in India, emerging issues and role of Government in fulfilling
the future need in the subsequent sections of the paper.
Research scholar, Department of Architecture and Regional Planning, IIT Kharagpur. E-mail:
basudatta@arp.iitkgp.ernet.in
2
Assistant Professor, Department of Architecture and Regional Planning, IIT Kharagpur. E-mail:
haimanti@arp.iitkgp.ernet.in
3
Associate Professor, Department of Architecture and Regional Planning, IIT Kharagpur. E-mail:
joysen@arp.iitkgp.ernet.in
3.0
LAND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS IN INDIA
In India, the level of urbanization is rapidly increasing and it is faster than the other countries.
Some cities and states in India are also exhibiting exponential growth of urban population.
Therefore, to meet the increasing need of developed urban land and housing the sustainable
development and land management has become the greatest challenge in all over the India.
The requirements of a balanced and inclusive civic society as stated by UNCHS in Habitat
Agenda Key Commitments and Strategy (2001) are:
a. Shelter by means of equal accessibility to land resource, security of tenure, right to
sufficient housing, equal accessibility to credit schemes and access to basic services.
b. Economic development to strengthen women headed small and micro enterprises, promote
public private partnership and encourage different employment opportunities.
c. Social development for a healthy life, gender equality and social integration.
d. Environmental management for geographically sound settlement pattern, better water
resource management, reduction in urban population and environmentally efficient
transport system.
e. Efficient governance for decentralization and participatory and decision making
approaches.
Considering the basic requirements of civic society and high pace of urbanization, it has
become important to lead the urban growth towards better infrastructure and improved
economic activities. To facilitate the basic requirements, there are several schemes have been
introduced by Indian Government namely, land ceiling act, land pooling and readjustment and
rent control act.
Urban Land Ceiling Act (ULCRA) has been passed in 1976 and was initially adopted by
Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Orissa,
Punjab, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. After that it has been adopted by Assam,
Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya and Rajasthan. The act has been provided for
imposition of ceiling on vacant land, both ownership and possession in urban agglomerations.
Moreover, the act is applicable for acquisition of the excess vacant land by the state
government, with powers to dispose the vacant land for common good; payment of an amount
for the acquisition of the excess land; and granting exceptions in respect of certain specific
categories of vacant land. The legislation has imposed an upper limit of land holding for every
person including family, firm, company or individual. It is the legal measure to facilitate
equitable distribution of urban land. The repeal of ULCRA in 1999 has been considered as a
significant step by Government of India towards urban land reform.
The concept of land pooling and land readjustment was initiated by George Washington in
1791 and its first implementation as a legal framework was introduced in Frankfurt, Germany
in 1902. In India, it has been used in term of plot reconstitution and land readjustment. The
key concept of plot reconstitution is to reshape the lopsided urban land parcels into
geographically balanced suitable settlement pattern specifically for the suburbs where urban
sprawl is likely to be happening without following any planning regulation. The small and
irregular land parcels are merged together sold reserving a plot for the original owners. The
technique has the ability to become self financing and leads towards increase in land values
61

and allocation of plots for urban poor at a subsidized rate. As per a research by
Wickramaarachchi (2003), the identified features of plot reconstitution are:
a. Involvement of a public authority
b. Assembling of several plots of land
c. Subdivision of the assembles plots
d. Provision of services to the lots
e. Allocation of land for the original owners
f. Sale of the rest to cover the cost
In Gujrat, landholders get back 60% of their original landholding and the landowners pay
some betterment charges to for infrastructure development. The development authority keeps
the rest 40% for the betterment of road, infrastructure and sale. In Haryana also, Land pooling
and reconstitution has been adopted very recently. The chief Minister said that the scheme is
going to provide the farmer developed land against the acquired land and they also can
become partner of the whole process. According to the scheme, a land owner will get 1000
square yard residential and 100 square yard commercial plot for each one acre of land
acquired by Government. The chief Minister further added that the scheme is purely optional
for the farmers (The Financial Express, Nov 25, 2013).
The scarcity of developed urban land and affordable housing often compel the growing urban
population to opt for house on rent. Consequently, there arises a high chance of being
exploited by the landlords. To prevent the occurrence, Government of India has introduced
the Rent Control Act in 1918 immediately after the First World War in Mumbai. The basic
concept of the act is to impose a rent ceiling in a particular housing market below the
equilibrium rate to meet the excess housing need and shortage (Dey et al., 2006). The act has
been launched to fulfill two purposes. They are (Dey et al., 2006):
a. To protect the tenant from eviction from the house where he is living except for defined
reasons and on defined conditions
b. To protect tenant from having to pay more than a fair/standard rent.
4.0
EMERGING ISSUES
After all the efforts by Government still there are many gaps in the governance mechanism
which have bearing with several civic issues. The existing land management techniques are
not being able to meet the basic civic requirements. As per Ansari and Von Einsiedel (1998)the urban land management experts from UNCHS, the inefficiency in land management
systems is mainly due to:
a. Inappropriate, over delayed and inflexible planning regulations.
b. Fragmented implementation organization and lack of cooperation among Government
agencies
c. Weak cadastral, registration, land information system and tenure records
The inefficient land market characterized by fragmented, uncontrolled and non transparent
nature, act as the catalyst for the land speculation. Increasing price of land beyond the
62

productive value leads towards the uneven distribution of land resource and urban poor suffer
most in the consequence. Central assistance in monitory terms has been unequal and
inadequate due to the budgetary allocation. The land ceiling act has been implemented to
ensure equitable distribution of land and to diminish the power of some people and developers
who are trying to artificially control the price of land. But over the years Government could
hardly recover land from the developers for urban development and public housing. As an
example, in the case of Mumbai, the land ceiling act has been given up in 2008. Till now state
urban development department asks developers to return the lands they possess to
Government for public housing. But the developers often deny the proposal of returning land
and providing low cost housing for urban poor. Even sometimes they are selling housing
illegally in a high price (Times of India, July 17, 2012). Again, the land ceiling act has been
led to a lack of controlled green areas within the cities. Following the legislative regulations
of the act, resale and redistribution of land has become a time taking procedure with a chance
of moving the land out of market. In case of rent control act also, it prevents the development
of rental housing due to the rent ceiling below the equilibrium rate. Lack of renovation leads
to the dilapidated conditions of housing shrinking the existing housing stock and increasing
the demand for urban land. Over protection of tenants also hold back the development of
urban sprawl. So, it has been observed that there are loopholes within the system and
governance mechanism for which several issues on basic public requirements and satisfaction
are coming up. The best possible solution and governance mechanism have been illustrated in
the next section of the paper.
5.0
POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS AND GOVERNANCE MECHANISM
As illustrated in section 3, the best possible solution to manage the urban sprawl by the land
management system, the loopholes should be eliminated. At this point the best possible
solutions merge with the good governance mechanism because unless the local governments
provide a satisfactory level of governance, the loopholes will remain leading to the
uncontrolled urban sprawl and settlement pattern. The pre requisites for a sustainable urban
growth are (http://www.unescap.org/HUSET/land_policies/index.htm#_1_4):
a. Elimination of market imbalance and increase land market efficiency
b. Removing externalities for a close relationship of social and private cost for land market.
c. Equitable and redistribution of the scare resources of societies to facilitate the access of
urban poor.
In the present paper a few befitting solutions and governance mechanism have been discussed
mostly following the guidelines of United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia
and the Pacific. These are as follows:
a. Creation of regulated land market
The regulated land market can be characterized by its efficiency in terms of quick
development and transaction of land, equitability in terms of reasonable access to all income
groups, environmental soundness in terms of sustainable use of land and compatibility. The
regulated land market will not only facilitate the easy and rapid availability of developed
urban land but also protect the environment and improve the quality of life of urban residents.
b. Land registration system
63

Improved land registration system provides high security regarding the ownership and tenure
right as well as reduces the amount of dispute in urban land. It offers a much efficient land
transfer in terms of low expenditure, no delay for permits and high security. In the system,
land title can be used as the collateral for loan. So, it also provides security of credit. The land
registration system facilitates public control and participation over regulated land market,
support for the land taxation system, improved landuse and management and land information
system.
c. Planning tools
Over the years master plan has been considered as the most appropriate planning tool to deal
with urban growth. But master plan has not been able to address the issues regarding
economic demand for space and alteration in demand for land by households and commercial
sectors as price changes. The more appropriate for the management of urban sprawl and
growing urban population is the structure plan. It addresses and prioritizes the issues
regarding infrastructure and provides a broad framework decision making approaches and
public private partnership. Another important planning tool is zoning regulations which
control the density and protect the environment. Apart from that, land subdivision regulations,
and building regulations are inevitable for the micro level planning ensuring the inclusion of
socially acceptable standards. Here are some examples of how town planning tools help to
create developed urban land for future urban growth. In Maharashtra and Gujrat, different
town planning schemes have been initiated based on land pooling and reconstitution system.
The construction of roads and basic infrastructure has begun very quickly which helped to
attain landowners support. Some other examples have been shown in a report by JNNURM as
the impact of repeal of land ceiling act as a planning tool. The impact of the repeal is as
follows
(http://jnnurm.nic.in/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/Mandatory_Primer_5RepealULCRA.pdf):
a. Karnataka and Gujarat constituted Screening Committees and Auction Committees for
the removal of surplus free land.
b. Punjab and Madhya Pradesh freed all surplus free land acquired and vested with the state
government.
c. In Punjab, all the vacant lands, which were kept in hold under the land ceiling act, but were
not under possession of the state government, was freed.
d. In Madhya Pradesh, Indore, Jabalpur and Ujjain freed 4,350.33 ha., 279.86 ha. and 43.91
ha., respectively, of surplus vacant land after the repeal.
6.0
CONCLUSIONS
From the complete discussion it has been observed that the land management system in India,
has been addressing a number of civic issues in spite of the implementation of several
Government schemes. This is the verge where all the proposals and polices end and the role of
Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) start. The possible solutions and schemes can only be perfectly
implemented if the ULBs provide good governance. Hence, the responsibilities of the ULBs
are to be liable with the society, to develop urban areas with the best service possible and
finally, to increase their capacity so that they can undertake the responsibility for future
growth, resource raising and poverty alleviation.
64

REFERENCES
[1]
Ansari J. H., N. von Einsiedel (1998): Improving Urban Land Management in Asias
Developing Countries - an Overview. In: Urban Land Management. Improving
Policies and Practices in Developing Countries of Asia.
[2]
Business Knowledge Resource Online. Urban Land Ceiling Act 1976. Viewed on 13
November 2013. (http://business.gov.in/land/index.php)
[3]
Deininger K., Selod H., Burns A., 2012. The Land Governance Assessment
Framework. World Bank.
[4]
Dey P.D., Dev S., 2006. Rent Control Laws in India-A Critical Analysis. Working
paper 06-04. National Institute of Urban Affairs.
[5]
Economic Times, July 19, 2010. Land Pooling and Reconstitution.
[6]
Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations. Sustainable Land Management.

Viewed on 14 November 19, 2013. (http://www.fao.org/nr/land/sustainable-landmanagement/en/)
[7]
Hindusthan Times, June 27, 2007. Urbanization in India Faster Than Rest of the
World.
[8]
http://jnnurm.nic.in/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/Mandatory_Primer_5RepealULCRA.pdf viewed on 20 November 2013.
[9]
Mahubane, M.P., 1998: New Land Use Management: as an appropriate mechanism

to achieve integrated and coordinated development for Gauteng, Unpublished
Research Report, MSc Development Planning, Faculty of Architecture, University of
the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg.
[10]
Planning commission. 10th five year Plan 2002-2007.
[11]
Rubin M., 2008. Land Management and Democratic Governance in the City of
Johannesburg. Synthesis Report. Centre for Urban and Built Environment Studies.
[12]
Sandhu K., 2004. Exploring the Potential of Land Pooling and Readjustment
Techniques for Housing the Poor. ITPI Journal.
[13]
Sisya, F., 1998: The Role of Planning Law in Land Use Management Systems,
Unpublished Discourse, BSc Town and Regional Planning, Faculty of Architecture,
University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg.
[14]
The Financial Express, November 25, 2013. Haryana introduces 'land pooling'
scheme.
Viewed
on
November
25,
2013.
(http://www.financialexpress.com/news/haryana-introduces-land-poolingscheme/977182)
[15]
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. Urban
Land Policies for the Uninitiated. Viewed on 14 November 2013.
(http://www.unescap.org/HUSET/land_policies/index.htm#_1_4)
[16]
United Nations, 2007. State of the World Population Report.
[17]
Wickramaarachchi N., 2003. Land Readjustment as a Land Management Technique

for Urban Areas. 9th International conference on Sri Lanka Studies.
65

APPLICATION OF LAND MANAGEMENT MODELS

Rahul Kumar Bysack 1 and Dr. Madhumita Roy 2
1.0
OVERVIEW
This paper showcases for application of Land Management Models at different contexts.
From the study and research and from different international experience of Land Management
Models, paper summaries application of different Land Management Models at global
context. The Inferences as obtained from the Land Management Models applied in India is
also tabulated. Further it is also briefly described the basic principle and mechanism. Finally
at the end it concludes with some observations and also proposes a guideline for application
of Land Management Models in Indian context.
2.0
INTRODUCTION
Land Management is an urban development technique used for the production of appropriate
urban public spaces and infrastructure required by urbanization. In this process it is possible
to assemble, reallocate and control conversion of land from rural to urban use in urban-fringe
areas according to Town Planning requirements. However, it can also be applied to developed
urban areas for the aim of urban renewal in various circumstances. According to the situation,
the motivation of land management & readjustment may either come from local authorities or
landowners living in the related area. Therefore, an organization, which could be
municipalities, governances, private associations of landowners, private agencies and etc,
takes the responsibility of the project according to the regulations & laws of the country.
Thinking of its important role in the evolution of urban form and built-environment, land
management & readjustment process is important for a better urban life and controlling urban
sprawl.
There are different land management tools & models suitable for application at different
contexts. Guided Urban Development, Land Pooling/Land Readjustment, Plot Reconstitution,
Town Planning Scheme, Land Sharing etc. are the examples of land management tools and
applied at the different contexts of the country. However, every country uses different models
with respect to their own structures and need.
3.0
APPLICATION IN GLOBAL CONTEXT
The application, management and implementation may also be carried out in different types
such as; urban re-plotting in which the readjustment implementation may be based on a
detailed local plan prior to the procedure; joint land development in which the readjustment
plan may be prepared in connection with the detailed local plan; or urban land pooling in
which the procedure is organized and implemented with the related land use plans by
landowners in a single process.
With the interpretation of the procedures of different countries, the German procedure can be
classified as urban land re-plotting. Swedish procedure as joint land development and French
Architect-Planner, student of PhD, Dept . of Architecture, J.U, Kolkata- rahulbysack@yahoo.com

Head, Dept of Architecture, J.U., Kolkata
procedure as urban land pooling. In this respect, due to the similarities between the laws of
German and Turkish planning systems, land readjustment process in Turkey may be identified
as urban re-plotting. The global application of land management models are tabulated below:
Global Application of Land Management
Source: compilation from Urban Planning and Land Readjustment Project in Japan, Hideki Satou/Minoru Matsui, JICA
Region
Country
Legal origins
Period
Models/
Technique(Term)
applied
Asia
Japan
Agricultural Land consolidation

Land Readjustment Act
1899
1954
Kukakuseiri
Indonesia
Basic Agrarian Law No.5

Spatial Use Management Law
Law on Housing and Settlement
1960
1992
Land consolidation
North
Korea
Five lines of nature remodeling

Nature remarking policy
Agricultural Law
1976
Land Reallingment
South
Korea
City Planning Act

Residential
Land
Promotion Act
1934
1980
Land Readjustment
Development
Taiwan
Indirectly in the Republics constitution

Agrarian Land Consolidation Program
1949
1958
Land Consolidation
Thailand
Land Readjustment Act
2005
Land Readjustment
Nepal
Land Acquisition Act

Town Development Act
1976
1988
Land Plotting
Bhutan
Land Act
Land Pooling Rules
2007
Land Pooling
Mongolia
Urban Redevelopment
development)
2008
Land Readjustment
Turkey
Municipal Expropriation Law

Building Amnesty Law
Reconstruction Law
1934
1983
1985
Land Readjustment
South
America
Colombia
Urban Reform Law,

Territorial Development Law
1989
1997
Readjuste de Tierras
Europe
and
others
Germany
Land Consolidation Act (LCA)

Bau GB
Law on Adjustment of Agriculture
1902
1986
1990
Baulandumlegung
Spain
Land Use Law
1956
Reparcelacion
Canada
Local Government Act (chapter 323)
1983
Replotting Schemes
Australia
Western Australian Town Planning and

Development Act
1984
Land pooling
Law
(under
Team and The Role of Land Readjustment in Japan and its possibilities of application in Colombia Alba, Carolina BLANCO
CH.
67

In the context of Europe, in Sweden, the conversion of extensively utilized building land to a
more intensive form of settlement was necessary in many places. However, this alteration had
to be realized without expensive acquisition of land. At the same time, involvement of the
landowners in the conversion process was demanded. Joint development by means of land
readjustment was adopted as the appropriate instrument to meet these demands. Other
countries in Europe like in Finland the procedure may be allowed. After the approval of the
plan, cadastral surveyors determine if the legal provisions for the procedure are proper and
then define the readjustment area.
The procedure also known as land consolidation or land pooling in some places. Land
readjustment has become an important tool for urban development and land management in
Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, West Germany and the state of Western Australia.
Land Management in Japan
Akihabara LR Project , Japan :

Project Area: 8.8 ha , Implementation Body: Tokyo Metropolitan Government , Land Use Plan:
Commercial and Business, Project Cost: 400 million USD , Land Contribution Ratio: 35%
Hirate Nanbu LR Project in Nagoya

City,Japan :
Project Area: 66 ha ,
Implementation Body: LR cooperative , Land Use Plan: Residential area , Project Cost: 140 million
USD , Land Contribution Ratio: 37%
Source: Urban Planning and Land Readjustment Project in Japan, Hideki Satou/Minoru Matsui, JICA Team
68

In developing countries of Asia, some of the main development problems are land problems
due to the rapid pace of urbanization. It is noticed that, especially in Asian cities, these major
land problems are congestion and conflicting land uses, slum and squatter housing
settlements, urban sprawl and inadequate infrastructure, and land shortage and high land
prices. In order to solve these problems, pilot trials with land readjustment procedures have
started in Southern Asia, especially in Taiwan, Thailand, Nepal and Indonesia. In these
countries, land readjustment coordinates exploitation of different properties, and gives better
opportunities for preservation of green places and for a better urban environment. It also
increases the possibilities of letting the developers pay for the local infrastructure which is a
very important matter in developing countries with limited public resources.
Land Pooling Project : Kaohsiung City, Taiwan
Pattern of separate
landholdings before pooling
Pattern after pooling - including

new street layout and facilities
Source: Sadk Ylmaz KONURSAY, Land Readjustment Process in Urban Design: Project Management
Approach
4.0
Application in Indian context:
In India land readjustment technique is also most suitable for land management, which
resemblance to the many other countries. It was introduced in 1915 under Bombay Town
Planning Act. This procedure is an integral part of the detailed planning process. After
planning area has been stated clearly, the landowners within the area are invited to some
consultations for their opinions. As a result of these meetings, a draft plan which has to be
sanctioned by a superior authority is prepared. Pooling then takes place. Following the
approval of preliminary plan, the state government may appoint an agent to conclude the
planning work. This agent is also responsible for deciding a time limit for the completion of
the infrastructure work by the local authority. In the next step, both the draft and the final
planning proposals are put on display. During the display the parties affected from the project
can submit their proposals and objections. The final plan includes a detailed layout of the
proposed readjustment and valuations of the lots before and after the process. After the plan
has been sanctioned by the government, the new lots are given back to the previous owners.
Besides this, there are other models and applied in various places in India. Different land
management models as applied in India are shown in the table below:
69

Land Management Models in India

Sl
No.
Land
Management
Models
Model Characteristics
Models/
Technique
applied
(an example)
Guided
Urban
Development
Haryana
Joint
development
Model
Model applied where Planned Development is needed in fringe with

Urban Potential. Private Sector are able to take responsibility for
assembling land, preparing the layout and developing the onsite
infrastructure according to the guidelines
Haryana Development and Regulation of Urban Areas (HDRUA)1975,
certain planned areas are specially designated to allow private developers to assemble the land. The act provides for licensing of private
developers to assemble land directly from land owners, and develop this
land for residential purposes according to stipulations
Chennai
Gurgaon
UP Development
Authority Model
The characteristics of this model in the Indian context is that it is a

example whereby a public body enters into licensing agreement to allot
land to private developer for the Joint development for shelter solutions.
West
Bengal
Model (New Town
Rajarhat)
The land for the entire project area had been in private possession and
procured for construction of the New Town. The Land assembly of such
a vast area of land for urban development close to the city was done by
Public Sector.
New Town,
Kolkata
Land Pooling/Land
Readjustment
Small rural land parcels convert into a large land parcel/assembly. Small
land parcel after assembly provide it with infrastructure in a planned
manner and return the reconstituted land to the owners, after deducting
the cost of the provision of infrastructure and public spaces by the sale
of some of serviced land. Where the land owner give support for their
benefit in the project
Delhi
Plot Reconstitution
Town Planning
Scheme
Accommodation
Reservation (AR)
Transfer of Dev.
Rights (TDR)
10
Magarpatta model
11
Land Sharing
70
It is comprehensive area planning technique patterned on concept of

land readjustment. In preliminary phase, replanning of designated area
occurs and in final phase, there is valuation of owner's contribution. The
TP Scheme is being followed as an alternative method to assemble land
in a faster and financially affordable manner without taking recourse to
compulsory acquisition of land.
Development Plan designating land for facilities. Conventional
examination of development Proposal against rigid Development
Control Rules.
Lucknow
(recently
DDA
approved)
Gujrat
Mumbai
Obtaining Individual Plots of Land with Public Facilities

Model based on Farmers Direct Investment. These farmers joined
together to form the Magarpatta Township Development and
Construction Company Limited (MTDCCL) and developed the city,
thereby realizing their dream of converting their land into a value-added
finished product that gave them benefits and returns in perpetuity.
This technique is used in already developed areas or lands which have
been encroached. The principle behind this has been that the land is
shared equitably between the land owner and the tenants
Pune
Hydrabad

5.0
Mechanism
The basic mechanism in most of the models are same, even though these models show some
differences during the process, all of them serve for the same aim of encountering the needs of
urbanization as soon as possible. Small rural land parcels available are converted into a large
land parcel/assembly. Such small land parcel after assembly provide it with infrastructure in a
planned manner and return the reconstituted land to the owners, after deducting the cost of the
provision of infrastructure and public spaces by the sale of some of serviced land.
Basic Principle
The process could be either on voluntary basis or on legislation basis for landowners, the
procedures could be carried out by local authorities, private associations, agencies or other
actors, and the distribution of new plots to landowners could be realized by using either area
or value method.
Conceptual Diagram of Mechanism
Source: Compilation from JICA 2007
71

The reallocation has to be a fair implementation for the provision of social equity. If the
reallocation is conducted with respect to the area method, the value of all the land within the
adjustment area is accepted to be equal in this system. However, both before and after the
process, the value of the land is not equal within the whole area due to varying conditions
such as; access to street, topography, location in the block and so on. Therefore, for a fairer
implementation among landowners the selection of land distribution method is very
important.
6.0
Suggested Methodology
The project may be initiated by public agency or by private association of land owners.
Enabling legislation should support the policy for association of land owners in land
management and development. Thereafter the area to be delineated for application. Survey to
be conducted at detail including physical infrastructure. Simultaneously meetings with the
land owners is essential.
Thereafter the required public use land is needed to be identified for that delimitated area. The
quantum of public use land to be derived from the planning standards and as optimally
required. The case studies may be followed in this case. The important part of calculation to
be done properly.
In a general , the calculation process of land readjustment based on three steps . These steps
are following;
(1) All land parcels are put together to form a whole. This happens in a mathematical way
and does not appear in the land register.
(2) The public user areas such as roads, green bands, schools, hospitals are subtracted
from this whole.
(3) The rest of the project area is subdivided into building land and redistributed to the
original landowners.
In order to follow these steps, the project area is determined on the base map by drawing a
precise project boundary. According to this boundary, all land parcels within the project area
are determined by the registered legal parcel size. At the same time, basic property
information such as parcel ID, location, registration number, owner names, addresses, and
other interests are also extracted for further use.
Regarding the project boundary, if a land parcel is entirely involved in the project, the parcel's
registered size is taken as an input area. Sometimes, a land parcel can be divided into two or
more lots by the project boundary. In this case, only the area which is inside the project
boundary is taken as an input area.
Thereafter the proposal is prepared for approval of each land owners and also Statutory body
as per requirement. Upon obtaining approval, final plan with reconstituted plot along with
infrastructure is prepared and consequently it should be implemented with the govt. support as
possible. The cost recovered new surplus land should meet the project cost including all other
expenses.
72

Diagram for Proposed Methodology

Project
Initiation
Survey of the
delineated
area
Delineation of
Area
Meetings and
consent of
land owners
Calculation of
Public use land
Total Market
value
estimation
Plan
preparation
Approval of land
owners and
statutory body
Financial
viability
analysis
Calculation by
experts/Valuers
Re-plottingPlanning with
infrastructure
Implementation
Distribution to new
plots with
infrastructure
Application of Land Management Model
7.0
Viability Analysis
Research reveals that for distribution of new plots, in reality, the determination of an exact
value for a land plot is very difficult but an estimation of value can be conceivable in many
ways. Due to the difficulty of collecting real-market value data, numerical parameters are
intended to be calculated and used for each land plot rather than using the real-market value.
To determine these parameters, each geographical unit of a land plot is analyzed with the
selected land valuation factors. A land plot value can then determined nominally which
represents all factors affecting the land plot as compared to others.
In order to find the value, the plot asset values are estimated in both before and after the
project via determining and then using the land valuation factors. In the estimation process,
first, the selected factor values are calculated. For the calculation of a factor value, it assumes
73

that each factor can be evaluated out of 100%. Based on this idea, each land valuation factor
has been defined by a specific equation. In this equation, variable V represents the total
value for a land plot while variable f represents the individual selected n factor's value; and
variable w represents the factor's weight. Land plot values are then determined by the
combination of mathematical expression:
k
V i = AREA i * (f ji * w j) [1]
j=1
V: Total nominal asset value of a parcel
k: Total number of factors
Area: Land parcel size
n: Total number of old parcels
f: Factor value
m: Total number of new produced parcels
w: Factor weight
There are two main distinction stages that must be realized while performing the land
valuation analysis in a land readjustment process. These stages are; firstly, pre-project stage
(before) which represents the current cadastral land parcels. These parcels are considered as
the original input plots of a LR project. In this stage, all land plots are evaluated and classified
by their existing suitability without referring to the urban land scheme; and secondly, postproject stage (after) which represents the new site plots. These plots are created according to
the detailed zoning schemes which are basically provide the planned roads, streets, residential
areas and other public and private places. In this stage, all given site blocks are carefully
subdivided into suitable plots. The created new plots are then considered as the output plots
and evaluated with respect to the planning details as if these plots were fully developed
The land valuation analysis is carried out differently in both these stages. According to the
suitable land valuation factors, the plot values are calculated by equation [1]. Then, the total
asset value of the project area is determined in both stages by following equations;
V before = V 1 +V 2 +......+ V n [2]
V after = V 1 +V 2 +......+ V m [3]
The main purpose in a value-based land readjustment is to provide the equation [4].
n
m
V (Before) i = V (After) i
i=1
i=1
[4]
Therefore [ V (After) - V (Before) ] should meet the project cost including all other
expenses and thus the project would be viable.
8.0
Conclusion
In land management process all public services should be installed and the cost of the
operation should be realized from the increased land value as a result of the new
infrastructure.
74

Therefore, according to Land Management process, there could be Land Pooling, Land
Redistribution, Town Planning Scheme etc. but basic concept should be that each landowner
must participate in management process and contribute a portion of their previous land
holding to provide space for roads, parks and other public space and for reserve land. It is
essentially a social-cum-technical skill balancing public interest and private interest in order
to meet the needs of urbanization and controlling urban sprawl.
This concept of land management is primarily based on the increasing of public-use land
while the size of private land is decreasing. As a result of this, the size of private lands are
reduced and become smaller but their economic values increase due to the extra
developments. In this process, scattered and irregular plots are brought together, roads and
main infrastructure are determined, the land is then subdivided and reallocated as regular
development plots.
Therefore as an urban land management tool, it easily provides the land in a reorganized way
for public and private needs. Thus a city will be able to reorganize its urban development and
growth controlling urban sprawl.
References:
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
Andre Sorensen, Lecturer, University of Tokyo Major Issues of Land Management

for Sustainable Urban Regions in Japan
Sadk Ylmaz KONURSAY ,zmir Institute of Technology, zmir, Turkey(January,
2004) Land Readjustment Process in Urban Design:Project Management
Approach
Frank Schnidman ,paper on LAND READJUSTMENT
Alba Carolina BLANCO CH., The Role of Land Readjustment in Japan and
itspossibilities of application in Colombia
Hideki Satou/Minoru Matsui JICA Team, Urban Planning and Land Readjustment
Project in Japan
Tahsin Yomralioglu , A Nominal Asset Value-Based Approach For Land
Readjustment And Its Implementation Using GIS(Chapter 2 : Land Readjustment)
Stig Enemark , The Emerging Land Management Paradigm- A Major Challenge
for to Global Surveying Community , RICS, LONDON 8 DECEMBER 2005
Gangadhar Rao Dattatri , URBAN LAND MANAGEMENT IN INDIA:SOME
CRITICAL ISSUES ,October 1994
Gaur Surender Kumar, Land Management System for Delhi, Unpublished Thesis,
SPA 2007
Malhotra Abhishek, Land Management for Jaipur Metropolis, Unpublished thesis,
SPA 2006
75

Economy at the Fringe: Kolkata Metropolitan Area

Dr. Mahalaya Chatterjee1
The rural-urban fringe is the borderland cities and towns with their rural counterparts.
Though the term rural comes first in the terminology, the urban gets the priority in all sorts
of discussions. It is the urban area which expands and engulfs its rural counterpart in terms
of built-up environment, changes in occupation and livelihood and lifestyle. The changes
can be observed but difficult to take up as a research agenda.
The Kolkata Metropolitan Area stretches over five districts around it the two 24 Parganas,
Howrah, Hooghly and Nadia. By virtue of colonial urbanisation, riverside areas of the all
these districts were dotted with jute-towns in the last parts of 19th century. Other ancillary and
complementary industries followed and the Calcutta Industrial region was born. The smaller
factories expanded to the inner parts of the districts and intermediate villages were
transformed into non-municipal or census towns, in course of time. The area faced rapid
urbanisation in the post-partition period because of refugee influx and their eventual
involvement with the tertiary sector.
With improved transportation (with electrified suburban trains and direct bus-routes to
Kolkata), the rate of tartarisation increased over time. Traditionally, in every Census till 2011,
the largest number of new towns emerged in this area. It lost that position in 2011, but 24
Parganas (S) can boast of more than 100 new towns just outside the metropolitan border.
The effect of urbanisation on the economy can be analysed by looking in the changes of
occupation, changes in land-use and changes in the number of factories and other
establishments. For the first variable, data can be obtained from Primary Census Abstract up
to the settlement level, whereas for the other two, we have to work on the district level data.
This paper would like to highlight on the changes in the urban fringes within the metropolitan
area on the basis of available secondary data.
Director, Centre for Urban Economic Studies
76

Strategies for Controlling Sprawl in Urban fringes in the context

of Kolkata and West Bengal
Sourav Sen1 and Dr. Souvanic Roy2
1.0
INTRODUCTION
It is fairly logical that cities would continue to be the generators of employment opportunities
and economic development of the regions, and that people would flock within and around the
cities. It is also expected that built up areas will increase to accommodate growing population
and activities to sustain them. Expansions of built up areas should not necessarily result in
destruction of open spaces, but if planned carefully this expansion may be integrated with
preservation and creation of new open spaces.
Urban sprawl is not merely the urban expansion into rural hinterland. Sprawl is more
regarding the aggressiveness towards the all open areas for accommodating urban functions
considering only the rising land price compared to its economic return left un-built. It would
make the quality of life hugely compromised without healthful open spaces or food grain
producing areas and unsustainable because city managers would find it extremely difficult
and cost prohibitive to extend basic urban services in these areas. The people are compelled to
build in low priced lands un-serviced lands in adjacent urban fringe areas. These urban fringes
are the transitional areas (alternatively peri-urban area) in between urban and rural areas with
very little or no planning regulatory mechanism.
Thus planners have a role to regulate urban sprawl to ensure sustainable development in the
urban fringe.
1.1
Stages of urban sprawl
Compactness and Dispersed are the two scales of defining degree of sprawl. Compact
scale describe sprawl as a contiguous expansion of existing development from central core
e.g. compact sub-urban growth. Dispersed scale explains sprawl as scattered and multicentred development [1] which may be found along a transport corridor in different nodes.
Every time sprawl starts dispersed, creating fragmented open spaces (large or small) between
the built spaces. Gradually these internal open spaces get encroached and infill takes place.
The built form gets compact. Thus sprawled condition in a certain place is both dispersed and
compact and variable in time scale.
2.0
URBAN SPRAWL WITHIN KOLKATA METROPOLITAN AREA
Kolkata city, under the jurisdiction of the Kolkata Municipal Corporation (KMC), has an area
of 185 sq.km and compromises of 141 wards. The area is spread linearly along the banks of
the River Hooghly in a northsouth direction. The city has the western limits as River
Hooghly and stretches up to roughly the Eastern Metropolitan Bypass in the east. The city
limit has changed a number of times during last three centuries. The latest jurisdictional
change in the citys limit was made in 1980, when three adjoining municipalities Jadavpur,
South Suburban, and Garden Reach were brought within the KMC.
1
Assistant Planner, Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority

Professor, Department of Architecture, Town and Regional Planning, Bengal Engineering and Science
University
2
77

Older Kolkata:
Before 1980; ward 1-100
New extension:
After 1980; ward 101-141
River Hooghly
E.M.Bypass
Kolkata forms the nucleus of the Kolkata Metropolitan Area. The periphery of Kolkata
Metropolitan area (KMA) has been expanding for the last three decades. In 1991, the area that
was 1350sqkm accommodating 12.5 million populations, most recently in 2007, that area has
been increased to 1886.67sqkm and population exceeding 15.5million. Apart from Kolkata
city, KMA consists of 2 other municipal corporations, 39 municipalities and 25 panchayat
samities having non-municipal urban areas and rural areas.
Barasat
Madhyamgram
Kolkata
&
Howrah
Garia - Sonarpur
Baruipur
3.0
Taubenbock et. al (2008) [2] have described that Kolkata

had experienced a ring shaped growth with high level of
dispersion. Angel et. al (2011) [3] explained Kolkata
sprawl is having high built up area density (signifying
compactness) as well as high city footprint ratio1
(signifying fragmentation). Bardhan et. al (2011) [4]
discussed that this compactness and crowding is associated
with low quality of life. And this fragmentation is
associated with large percentage of open spaces engulfed
into the urban area, either captured or just urbanized.
Analysing the urban growth of Kolkata and Howrah city,
B. Bhatta (2010) [5] have observed that the sprawling
tendencies of Kolkata is increasing. This increase is
towards N, NE, E, SE, S directions, with the maximum in
northeast direction.
CAUSES OF URBAN SPRAWL
UNFPA (2007) [6] report has indicated that cities those are weak in terms of financial
resources and institutional capacity in developing countries fail to manage urban expansion in
the desired manner through controlling land speculations, real estate development and
extending demanding urban services in new growth areas.
1
The City Footprint Ratio is defined as the ratio of the city footprint and the built-up area of the city. The City
Footprint is defined as the area including the citys built-up area, its fringe open space pixels and the open
spaces entirely surrounded and thus captured by both types of pixels. A Fringe Open Space pixel was thus
defined as an open space pixel that is less than 100 meters away from an Urban or Suburban built-up pixel.
78

Due to urbanization and evolving socio-economic structure in the urban fringes the
expansion of families, disintegration of families and sale of plots become significant for
the subdivision and future development on the land. Land parcels tend to become smaller due
to multiple subdivision of plots or properties. Utility of smaller land gets decreased in terms
of productivity, easiness for cultivation or net buildable space. These plots have affinities to
be sold and threatened by land speculation and unplanned development.
In the context of Kolkata city and KMA the following tendencies are observed leading
towards inefficiency of planning interventions in urban fringes.
A. Uncontrolled land speculation and real estate mechanisms
Land speculators and real estate interests always overwhelm the Government interventions in
new growth areas.
It has been assessed by government bodies that part of the north eastern KMA along with the
contiguous areas situated between Barasat and Barrackpore of Amdanga Police Station and
that between Salt Lake and Barasat through Madhyamgram, has tremendous potential to be
developed very rapidly well before 2001. It was observed from Census 2001 that Barasat
Municipality have registered 2nd highest population growth rate after Dum Dum Municipality
followed by Khardaha, Madhyamgram and Rajarhat Gopalpur municipality proving
expansion of the metropolitan area outwards in North East direction. Perspective Plan of
KMA (Vision 2025) assessed the requirement of 90000 houses per year and importance of
joint venture projects to address such huge housing demand until 2025.
Five year Development Plans (DDPs) for
the municipal towns within KMA is
prepared in 2007 following the
prescriptions of Vision 2025. Before
taking appropriate measures on the basis
of DDPs and Master Plans associated
with Vision 2025 the housing demand
increased the demand and value of land
within the core city and the outskirts of
Kolkata. A survey report by the real
estate companies (N K Realtors) in 2010,
indicated that land value have been
significantly enhanced in Madhyamgram,
Jessore Road, B.T.Road in north eastern
fringes and Narendrapur Baruipur area in southern fringes of Kolkata city within 2007 to
2010. This is indicative of the fact that real estate developers are more efficient in utilizing the
potential of these areas compared to the response of the planners to the impending crisis.
B. Absence of guideline for planning in peri-urban areas and existence of conflicting
planning regulations of different authorities
The area of Kolkata city under the jurisdiction of Kolkata Municipal Corporation (KMC) has
been increased over the years. Urban and rural areas adjoining the city where formerly no
KMC regulation was in force are presently within the KMC area. These areas got already
built before being under the regulatory control of KMC, keeping very little opportunity for
planned intervention, except adjusting extension lines of urban infrastructure and services
through unplanned and organic growth.
79

Comparing the building rules of panchayat, other municipal bodies and KMC area, it has been
observed that the present urban areas that were in panchayat (rural) areas earlier possess lands
that is subdivided (plot sizes unregulated) with approach roads merely 1.8m. Residential
buildings constructed with minimum setbacks 0.9m and 2/3rd ground coverage would be
impossible to be considered for extending basic urban services subsequent to that inclusion in
the KMC area. Even after the enactment of West Bengal Panchayat (Gram Panchayat
Administration) Rules, 2004, height of the buildings that could be built in non-urban areas
having approach roads of minimum width and providing minimum building setbacks is
compelling urban expansion with single storied structures. Conflicting regulations and
absence of specific development guideline in transitional areas defeat the basic purpose of any
regulation.
Land subdivision
(a)
West Bengal Panchayat

(Gram
Panchayat
Administration)
Rules,
2004;
[WBP(GPA) Rules 2004]
West Bengal Municipal
(Building) Rules, 2007
[WBM(B) Rules 2007]
Kolkata
Municipal
Corporation building rule,
2009
[KMC(B) Rules 2009]
Residential development
Minimum width
Minimum set
of the approach
back
road
(c)
(b)
Permissible
height of the
building
(d)
Maximum
Ground
coverage
(e)
No regulation
1.8m
All side - 0.9m
4.05m
=[1.5*(b+c)]
66.66%
Minimum Plot size

80sqm, Minimum
Width 6m
No regulation
2.4m
three side 1.2m

Rear side 2m
8m
65%
2.4m
three side 1.2m

Rear side 2m
7m
60%
C. Confusion on overlapping responsibilities over these transitional zone among rural,

urban and metropolitan authorities
Multiple authorities with overlapping responsibilities exist for planning and regulating
development within Kolkata Metropolitan area. Though defined by the Acts all authorities
i.e. KMC, other municipal authorities, Gram panchayats and KMDA have confusion
regarding their relevance and supremacy regarding planning, development and implementing
regulatory measures. Following are the nature of defined authority and overlapping.
KMC prepares development plans for the Kolkata city and monitor development
following the provisions of 74th Amendment of the Constitution and Kolkata Municipal
Corporation Act, 1980. KMC authority follow Kolkata Municipal Corporation building
rule, 2009 for regulating any construction over any land within KMC area.
All other municipal authorities make their Draft Development Plans following the
provision of section 297 of West Bengal Municipal Act, 1993. The West Bengal
Municipal (Building) Rules, 2007 exists to ensure planned development over land within
the respective town area.
Gram Panchayats in West Bengal has the authority to make Development Plans and
monitor development and new construction according to the provision of West Bengal
Panchayat Act, 1973 (section 19-1, 19-2, 21 and 23). In rural areas of the state
development and new construction that were guided by the National Building Code for
long, presently follow West Bengal Panchayat (Gram Panchayat Administration) Rules,
80

2004 specifying control of building operations. This control would be exercised by the
Block Development Officer on behalf of the Gram Panchayat.
District Planning Committees under the supervision of Zilla Parisad prepare 5 year DDPs
for the districts considering the priorities of the panchayats and municipalities. Within
metropolitan area, municipal plans need further vetting from the Kolkata Metropolitan
Planning Committee that is constituted under West Bengal Metropolitan Planning
Committee Act, 1994. KMPC is also authorised to prepare suitable development plans
for negotiating conflicting and common interests of those areas for the development of
the region as a whole.
KMDA prepare LUDCP for Kolkata city and other urban and rural panchayats to
promote and regulate land use development within entire metropolitan area according to
the provisions of West Bengal Town and Country (Planning & Development Act),
1979.
Any planning interventions by KMPC or KMDA for the rural and urban areas within the
metropolitan area require technical and political support and consensus of both rural and
urban local bodies. But it is seldom happening without the intervention of the State.
Apart from that, residential development is to be permitted in only Bastu lands, both in rural
and urban land. Land conversion for accommodating any development should conform to the
respective LUDCP or planned prepared by KMDA or any suitable planning authority. Most
of the cases, there is little awareness about any appropriate conversion in such rural or periurban areas at the land registration offices. This is happening either due to the fact that
planning documents hasnt been updated responding to the changed scenario of the area or
that havent been accepted as mandatory guidelines for regulating land conversion by the
land records and registration authorities.
D. Lack of sufficient knowledge about ground realities in preparing land use development
and control plans and their implementation
Master plans along with LUDCPs have very little or inadequate scope of public participation
in their process of formulation and fail to be implemented in most of the places having
encroachments and unregulated sprawls. Plans for development of housing under BSUP and
for development of sanitation and sewerage under KEIP have confronted with difficulties in
implementation from the illegal settlers on government lands and irrigation / drainage
channels.
Other than that the building rules have provisions of taking measures against illegal
deforestation and filling up of wetlands. But, it is most unlikely to have complains on these
matters as such offences is committed with political patronage. Most of the time, the authority
does not even have the appropriate demarcation and sufficient data of such sensitive areas that
require close observation and monitoring otherwise.
4.0
CONSEQUENCES OF URBAN SPRAWL
New residents, and the builders and private developers tend to take full advantage of the
weaknesses of the city managers hence promote laissez faire developments.
Apart from consequences like inflated infrastructure and public service costs, energy
inefficiency, disparity in wealth, impacts on wildlife and ecosystem, loss of farmland,
81

increase in temperature, poor air quality, impacts on water quality and quantity and impacts
on public and social health the effects of sprawl on land character are the following.
A. Destruction of environmentally sensitive areas:
People tend to reside on low priced small plots destroying rich forests or encroaching
agriculture and low lying areas that still lack basic urban services. These phenomenon are
similar for legal as well as the illegal settlers. Rajasekharia. K (2011) [7] of WWF India had
put forward the case of East Kolkata wetlands and Sundarbans mangroves that have been
affected severely by such urban growth of Kolkata.
Example:
Effect over East Kolkata Wetlands:
Gupta. S (2013) [8] has explained how the EKW lands is being affected by sub-urbanization
and built up area encroachments. The article has shown that area under have declined
noticeably within two decades.
Year
1986
1999
2011
wetland
area (in
sqkm)
41.065
35.279
33.082
other
unclassified
areas (in sqkm)
92.925
98.711
100.908
Total area
(in sqkm)
wetland
%
133.99
133.99
133.99
30.65%
26.33%
24.69%
B. Destruction of farmlands and food security threats

Due to fast pace of urban growth in India, food
consumption rate in terms of kcal per sq. m. per day in
India and its eastern region is high and would be higher
in 2050. It has been apprehended by Matuschke I (2009)
[9] that the areas urbanizing very fast within West
Bengal would be food security hot spot areas or
alarmingly high food demand areas.
C. Increase of degraded housing stocks
Though at the initiation of sprawl, the real estate mechanisms were weak and the land prices
were low, but very soon, the demand of built area or lands shooting high, leading to
exponential increase in the price of such spaces. Value of land and built spaces remain no
more within the affordable limit of the residents. It has been observed (Sen. S, 2012) [10] that
with reference to the market rate of built space at Madhyamgram Barasat area (North East
sprawl direction of Kolkata) of 2010, 70% to 75% families would be not able to own more
82

than 50 sqft or rent more than 100 sqft residential accommodation. Large section of
households would be bound to live in slums or in degraded living condition outside slums,
though the BPL population (25% - 30%) recorded within this region is much lower than this
distressed population.
Census 2011 of India indicated that during 2001 to 2011, notwithstanding the implementation
of various livelihood programs, slum up-gradation and housing program through DFID aided
KUSP program or JNNURM, slum population has increased at a great pace in growing urban
centres at North and Northeast (Kamarhati, Madhyamgram, North Dum Dum, Barackpore,
Rajarhat Gopalpur and Barasat) and in South and Southeast direction (Mahestala, Pujali and
Baruipur). Each of these towns experiences decadal growth rate of slum population varying
from 90% and up to 3000% (Kamarhati 3133%, Madhyamgram 1415%, Rajarhat
Gopalpur 234%, Baruipur 200%, Barasat 90%).
5.0
STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPMENT AND LAND MANAGEMENT IN

URBAN FRINGES
Based on the above scenario following strategies are recommended,
Controlling land speculation and directing development towards the desired direction
Preparing specific urban development and plan formulation guidelines for urban fringe
areas
Improving mutual co-ordination regarding planning, implementation and regulatory
tasks among different authorities acting within the region
Improving the understanding of the authorities regarding the ground realities
Increasing opportunity of public participation and citizen interface platforms in
planning and implementation
Strategy 1:
Controlling land speculation and promoting planned development
Assessing present and future potential areas that has natural tendencies of
development due to some favourable environment on the basis of following criteria
o Elements of favourable environment and ecological features
o Growth rate of land value
o Numbers of land transactions per unit area within a region
o Percentage of lowest fragmented plots (80sqm < plot size < 200sqm)
o Rate of land conversion
o Utility and economic return from the land
Preventing land speculation over potential lands for transformation
o by direct purchase from the intended sellers
o by designing joint venture projects with the owner
o by facilitating the owners to develop lands in planned way
Promoting planned urban expansion through provision of facility centres and urban
infrastructures in new growth centres
83

Strategy 2:
Evolving model land use development and control plans for urban fringe areas
emphasizing the following subjects
o direction of choosing developable land and lands to be preserved (i.e. high
yielding farm lands, forests, wetlands and drainage channels),
o demarcation of lands for urban agriculture or horticulture,
o land subdivision regulation
o land conversion procedures
o building rules
Involving experts from KMC, HMC, KMDA and two Town Planning Institutes of the
State (i.e. BESU, Shibpur and IIT, Kharagpur) and State level Town & Country
planning department, Panchayat & Rural Development Department and Land & Land
Records Department in formulation of the guideline
Availing advisory and supervisory help of ITPI, India and TCPO, Government of
India
Strategy 3:
Improving mutual co-ordination among different authorities
Revitalize planning committees with representatives from different rural and urban
areas to be constituted as policy group for coordinating and emphasizing issues of
different areas and coordinating the planning process
o increasing efficiency of District Planning Committee through increased
interaction with urban and rural sub committees and capacity building at
district level
o strengthening Kolkata Metropolitan Planning Committee through regular
interaction at metropolitan level
Constitute a planning team consisting of town planners, social planners, civil
engineers, legal experts and land managers working exclusively on the urban fringe
areas
o at district level Planning wing of each districts under supervision of State level
town and country planning department
o at metropolitan level a dedicated team of KMDA in association with planning
wing of KMC and HMC and State level town and country planning department
Strategy 4:
Preparing specified urban development and plan formulation guideline for

urban fringe areas
Improving the understanding of the authorities regarding the ground

realities
Improving quality of database of land regarding land-use, ownership status, occupiers,

socio-economic conditions of the owners and occupiers of every lands and wetlands.
o Conducting survey and group discussions at local levels
o Preparing digitized geo-referenced maps in GIS platform and demarcating the
exact boundaries of mandatory preserved lands
Improving use of quality database for better participatory governance
o Capacity building for using Satellite images and GIS system in Panchayats to
the BDOs and important Panchayat functionaries
o Using database to prepare planning reports at panchayat level emphasizing
priority issues and problem areas for suggesting as policy in DPC or MPC
84

Strategy 5:
Increase opportunity of public participation and citizen interface platforms
Associating local residents in planning activity

o Participants: Local residents, SHGs, CBOs and trained personnel selected by
the local panchayats
o Role: Various survey, database and map preparation and group discussions
Developing and monitoring of websites of the Planning Committee and introduction
of transparency portal
Introducing web pages for social interactions, collecting advices and following up
grievances
Regularizing gram sansad and ward committee meetings and strengthening public
complain redress system
REFERENCES
[1]
Batty, M., Chin, N., Besussi, E., (2002); SCATTER; Sprawling Cities And
Transport: from Evaluation to Recommendations, State of the Art Review of Urban
Sprawl Impact Measurement Techniques, April 2002
[2]
Taubenbck, H., Wegmann. M., Berger. C, Breunig. M, Roth. A., Mehl. H., (2008);
SPATIO TEMPORAL ANALYSIS OF INDIAN MEGA CITIES, The International
Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences.
Vol. XXXVII. Part B2, pp-75-82.
[3]
Angel. S., Parent. J., Clvco. D., Blel. A., (2011); Making Room for a Planet of Cities,
Policy Focus Report, Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, pp-30
[4]
Bardhan. R., H. Kurisu, Kiyo & Hanaki, Keisuke, (2011); Linking Urban Form and
Quality of Life in Kolkata, India, 47th ISOCARP Congress 2011
[5]
Bhatta. B., Saraswati. S., Bandyopadhyay. D., (2010); Quantifying the degree-offreedom, degree-of-sprawl,and degree-of-goodness of urban growth from remote
sensing
data,
Applied
Geography
30
(2010)
pp:96111,
link:
www.elsevier.com/locate/apgeog
[6]
UNFPA (2007), State of world population 2007: Unleashing the Potential of Urban
Growth, www.unfpa.org
[7]
Rajasekharia. K (2011); Impact on Urbanisation on Biodiversity: Case Studies from

India, World Wildlife Fund Report India 2011, pp-30-35
[8]
Gupta Subhadip, (2013); Changing landuse of East Kolkata Wetland, International

Journal for Applied Research and Studies, Vol-II, issue 3, Mar-13
[9]
Matuschke Ira (2009), Rapid Urbanization and Food Security: Using food density
maps to identify future food security hotspots, International Association for
Agriculture Economists Conference, China, Aug16-22, 2009
[10]
Sen. S, (2012); Effects of Urban Sprawl on Human Habitation in Urban Fringe and
Peri-urban areas, Institute of Town Planner, India Journal, Vol-9, no.-3, pp:53-63
85

Accommodative fringes: Vibrant city

H Mandal1
1.0
INTRODUCTION
A vibrant city is expected to accommodate the ever growing aspiration of the people of its
own, as well as, of its influence area. But its spatial limitation threatens its accommodation
capacity. Vis-a-vis, pushing out non-conforming uses from the core city is necessary for
keeping a city environ-friendly and active. But unless these non-conforming uses are resettled
in compatible environment, nearby, such dispersal is hardly possible Therefore city must find
less loaded land for husbanding these demands from inside, as well as, from outside.
In a vibrant city, competition for land/space is quite natural. City cores are worst affected. As
natural fallout of the situation less-return uses, low income users and migrants are destined to
settle, legally or illegally, in less valued land in the fringe of the city. They live on
infrastructure and services of the city without contributing in it. In course of time rings of
unplanned settlements hinders the normal social, economic and environmental interfacing
between the city and its hinterland. Gradually city degenerates and the hinterland follow suit.
Above scenario calls for building capacity of the lands in the outer city for absorption of
growing demand for development. Good access, adequate physical and economic
infrastructure, efficient land parceling, strong linkage with the mother city will increase
capacity of such lands. This virtual re-development of the fringe area, in addition, will
indirectly help restricting rampant destruction of green field elsewhere around a city.
But this simplistic prescription has many impediments. The most prominent one is difficulty
in planning for a land which is already under use. Ingenuity in drafting the plan, pragmatism
in getting it accepted by the politicians, inspiration in motivating the existing owners and
users, to bear with the stress of spatial readjustment are the inner wheels of real development.
Recent upheavals regarding setting-up a motor car factory in fertile agricultural land in West
Bengal has added some new lessons in contemporary perceptions, which need to be taken into
account.
2.0
CONTEMPORARY PERCEPTIONS
1. Collective use of land is the most important tool for adding value in land.
2. Owners and users should continue to access benefit of development of their land, even if
they are removed from the land for public purpose
3. Compensation only in fiscal term may not be sufficient for acquisition of land. Continuity
of employment and other social benefits for the adversary should be ensured. In
deserving cases land in specific location can be compensated by similar land in adjoining
location.
AITP, Consultant, Bolpur Municipality, Birbhum, West Bengal
86

3.0
NEW LESSONS
1. Acquisition of land by legal force may be subjected to political upheaval, which Govt.
may not sustain.
2. Negotiated collection of land, being more democratic, is fast gaining ground, setting aside
the old concept of acquisition of land by legal forces.
3. Rampant destruction of agricultural land is neither desirable nor publicly acceptable in an
agrarian and populous country like ours
In view of above the strategies of planning and development, and basic plan of actions are
indicated in few lines as under:
4.0
PLANNING STRATEGY
1. Calculated and result oriented planning intervention for optimum benefit, befitting of
spatial redevelopment.
2. More emphasis on collection of land by negotiation, than eviction of users through
acquisition of land by legal forces.
3. Development of a few growth nuclei in fringe area for accommodation of economic
sector activities, with expectation that these growth poles in turn will spatially
recentralize the floating and foot-loose demands.
4. Local level development shall be as per land use plan and development bye laws
formulated by the Planning Authority and overseen by Local Bodies.
5.0
DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY
1. Statutory Authority will build the broad frame of development like growth poles,
collector roads, drainage and water supply network etc. necessary for basic operation of
the fringe towns.
2. Land development, land parceling and plotting, local level service and urban
infrastructure shall be entrusted with private developers in market terms.
6.0
PLAN OF ACTION
1. Land necessary for creating nuclei and service infrastructure shall be arranged by
Statutory Authority. For that, a land bank shall be created enlisting land owners willing to
sell land within the delineated body of the fringe city, irrespective of area, character and
location of land.
2.
These lands under offer of sale shall be utilized for resettlement of the land required for
development of CBD (nuclei) and skeleton service infrastructure. As measure of least
resistance, the area having large % of offered land can be considered for developing
CBD.
3.
In negotiation with the land owners unwilling to part with their land, the following
alternative approaches can be tried upon:
a. Shifting outside the CBD in acceptable terms. Land for shifting can be
available from land bank
b. Formation of clusters consisting of unwilling owner and users, and resettle
them in suitable location adjoining the proposed CBD.
c. Releasing part of land in favour of the donor after building capacity of the
entire land. This will be more suitable in case of local level development.
87

7.0
POTENTIAL FOR FRINGE AREA DEVELOPMENT
Development of self-governed fringed town, though in form basically an urban extension, yet
in content the same has clear advantage over concept of New Towns. Those are:
1. Being in proximity to the city dispersal of development, a common need for old cities
may be more feasible than in New Towns, in alien environment.
2. Cultural continuum of the city can be maintained.
3. Destruction of agricultural lands and conflict centering depletion of greenery in case of
New Town shall be less, given that the fringe areas are already under sub-urban (nonagricultural) use.
4. Shifting out from the mother city can be engineered in future to brighten the prospect of
rebuilding the dilapidated sectors of the core city.
5. Metro-city may be more accessible to regional towns. As such capacity of small and
medium towns will enhance to contain more developmental pressure.
8.0
CONCLUSION
In developing a less developed area for accommodation of more growth has nothing novel in
conceptual plane. In fact in a city like Kolkata such development has been going on in last
four five decades. Gardenreach, Behala, Tollygunge, Jadavpur in south metropolis and
Cossipore in north are merely
extension of city limit rather than
developing independent sub-city
governed by elected Local bodies.
Only exception Bidhannagar in
north-east is basically a New
Town developed through total
land acquisition and destruction of
water bodies. Therefore, fringe
area development, as advocated
above might be new experiment to
keep a city ever-active through
off-loading
its
spillover
developments to its own sub-cities
without extending its own
statutory limit. For a metro-city It
is something growth by quality
than in geography.
Note: A conceptual spatial model

is added to explain the scheme
88

Metropolitan Fringe and Megacity Governance: Few observations

in case of Kolkata
Dr. Dilip K. Maulik1
At present in the field of development the question of urbanization arises, because it is the
parameter for judging the Status of economy & progress. In a country, urban places bear that
testimony. West Bengal being one of the developing states housing more than 35 percent of
the total population in the urban places of different size and class still suffering from an urban
fever of being the best example of one city one State. All the problems of the state oscillate
around Kolkata Urban Agglomeration (KUA) or synonymously as Kolkata Metropolitan Area
(KMA). In fact it is now submerged due to the Pressure of continuously sporadic sprawling
and sprouting of urban units. In reality this urbanization does not go with industrialization
rather building of concrete pillars and others. Kolkata from the very beginning had a
tremendous pull factor of different magnitude in different phases. But at present it is for better
community facilities from education to recreation adding to this sprawling. The one and only
mega agglomeration of Kolkata extends upto Kalyani in Nadia and stretches upto Baruipur
with Joka on the Kolkata side. On Howrah side it is from Bansberia in Hooghly to Uluberia
covering Kolkata Municipal Corporation, parts of both the 24 Parganas, Nadia, Howrah and
Hooghly.
Urban fringe is the suburban areas lying between the built up main city and the farmland.
Proper urbanization in West Bengal is feeble. In 1991 and 2001 percentage variation in urban
population was only 0.55, depicts a dismal picture and only one urban agglomeration after
Kolkata is now the Asansol Urban Agglomeration AUA (2001) clearly signifies the senseless
bigness of KUA, suggest for re-casting of the entire process.
Kolkata is the city of first order dominating a vast hinterland of Eastern India but least
properly urbanized and that is because of the mushrooming of fringe area urban units. The
built up area of Kolkata Municipal Corporation (KMC) with 141 wards now over saturated. In
fact the KMA comprises more than one fourth total population of the state. Thus the push
factor physically from the hub of the city to peripheries is one of the factors for the
amorphous development of urban outgrowth. The mega citys overstrained facilities and
functions have reached a breaking point. As a result the urban environment both physically
and socially deteriorated rapidly. These signs are evident everywhere on the urban limits viz.
desperate housing conditions, inadequate sewage and still shortage of portable water evidently
in the new areas. The most needed the transportation system despite of metro is unthinkable.
Attempts are there to solve but not coping with because of temporal and as is where needed
process. The result is considerable social, cultural disorganization and maladjustment leading
to disorder and delinquency.
Kolkatas growth has attained the culmination but suburban towns have not developed
proportionately to shoulder KMAs burden. In West Bengal there is apoplexy in Kolkata
Metropolis and anemia in the rural region. When development in rural areas will infuse new
blood and vigour, the problem of Kolkata Metropolis will be easy to solve. (Ghose 1979).
1
Geographer Town Planner
89

In understanding the magnitude of this problem two vital components in the process of
urbanization that is the size and spacing be given due consideration. The co-ordination of
both the aspects would be the first step. Megacity governance depends on size, capability,
function and geographical inputs, which ascertain spatial hierarchy and level of urbanization.
Study reveals that big cities are efficient for short-term perspective but not that effective for
long run growth. In the long run span of time new problems invade big cities, creating the
development process imbalanced. In this place small and medium scale towns have more and
better options for solving the megacity squalor. The depth of urbanization in relation to space,
population and time make it easy to understand the vigor of urbanization.
The average urban density of population in West Bengal in all the decades are 10 times more
than the overall density and it is quite high when space is concerned. If KMA and Durgapur
Asansol agglomerations are deducted from the total then it is found that all other urban units
fall below the village level standard. In the state total land under urban use is below the
international standard. Only one tenth of the total land can be devoted to urban use. In the
relation between space and time, the decadal change in population, denotes hardly there is the
increase in area, of towns, obviously making it clear about urban chaos. The result is the
growth of fringe areas keeping no pace with the total norm of urbanization. The fact remains
that forced urbanization in the form of New Towns during the last three decades which are
merely Bed Room Towns, have been inducted only to harness urban growth.
The result is sporadic growth of fringe areas and making peri urban regions. The outcome is
that the state can still afford space for some planned New Towns of the size of Durgapur,
Haldia, Chittanranjan, Digha and Kalyani of different functions. The urban problems of
different region by nature would suggest the need for some functional units to combat the
fringe area growth. In this respect North Bengal needs most of this type while South Bengal
needs a potential Land Management Technique and governance.
Regarding MFMG (Metropolitan Fringe and Megacity Governance) keeping Kolkata as a
constant factor, we have lapsed many years for reforms in red tape. That time lapse is one of
the indulging factors for all the unscientific, uneconomic and unsustainable utilization of land.
Analysis of the percentage share of population in the core city of Kolkata and its
agglomeration show the saturation position and decline of the primate city. Result is there,
times inflation of the agglomerated regions.
To check this amorphous growth of urbanization the daughter units of the primate city be
given freedom to enact the central rules. Study shows that to satisfy some special interest
mistakes are there. In a constrained economy and lack of technology and sense of urbanism
the amalgamation of one unit with the other is unscientific, rather, welcoming of more
problems. For example in the recent past the Sonarpur Municipality with Rajpur making
Sonarpur-Rajpur Municipality is wrong. Both the municipalities and others are problem
ridden. So, clear governance is imperative.
Efficient and clean local self governance is an unseen instrument to check these problematic
extra growths to control this extra growth via the in between small and medium sized towns
and total air of urban governance will prevail in the society for a better urbanism. The
unwanted excess migrants are the root of problems. So moderately sized new towns and
counter magnets to proportionate metropolitan growth is the need of the hour Satallite towns
with modern community facilities have the ability to check rural migration and improve, the
90

total environment. According to National Urbanisation policy, there is urgent need to create a
viable physical environment to enrich human life style and not improvise it. This type of
urban units though small bear the seed for bigger one will ease the burden of the megacities,
and decentralisation will happen with equilibrium of growth in the state. At present, W.
Bengal is confronted with the problems of growing population, rural poverty unprecedented
migration, and decay of the old towns. Socio-economic gap between the primate city and
other areas leave the only alternative of making more new urban centres. The resource
constraints suggest for this type of development. Chalking out of regional Mater Plan is the
first attempt to success. Ultimate ownership of land should remain with the public body. This
will control land use and prevent escalation and speculation in land and land prices.
These types of urban units are not devoid of ills and illusions yet it is the only approach to
create planned communities. These should be place of earning and living with human
comfort. This approach, perhaps brook no delay in this problem ridden state like ours.
91

Peri Urban Areas Issues and Challenges

(Arranged from Power point Slides)
Prof. Dr. Sanjukta Bhaduri1

Defining Peri-urban growth
Pattern of Peri Urban Growth in 4 Metro Cities in India

Growth
of Delhi
Growth of
Bangalore
Growth of
Mumbai
Growth of
Kolkata
HOD, Department of Urban Planning, School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi, email sanjukta.bhaduri@gmail.com
92

Comparing Peri Urban Growth
Jaipur
Surat
Pune
7. Ahmadabad
6. Hyderabad
5. Bangalore
4. Chennai
3. Delhi
2. Kolkata
1. Greater Mumbai
20
40
60
80
100
Characteristics of Peri-urban area
Peri urban areas exist beyond the citys

administrative limits i.e. territorial
jurisdiction of the city authority.
Transition zone between fully urbanized
land in cities and areas in predominantly
agricultural use.
Accommodate
the
spill
over
developments of the core cities
Characterized by mixed land uses
Areas of rural-urban linkages
Characterized by flows of people, produce,

finance, labour, services and waste moving
outwards from the urban area
Significant ecological, bio-diversity, land

and cultural heritage values
Various jurisdictions
93
source of resources needed for the city
Urban Sprawl; Venue: Rabi Tirtha, Newtown, Kolkata;

7 th Dec. 2013; ITPI, WBRC
Dynamic entity What is

peri urban today becomes
urban tomorrow
Changing Character of Peri-urban area
A high proportion of capital investment and new

activity is located. This is where new industries,
housing, SEZ, institutional areas recreational
areas are established.
Drivers of Peri-urban growth
- City is not able to cater to the growth
- Demand for land for housing, employment opportunities, educational facilities, etc.
- New transport corridors
- Land markets
Induced Growth versus Existing Land utilization
Induced Growth
Industries
Industries + Townships
Industrial areas + Townships + SEZ
Industrial areas + Townships + SEZ +
Institutional areas
94
Existing Land utilization

Cropped Lands
Urban settlements
Rural settlements
Environmentally sensitive
Areas forests, wetlands, etc.

Issues of development in peri-urban areas
Multifunctional
Interrelated zones
Potential for change
No defined character
Dynamic coexistence of urban and rural livelihoods
Jurisdictional conflicts
Haphazard development
Major disconnect between plans and implementation
Incremental development
No spatial context of investments
Challenges of development in peri-urban areas
Planning and development To be in consonance with District Plans, Regional Plans
Governance and Management Multi territorial jurisdiction Different entities, rural

settlements, cities and towns, interspersed areas
Way forward
Formulation of City level policies
Integrating the various sets of plans
Effective policy coordination among national, state and local governments is essential
to implement the policies outlined
Investments in transportation that provides provide good access to housing sites in

peri urban areas that are comparatively distant from most jobs
Land Suitability studies as the basis for plans
Integrating plans for the peri urban areas in the regional planning framework
Institutional arrangements
Phasing of Development
95

96

URBAN WATER MANAGEMENT: Approaches in sustainability

Ar. Kaushik Ghosh 1& Prof. Dr. Arup Sarkar2
1.0
OVERVIEW
Urban water management is now on the verge of a revolution in response to rapidly escalating
urban demands for water as well as the need to make urban water systems more resilient to
climate change. Growing competition, conflicts, shortages, waste and degradation of water
resources make it imperative to rethink conventional concepts to shift from an approach that
attempts to manage different aspects of urban water cycle in isolation to an integrated
approach supported by all stakeholders.
Integrated urban water management (IUWM) promises a better approach than the current
system, in which water supply, sanitation, stormwater and wastewater are managed by
isolated entities, and all four are separated from land-use planning and economic
development. IUWM calls for the alignment of urban development and basin management to
achieve sustainable economic, social, and environmental goals.
2.0
INTRODUCTION
Water has historically been a key determining factor in design of human habitat and
settlements. However, over the course of urban development and habitat evolution, water
related problems have increased often amounting to catastrophic dimensions in the urban
context. This can only be attributed to a gap in our understanding and implementation of
urban water management. It is undeniable that the relationship between water and our urban
areas needs to be given a higher priority to provide integrated solutions to flood risk
management, sustainable water use and supply and the improvement of water quality in our
treasured watercourses.
Water scarcity is leading to conflict over water rights. In urban watersheds, competition with
agriculture and industry is intensifying as cities expand in size and political influence. With
industrial and domestic water demand expected to double by 2050 (UNDP, 2006),
competition among urban, peri-urban, and rural areas are likely to worsen. A report on
wetlands of East Kolkata identified a remarkable 35.97 percent reduction of permanent water
logged area between 1991 and 2001. (Sarkar, 2005)
A key element of improved sustainability in urban water resource management is the concept
of integration. Rather than managing water supply, sewage and stormwater independently, an
integrated approach looks for complementary relationships between the different urban water
streams. (Newton, SEQHWP, 2007).
3.0
1ST PARADIGM OF URBAN WATER CYCLE : SEGREGATED APPROACH
The first paradigm in local government conceptualizations of the urban water cycle is
infrastructure-based, focusing on the potable urban water supply network. The segregated
approach to the planning of urban water infrastructure has been the traditional approach. For
more than a century, segregation of urban water streams has been a key element of urban
1
Assistant Professor, Urban Management Centre, Administrative Training Institute, Govt. of West Bengal
Professor and Head of the Department; Department of Architecture, Town & Regional Planning; Bengal
Engineering & Science University, Shibpur (BESUS)
2
97

water planning. Whilst this approach has had enormous benefits for public health and
amenity, current water resource pressures are providing an incentive to examine alternative
approaches that aim to achieve synergistic social, environmental and cost benefits through
simultaneous consideration of the whole urban water cycle.
Local Government water planning typically occurred in three streams:
1. Water supply and sewerage
2. Flooding and drainage, and
3. Waterway health.
These three planning streams in traditional water planning were essentially independent from
each other. The products from this planning stream often shared implementation mechanisms
with other planning streams. (Newton, SEQHWP, 2007)
Certain aspects of the traditional approach were as follows:
1. Wastewater from households, industry and other users was transported through a
sewerage network to a sewage treatment plant, and then discharged to the
environment. In essence wastewater was regarded as a problem to be disposed of,
arguably with insufficient regard to the impacts on the receiving environment.
2. Similarly, stormwater was viewed predominantly as a flood mitigation issue and the
focus was on how to dispose of stormwater at least cost, rather than viewing it as a
potential resource.
3. Increases in urban water demand were typically met by augmenting supply (eg new
dams) with consequent increases in wastewater volumes discharged to the
environment. (NWI, 2007)
4.0
2ND PARADIGM OF URBAN WATER CYCLE: INTEGRATED APPROACH
The second paradigm is catchment-based, focusing on waterways and catchments. The

integrated water cycle planning undertaken by local government often seems to adopt one of
these paradigms, depending on which section of council takes the lead role in development of
integrated water cycle plans or strategies. (Newton & Walker, 2007).
Integrated Water Cycle Management is considered to be overarching and encompassing all
facets of Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD). Integrated Water Cycle Management
(IWCM) extends into the regional-catchment scale and incorporates the planning and
management of all potential supply sources linked to an urban centre including surface water,
groundwater, recycled waste water, storm water and desalinated sea water. (NWI, 2007)
To achieve the potential benefits of an integrated approach, it is necessary to adopt the
principles of integrated urban water management (IUWM) in the planning stage of all urban
water infrastructure. To date, most of this urban water planning has been undertaken by local
government using a range of standard approaches and guidelines. (Newton, SEQHWP, 2007)
5.0
INTEGRATED URBAN WATER MANAGEMENT (IUWM)
IUWM is described as the practice of managing freshwater, wastewater, and storm water as
components of a basin-wide management plan. It builds on existing water
98

supply and sanitation considerations within an urban settlement by incorporating urban water
management within the scope of the entire river basin. (Goldenfum, 2009)
The IUWM approach has emerged from the growing recognition that an integrated approach to
water management at the urban level offers a relevant framework for decision-making and
concrete action. Urban areas are appropriate as units of management, as specific problems and
needs faced by cities may transcend the physical and scientific boundary embodied by more
traditional units of management of catchments and watersheds. The concept encompasses
various aspects of water management, including environmental, economic, technical, political,
as well as social impacts and implications. (UNEP, 2009)
The goals of urban water management are to ensure access to water and sanitation
infrastructure and services; manage rainwater, wastewater, stormwater drainage, and runoff
pollution; control waterborne diseases and epidemics; and reduce the risk of water-related
hazards, including floods, droughts, and landslides. All the while, water management practices
must prevent resource degradation. (Bahri, GWP, 2012)
Such integration requires the holistic assessment of water quantity and water quality issues in
a whole of catchment context. Consideration and detailed understanding is required of how
water behaves in such a context, including all pathways whereby water passes through a
catchment, encompassing surface runoff, groundwater, potable water storage treatment and
delivery and wastewater collection/treatment/disposal.
6.0
WATER ECOSYSTEM ISSUES
Urban centres rely on wetlands and aquatic ecosystems for services, such as oxygen
production, carbon storage, natural filtering of toxins and pollutants, and protection from
coastal flooding or landslides and other storm-related disasters (UN-Habitat, 2011).
Aquatic systems dilute and transport pollution away from human settlements, maintain the
quality of freshwater sources, and, in some cases, permanently remove pollutants from the
atmosphere. Unsustainable water resources management and excess pollution are eroding
these services, however, compromising clean water supplies and food production (UNWWAP, 2009; Corcoran et al., 2010; Mafuta et al., 2011).
Freshwater ecosystems are among the most degraded on the planet (UNWWAP, 2009).
Because of the interconnectedness of aquatic systems, changes in local aquatic ecosystems
can have downstream consequences.
7.0
URBAN WATER MANAGEMENT - AN AGENDA FOR ACTION
IUWM offers a socio-technical transformation: it advances both technological solutions for

water management and simultaneous modifications in behaviour, attitudes, institutions,
financing mechanisms, and training. Institutional capacity building is crucial for updating and
integrating knowledge in the natural sciences, engineering, environmental biology,
economics, finance, and sociology. Professional cultures need to change so that they reward
cross-sectoral and cross-scale cooperation. Building and maintaining collaboration among
stakeholders is no simple feat. However, ideas must be conveyed across institutional
languages and operational cultures. Different levels of power, influence, and resources have to
be bridged. Common goals, and the benefits of mutual action, must be clearly articulated.
Such transformations must be accompanied by robust monitoring mechanisms that update
99

authorities, service providers, and users. Successful management approaches are adaptive and
nimble, so that water management systems can respond promptly to unexpected changes.
Indeed, IUWM involves learning how to act in conditions of uncertainty and imperfect
knowledge. Problem definitions and underlying assumptions must be continuously revisited
for their relevance (SWITCH, 2011).
Sectoral integration within government and scalar integration between levels of government
are becoming increasingly important. Transforming entrenched practices can be especially
difficult in megacities. Small and medium-sized cities, on the other hand, can plant the seeds
of integration now. Managing urban water resources and integrating all aspects of water
source and quality will require public education and collaboration to realize the necessary
cultural and behavioural changes (Najjar and Collier, 2011), as well as coordination among
land and water management entities, resource and regulatory agencies, local governments,
and nongovernmental organizations (Watson et al., 2011). New York City supplies 9 million
people with safe drinking water by collaborating with surrounding municipalities to protect
upstream sources (Grumbles, 2011; Office of Water, 2010; Pagiola and Platais, 2002 and
2007.).
The innovations in urban water management are coupled with comprehensive system changes
of the urban water system. The new approach should consider the whole urban area as unit of
management with application of other new approaches, such as cascading uses of water,
beneficiation of water (use of water-machine concepts and semi-centralised systems),
decentralised systems, analyses of quantity and quality aspects in a single framework, and
flexible and adaptable urban water systems, etc. (Bahri, GWP, 2012)
There is no one-size-fits-all IUWM model. Water managers must consider the implications of
the choice of scale: for example, when can catchments or basins be useful or appropriate
scales to use, and when are municipalities or regions a better fit? What decisions are best
made at the catchment or basin scale and what decisions are best made at other scales? There
are various
boundary options, depending on natural and social factors. Nonetheless, each will feature
nested levels of management across municipalities, basins, nations and regions. (Bahri,
GWP, 2012)
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to Practice. The World Bank, Washington, D.C. USA.
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with multi-temporal remote sensing data and GIS approach. No. ES/468/11/2000,
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101

The Energy Concern for Housing in India

Sumana Basack1 & Dr. Arup Sarkar2
1.0
INTRODUCTION
India is a fast developing economy. Based on a McKinsey study Indias GDP is likely to grow
at a rate of about 7.5% until 2030 (McKinsey, 2009) [1]. Populations and GDP are the two
fundamental activities that influence the energy demand from all sectors in a country. Urban
population is set to outgrow overall population growth at a Compound Annual Growth Rate
(CAGR) [2] of 2.8 percent over 2001-2011, resulting in an increase in the urbanization rate
from 27.8 percent to 31.2 percent. The Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce (FICCI)
[3] estimates that by 2050, the countrys cities would witness a net increase of 900 million
people. With increased urbanization and growing need for energy, India will play a very
critical role at a time when discussions on climate change and environmental sustainability are
as intense as they are. It is known that the use of transportation energys impact on urban
inhabitants and urban land form has been widely studied, but the energy use in residential
sector of the same has been neglected. A conceptual framework linking the National Urban
Housing and Habitat Policy with the Energy Conservation Building Code has been prepared
in this document keeping in mind the urban residential requirements.
2.0
THE NATIONAL HOUSING AND HABITAT POLICY AN OVERVIEW ON

ACCOUNT OF ENERGY EFFICIENCY CODES
The National Urban Housing and Habitat policy, 2007 [4] in case of Affordable Housing
states that Using technology for modernizing the housing sector for enhancing energy and
cost efficiency, productivity and quality [5]. The Role of Government, Urban Local Bodies
and Other Agencies on Environment and Ecology is clarified through Promote appropriate
ecological standards for protecting a healthy environment and providing a better quality of life
in human settlements. [6] The Research and Development, Standardization and Technology
Transfer Organizations would Undertake research to respond to different climatic conditions
with a focus on transition from conventional to innovative, cost effective and environment
friendly technologies. [7] The National Housing and Habitat Policy defines under Specific
Areas of Action, that Low energy consuming and using renewal form of energy for
construction techniques and rain-water harvesting technologies will be encouraged. [8]
Lastly goal of the Policy is stated as The ultimate goal of this Policy is to ensure sustainable
development of all urban human settlements, duly serviced by basic civic amenities for
ensuring better quality of life for all urban citizens. [9]
2.1
A first hand assessment of building codes and its energy counterpart in India
Energy conservation is a priority need for India with its power and energy shortages. To
highlight this issue and to promote energy conservation the Parliament of India passed the
Energy Conservation Act 2001 [10], which deals with many mandatory as well as preventive
measures. The Bureau of Energy Efficiency, (BEE) an autonomous body under the Ministry
1
Research Scholar, Department of Architecture Town & Regional Planning; Bengal Engineering & Science
University, Shibpur (BESUS)
2
Professor & Head, Department of Architecture Town & Regional Planning; Bengal Engineering & Science
University, Shibpur (BESUS)
102

of Power was set up in 2002 to manage, promote, plan and implement energy conservation
policies under Energy Conservation Act. The Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC)
[11] was drafted by BEE. As defined in the EC Act, Energy Conservation Building Codes
refer to the norms and the standards of energy consumption expressed in terms of per square
meter of the area. The purpose of this code is to reduce the baseline energy consumption by
supporting adoption and implementation of building energy codes. These codes take into
account location and occupancy of the buildings and provide minimum standards to be
followed to reduce energy demand of the buildings through design and construction practices
while not compromising with occupant comfort to suite the local climatic conditions.
There are five distinct climatic zones [12] in India and the ECBC has taken into account these
climatic conditions in preparation of the codes. Code compliance can be achieved through two
distinct approaches mentioned in the ECBC, namely Prescriptive and Whole Building
Performance methods. Mandatory Scope Covers right now only commercial buildings with
connected load in excess of 100kW or contract demand in excess of 120 kVA [13] or for all
buildings with conditioned area 1000m2 . But no specific reference is made on group housing
/ community housing schemes that are enforced or being built through public sector or private
public partnership
The National Building Code has been revised. In the latest edition of the code, aspects of
energy conservation and sustainable development have been dealt with in various parts and
sections through appropriate design, usage and practices with regard to building materials,
construction technologies, and building and plumbing services. The building code is new and
the energy simulation capability to quantify savings based on energy efficiency parameters as
defined by the code is very limited which results is non applicability of these measures
practically on site.
The point is that, even after framing of ECBC code and revising the National Building code ,
our policy makers are yet to think innovatively about the range of issues from land-resource
planning to broader ecological and energy implications presented by unique challenges
created by urban sprawl.
3.0
REQUIREMENTS FOR FUTURE
There are several issues that need to be addressed in order to ensure energy efficiency in
group residential housing. The current policy framework does not have an integrated approach
to the problem. For example, enforcement of energy conservation building codes under the
purview of Ministry of Power and designated state nodal agencies, while sanctioning power
for building plans and proposals rests with local development authority or municipal
corporations. There is no worked out modality for integration of energy conservation building
code with local building bye-laws. India is still in very early stages of energy code
implementation. There is a strong need for a framework with well-defined authority.
Demonstration projects are required at five identified climate zones of the country to test the
effectiveness of code recommendations on real time projects. The approach is vague on
residential projects assuming energy conservation is least required in the area It is a known
fact that mass housing also requires certain regulations so that a community would conserve
energy as a whole there by bringing down the energy consumption running cost of such areas
reasonably. The only way for achieving conservation of energy in residential urban areas and
the outgrowths is the appropriate combination of incentives, policies and public participation.
103

REFERENCES:
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
McKinsey Report, Published in July, 2009 available at www.mckinsey.com.

Available in http://www.firstpost.com/economy
Available at www.ficci.com
National Urban Housing and Habitat policy , 2007 available at
http://mhupa.gov.in/policies/duepa/HousingPolicy2007.pdf
National Urban Housing and Habitat policy , 2007 , (II) Aims, Affordable Housing
No.(vi), available at http://mhupa.gov.in/policies/duepa/HousingPolicy2007.pdf .
National Urban Housing and Habitat policy , 2007 (III) Role of Government, Urban
Local
Bodies
and
Other
Agencies
No.(xvii),
available
at
http://mhupa.gov.in/policies/duepa/HousingPolicy2007.pdf .
National Urban Housing and Habitat policy , 2007 (IV) Role of Research &
Development, Standardization and Technology Transfer Organizations No.(4. i) ,
available at http://mhupa.gov.in/policies/duepa/HousingPolicy2007.pdf .
National Urban Housing and Habitat policy , 2007 (V) Specific Areas of Concern,
Technology
Support
and
Action
No.(5.4.
ii),
available
at
http://mhupa.gov.in/policies/duepa/HousingPolicy2007.pdf.
National
Urban Housing and Habitat
policy,
2007 available at
http://mhupa.gov.in/policies/duepa/HousingPolicy2007.pdf
The Energy Conservation Act, 2001,
29th September, 2001 available in
http://powermin.nic.in/acts_notification/pdf/ecact2001.pdf
Energy Conservation Building Code, 2007, Developed by Ministry of Power,
Government
of
India
available
in
http://powermin.nic.in/
acts_notification/energy_conservation_act/introduction.htm
Energy Conservation Building Code , 2007, Appendix F: Climate Zone Map Of India.
The Energy Conservation (Amendment )Act -2010 main Amendments available in
http://powermin.nic.in/ acts_notification/energy_conservation_act/introduction.htm
Note : All the web references were last accessed on 1st December, 2013 at 11:40 p.m.
104

CHALLENGE IN HEALTH INFRASTRUCTURE GOVERNANCE IN KOLKATA

METROPOLITAN FRINGE AREA: A CASE STUDY OF THAKURPUKUR
MAHESHTALA BLOCK
Moumita Saha1
1.0
OVERVIEW
Health as an important factor of human development helps in enhancing the quality of human
capital and improves the state of human development. In spite of accepting the primacy of
health sector in augmenting the development process, access to basic health services has
continued to remain poor in developing countries, mainly in the areas of transition. Besides
the low accessibility, lack of proper governance, creates scarce availability and the poor
quality of health services and personnel in the remote and underdeveloped urban areas have
been the major obstacles to the delivery of quality health care services. Despite the consistent
effort the fringe areas of big metropolis under dual administration continue to be deficit in
health facility and manpower due to low infrastructure and unplanned governance sometimes
even with adequate infrastructure.
2.0
INTRODUCTION
To provide adequate health services to the people has always taken the first priority
throughout the five year planning in India but the aim is yet far to reach. The formation of
huge metropolis with the rapid rate of urbanization and growing population has influenced its
surrounding area and has formed extended metropolitan area. Most of these metropolitan
growth witnessed unplanned and spatial haphazard growth which always been a problem for
planners and infrastructure providers. The concentration of population towards metropolitan
centres and its diffusion to their peripheries has resulted in many complexes (Kundu et al
2002). The basic infrastructure networks that cover the built-up areas of the city do not reach
the outer boundaries of the city. The fringe areas often lie outside the legal jurisdiction of the
city and sometimes, even outside the legal jurisdiction of any urban local body and are thus
not provided with many of the basic services, this results in increasing levels of local
inequities. These semi urban areas requires the services to match up the standards of
surrounding urban areas but falls under the rural jurisdiction which creates a dichotomy in
demand and supply of basic service. Like many developing countries a large part of the periurban fringe of cities in India also faces the problem of shortage of basic infrastructure
services. Kolkata Metropolitan Area (KMA) which has formed around the city Kolkata which
is the 10th largest megacity in the world and second in the country and an important cultural
and economic centre of eastern India with its increasing population and extended urban
growth has created a challenge to provide and maintain its infrastructure services .Mainly the
unplanned and haphazard diffusion and concentration of population in the peripheral area of
KMA has resulted the acute scarcity of basic services and mainly in the area not governed by
municipal administration but by rural bodies. My study is concerning about this acute
problem of health care services in the fringe areas due to lack of health infrastructure which is
the outcome of unplanned governance in this sector.
Senior Reaserch Fellow, Department Of Geography, Calcutta University. [Email: mou.rinky@gmail.com]
105

The area has chosen for the study is the rural fringe of Thakurpukur Maheshtala block outside
the Maheshtala municipality and within the Kolkata Metropolitan Area (KMA) jurisdiction,
which is located in the south twenty four pargana district. It constitutes with 34 villages under
Ashuti-I, Ashuti-II, Chatla, Gopalpur- II, gram panchayets and under the jurisdiction of
Thakurpukur and Maheshtala police station. (Fig No.1) This area covers the south western
fringe of Kolkata Metropolitan Area (KMA) it lies outside the Kolkata Municipal
Corporation, and has developed along a major access route into the city from the south,
Diamond Harbour Road, which connects the city with the rural hinterland of South 24
Parganas.
3.0
3.1
STUDY AREA
Rural Fringe of Kolkata Metropolitan Area within Thakurpukur Maheshtala
Block
Fig. No. 1
Objectives
The objectives of my study are :
1) To find out the existing problems related to health care services in the area.
2) To find out the reasons behind the lacking in health care service provided in the area.
3) To realize the proper need of people to improve the health care service.
4) To make a proper planning solutions to enhance the service to achieve the desired goal.
Methodology
The study has gone through by studying many books, articles journals to get the idea about
the health structure of the fringe area. Secondary data has been collected from census,
statistical handbook, for population and infrastructure scenario of the health institutes,
primary data has been collected from BPHC, some SC and by surveying some patients
present at the respective centres. Then data has been analyzed by different quantitative
methods and conclusion has been drawn.
106

Analysis
To examine the reason lay behind the problem it is important to note that the disparity in the
fringe area is due to official neglect and non recognition of these areas as deserving of urban
civic status which is the outcome of dichotomous way of census has defined urban areas
[Bhagat 2003]. Census has defined urban areas in two ways: a) on the basis of administrative
criteria, that is, all statutory towns and urban local bodies are considered as urban; secondly,
demographic and economic criteria, that is, settlements with a population exceeding 5,000
persons, with a population density of 450 persons per sq km and with three-fourths of the
male workforce in nonagricultural activity, are considered urban. The latter are referred to as
census towns. However, only the statutory towns are accorded municipal status while the
census towns (or those settlements that are economically and demographically urban) are not
granted urban civic status and are governed by rural local bodies. Many of the census towns
are urban outgrowths and though they are organically a part of neighboring cities or large
towns, they are not governed by municipal administration. Thus these areas are more
neglected in terms of getting basic services.
The 74th Constitution Amendment Act of 1992 came with some hope for peri-urban areas. It
recognized these areas as transitional areas and it granted civic status to them as nagar
panchayats or town panchayat and the initiatives were started for the proper governance of
peri-urban areas. But after twenty years back these areas did not fulfilled the goal. With an
unimaginable growth of population these areas are suffering from fulfilling many of its basic
needs even primary health care services.
Health is a state subject. Only family welfare and population control is a central subject. The
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare oversees the implementation of policies and
programmes for health care around the country within the framework set by the National
Health Policy of 2002 and the priorities set in successive Five Year Plans, while the
responsibility for the delivery of health care rests largely with the State Government. The
Government of India plays a role in setting policy and providing resources for the
implementation of National Programmes. There is a
peculiar and clear cut disparity in health service system
URBAN HIGH
at different tier of settlement. (Fig No. 2). The National
CONCENTRATION OF
Health Policy (NHP) was formulated in 2002 to achieve
ADVANCED
CORPORATE
an acceptable standard of good health amongst the
HEALTHCARE
SEMI general population of the country by increasing access to
URBAN
the decentralized public health system by establishing
HIGHLY
new infrastructure in deficient areas to reduce the
UNORGANIZED
disparity and by upgrading the infrastructure in the
SECTOR AND
existing institutions.
MAINLY
Fig. No. 2
PROVIDE
RURAL
SECONDARY
MOST
CARE
NEGLCTED
AND FAR
AWAY
FROM
SATISFACTI
ON
107
4.0
CHARECTERISTIC
OF
HEALTH
SERVICES AT DIFFERNT LEVEL
The rural fringe areas have a well-structured multi-tiered

public health governing system. Primary health care
consists of a three tier system, comprising Community
Health Centres (CHC), Primary Health Centres (PHC),
Sub-Centres (SC), Block Primary Health Centres

[BPHC] governing the three tires, District Hospitals, and tertiary medical care provided by
multi-Specialty hospitals and medical colleges.
5.0
NORMS OF POPULATION AND MEDICAL CENTRE RATIO WITH

INFRASTRUCTURE
SIZE OF
POPULATION
More than
100000
population
TYPE OF
MEDICAL
CENTRE
Block Primary
Health Centres
[BPHC]
INFRASTRUCTURE
Governing all the centres, with 30-50 beds

,Medical officer, supervisors , Nurse and other
staff
Every 100,000
population
Community
Health
Centres(CHC)
30 beds and basic specialist sand other

medical staffs
Every 30,000
population
Every 5,000
population
Primary Health
Centres (PHC)
Sub-Centres
(SC)
a medical doctor and other Para medical staff

with a , ANM ,male and female workers
Source: Computed By the Author, Based On the Data of the Directorate of Health Services, Government of West
Bengal, 2008-09.
The size of population and its growth exerts an important role in planning and governing any
infrastructure. If we look into the population pattern of the area it shows very high population
growth. From the graph (Fig No.3) it is clear that the population is increasing at very fast rate
since 1961 and there is a jump in growth in 1991 and still it is increasing. Another important
feature of this area is that the southern fringe area of the Kolkata Metropolitan Area (KMA) is
growing faster than the other parts and is incorporating within the KMC for e.g. Joka which
was a census town has already taken into the KMC boundary due to its huge size of
population. The area thus suffering from high population pressure and thus demand for high
concern in basic services among which the priority of health service is the first one.
In the study area, primary health care services are provided through a Block Primary Health
Centres [BPHC], along with 17 Sub-centres, [SC]. There are no Primary Health Centre [PHC]
and no Community Health Centres [CHC] within the area. One of the most important
problems of the area is that the sub centres are not evenly distributed over the area. SCs
provide Reproductive Child Health [RCH] related services like ante natal care [ANC] & post
natal care [PNC] and those related to Family planning and contraception, Immunization etc.
Some drugs for treatment of minor ailments, particularly for controlling common childhood
illness like fever, diarrhea (through ORS), Respiratory Tract Infection (RTI) etc are made
available free with the SCs and ANMs are allowed to administer those drugs. No emergency
services are provided here. There is a provision that each sub centres are equipped with one
first Auxiliary Nurse-cum-Midwives(ANM), and one second Auxiliary Nurse-cum-Midwives
(ANM) ; ASHA workers, supervisors, health assistant, but all the SCs are not equipped with
these man power. The SCs of the area has 86 ASHA workers , 3 supervisors each at Ashuti I
, Ashuti II and Joka II ; 3 Health Assistants (Male ), two at Ashuti I , and one at Joka I. There
are some post of second ANM are vacant one at Ashuti I and Joka I, and two at Chata
108

respectively. There is no provision of regular checkups by the doctors. Doctors visit hardly
once or twice in a month and thus all the people have to depend to the far away BPHC.
The Block Primary Health
Centre (BPHC) of the block
on which almost all the rural
population depend is situated
outside the block boundary at
Sarsuna,
within
the
municipality boundary. It is
served by one Block Medical
Officer Health (BMOH), 3
Fig. No. 3
Medical Officers (MO), one
Block Primary Health Nurse
(BPHN), four GNM, four attendants. Here primary first aid services, emergency services are
provided to the people free of cost .all kinds of immunization for children, treatment for
leprosy, Tuberculosis and other general diseases are treated here with the provision of free
medicine for the patients. OPD facility is provided all days in the morning expect Sundays
and served the patient strength of about 105 to 120 each day. All kinds of facilities for
pregnant women till the delivery are provided but only normal delivery cases are treated here
due to the absence of operation theatre and no operative cases are treated here, thus critical
emergency patients are being deprived for even minimum operative treatment. Though this
BPHC has been sanctioned for 15 beds but it provides only 5 beds due to lack of
infrastructure facility and low man power. Another important problem faced by the people is
the absence of own ambulance service, not a single number of ambulance is provided by the
BPHC to its serving population. Thus the population has to depend on the private service.
Getting quick access to the health facilities for the expecting mother and the sick infants is a
major problem because of both problem of availability of transport as well as money required
for the same may not be affordable. An arrangement has been made by placing
ambulance/vehicle (known as Marti Yan) which may carry mother at every health facility
providing round the clock delivery services are most of times not possible to get when
required.
POPULATION
GROWTH OF POPULATION IN THE STUDY AREA
The centre has acute shortage of

infrastructure and human resource, it
lacks permanent sweeper, pharmacist,
insufficient attendant, nurse etc. the
centre required diagnosis centre with
well-equipped instruments and thus the
patients again depend on private
diagnosis centres which is very
problematic for poor to bear the high
expenses. The nearest Sub Divisional
Hospital of the area is Vidyasagar
hospital at Behala and the State
Fig. No. 4
Picture of the Thakurpukur Maheshtala Block Primary Health Centre
General Hospital is Bhangur at Tollygunge both are very far and takes more than one hour to
reach. The surrounding condition of the BPHC is very pathetic and unhygienic the area is
109

flooded during rainy season and is the house of mosquitoes and other pests and the
surrounding is anonymous to the healthy environment.
Now if we look into the rate of accessibility of the sub centres and the BPHC of the area it is
clear that the location of these centres are very peculiar, the area has very low accessibility
and only linked by the road networks . The interiors away from the main road are only
connected by auto services and not available all the time. The map depicts (FIG NO. 5) that
the BPHC have to serve half of municipal population due to its location and a very less area
of the GPs are under the quick access within 2 kms from the BPHC. Most of the areas come
the next zone within 5 kms and the farthest zone more than 7.5 kms which is least accessible.
Even the SCs are not evenly distributed in all mouzas, where some mouzas have more than
two SCs and some villages are in demand of at least one to set up. Thus the lack of proper
planning in governance is clear through the picture of disparity exists in medical service .Thus
the question arises for proper governance for planning of location of these centres. Again the
number of centres with its facilities at the existing population is far away from standard. due
to the dual nature of the area ,and being a transitional area these centres has to serve both the
Maheshtala municipality and the kolkata municipal area with its own population which exerts
a huge pressure to these centers which calls for a urgent planned governance for the area to
serve the area with proper medical services.
DISTRIBUTION OF MEDICAL CENTRES IN THE STUDY AREA
Fig. No. 5
6.0
RECOMMENDATIONS
The SC needs adequate infrastructure like room for examination of mothers, office
room, delivery room (for urgent cases), adequate space for waiting of the visiting
mothers, running water supply, toilet, electricity etc. Also, each SC should be
110

connected through all- weather roads; there must be provision of health check up by
efficient doctors at least once a week.
7.0
Special attention must be given to improve Ambulance service to meet the demand for
emergency transportation services in rural areas, especially in the remote areas.
To fulfill the objective to provide quality health care to the door step of the public in
the rural areas, especially in farthest under-served areas, Mobile Medical Units
(MMUs), mobile dispensaries/ health camps must be arranged
There must be an immediate provision of diagnostic facilities like ECG, X-ray,

Ultrasound and routine pathological tests at BPHC. Ideally there should also have
Blood Storage Units (BSU) for emergency blood transfusion so that it functions as the
First Referral Unit (FRU) for any labour related complication. It may be set up under
public private collaboration.
All the medical centres of the area need to strengthen the sanitation, hygiene medical
waste disposal, and especially the surrounding environmental condition.
The strong governance to tackle the problem of lack of skilled manpower, efficient use
of existing resource is in urgent need to overcome the gap of demand and supply.
CONCLUSION
Improved quality of life depends on sustainable, effective governance. To bridge the gap of
present and future demand with the existing infrastructure is a challenge for the infrastructure
providers, in our country with unplanned population growth and a continued deficiency of
fund there is a least hope to diminish the disparity level of demand and supply and to achieve
desired satisfaction. Thus the areas in transition are of more concern to reduce the disparity
and to get fit into the status of urban. Thus it is the responsibility to the planners and
infrastructure providers to manage the situation at their highest efficient level.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
Census of India (2001): Series 20, West Bengal: Provisional Population Totals:
Distribution of Rural-Urban Population, Director of Census Operations, West Bengal,
Kolkata.
Kundu, A., Pradhan, B. K., Subramanian, A. (2002) Dichotomy or Continuum,
Analysis Of Impact Of Urban Centres On Their Periphery. Economic and Political
Weekly, vol. 37, No. 14, 14 December, pp. 5039-46.
P. Durgaprasad S. Srinivasan, Management of Rural Health Care Delivery System
Role and Performance of the Multipurpose Health Workers, Nation Institute of Rural
Development, Hyderabad.
Ramachandran, R (1989): Urbanization and Urban Systems in India, Oxford
University Press, Delhi.
Shaw, Annapurna (1999): Emerging Patterns of Urban Growth in India, Economic
and Political Weekly, Vol 34, No. 16 and 17, April 17-24, pp 969-78.
Veronique DuPont & N. Sridharan, Peri-Urban Dynamics: Case studies in Chennai,
Hyderabad and Mumbai CSH Occasional Paper No .172006 Publication of the French
Research Institutes in India.
111

Urban Sprawl and its Smart Management

Ms. Mani Dhingra1
1.0
OVERVIEW
Because of the various urban activities and processes taking place in the urban ecosystem every
day, the subject of urbanization and urban sprawl has drawn urgent attention from ecologists,
urban planners, civil engineers, sociologists, administrators, policy makers, and finally to
common urban or rural resident.
Aristotle once wrote that men come together in cities to live, but stay in them to live the good
life. "Cities are now junctions in the flows of people, information, finance and freight....Theyre
less and less places where people live and work says Nigel Harris, a professor of development
planning (Ellis and Harris, 2004). However, the urban dynamics and growth has led to the
spatial problem of urban sprawl. The consequences of sprawl are considered both positive as
well as negative by different groups of problem. However, for developing countries like India,
where pace of economic growth is going higher, an idea of smart growth or planned growth can
provide benefits in long term planning.
The subject of urban sprawl by itself is so broad that it can only allow one to tap into many
resources. The paper explains briefly about how and why the idea of urban sprawl initiated and
developed all across the globe. In order to understand this phenomenon its causes and effects
are being presented with few probable solutions through which a smart management strategy
can be foreseen by the urban planners and professionals. Concentrating growth is what many
planners recommend as a measure against sprawl for a sustainable city. The idea of "Smart
Growth" involves controlled or managed sprawl where balance is the watchword for developing
communities. Sensitive policies and directional economic growth and management are the
possible solutions.
2.0
CONCEPT OF URBAN SPRAWL
Contemporary urban growth consists of following three interrelated problems of spatial

dynamics;
1. The decline of central or core cities which usually mark the historical origins of growth
2. The emergence of edge cities which both compete with and complement the functions of the
core. The rapid suburbanization of the periphery of cities - core and edge represents the most
extensive indicator of spatial growth.
Our abilities to "control and manage" such growth or "sprawl" is virtually non-existent despite
occasional but short lived successes through planning instruments such as green belts. The
suburbanization of cities and methods for the control of such growth go back to the origins of
cities themselves.
Early uses of the term suggest that it consumes excessive space in an uncontrolled, disorderly
manner leading to poor distribution, loss of open spaces, high demand for transportation, and
social segregation. This definition has not changed much through time. Modern usage of the
1
Student, 2nd year, Masters in City Planning 2012-14, Department of Architecture and Regional Planning, IIT
Kharagpur
112

term sprawl was coined by Earle Draper, one of the first city planners in the United States in
1937 (Black, 1996). ). Since then, the issue became popular and concerns continue to grow with
different measures introduced to combat it in one way or another. In the report, Revisiting
Sprawl: Lessons from the Past, Burgess (1998) defined sprawl as "...expanding physical
development, at decreasing densities, in metropolitan regions, where the spatial growth exceeds
population growth". On the other hand, The Oxford English Dictionary (2001) defines the word
as "the straggling expansion of an indeterminate urban or industrial environment into an
adjoining countryside; the area of this advancement."
In the 1990s the phenomenon of sprawl was adopted by other sciences as well as the general
public in the US. At this time the Anti-sprawl-movement arose and first measures of urban
sprawl were conducted. As the concept of sprawl was invented in the US, it was anchored in
the US context and discussion for a long time.
Thus generally speaking, as a noun, sprawl implies a condition characterizing an urban area or
part of it at a particular time. Based on descriptions of conditions characterizing sprawl in
literature and amplified by observation and experience, the following conceptual definition is
suggested (Galster, Hanson, R.Ratcliffe, Wolman, Coleman and Freihage, 2001).
Sprawl (n.) is a pattern of land use in an urbanized area that exhibits low levels of some
combination of eight distinct dimensions: density, continuity, concentration, compactness,
centrality, nuclearity, diversity and proximity.
In most cases, urban sprawl is regarded as one of the major effects of urban growth. As a landuse phenomenon, it is typically characterized in following ways in American literatures:
i.
Excessive land consumption
ii.
Low densities at peripheries in comparison with older centres
iii.
Lack of choice in ways to travel
iv.
Fragmented open space, wide gaps between development and scattered appearance
v.
Lack of choice in housing types and prices
vi.
Separation of uses into distinct areas
vii.
Repetitive one story development
viii.
Commercial buildings surrounded by acres of parking
ix.
Lack of public spaces and community centers
The study on urban sprawl (The Regionalist, 1997; Sierra Club, 1998) was attempted in the
developed countries and recently in developing countries such as China (Yeh and Li, 2001;
Cheng and Masser, 2003) and India (Jothimani, 1997 and Lata et al., 2001).
The spatial patterns of urban sprawl over different time periods, can be systematically mapped,
monitored and accurately assessed from satellite data along with conventional ground data. The
physical expressions and patterns of sprawl on landscapes can be detected, mapped, and
analyzed using remote sensing and geographical information system (GIS) technologies. The
patterns of sprawl are being described using a variety of metrics, through visual interpretation
techniques, all with the aid of software and other application programs. The earth scientists
with the Northeast Applications of Useable Technology in Land Use Planning for Urban
113

Sprawl (NAUTILUS) program are using techniques of statistical software to characterize

urbanizing landscapes over time and to calculate spatial indices that measure dimensions such
as contagion, the patchiness of landscapes, fractal dimension, and patch shape complexity. The
built-up is generally considered as the parameter of quantifying urban sprawl. It is quantified by
considering the impervious or the built-up as the key feature of sprawl, which is delineated
using toposheets or through the data acquired remotely.
The impacts of urban patterns on ecosystem dynamics should focus on how patterns of urban
development alter ecological conditions (e.g. species composition) through physical changes
(e.g. patch structure) on an urban to rural gradient. The use of gradient analysis for studying
urban-to-rural gradient of land-use intensity to explain the continuum of forest change from city
centre to non-urban areas might help to explore ecosystem effects of different urban
configurations, but current applications do not differentiate among alternative urban patterns
(Alberti et al., 1999). Most studies of the impacts of urbanization do not differentiate among
various urban patterns. Planners need this ecological knowledge, so that their decisions can
minimize impacts of inevitable urban growth. Decisions by urban dwellers, businesses,
developers, and governments all influence patterns. Spatial pattern is one (of very few) such
environmental variable, which can be controlled to some extent by land-use planning. Design
strategies for reducing urban ecological impacts will remain poorly understood and ineffectual
if spatial pattern issues are not addressed in ecological studies of urban areas.
Normally, when rural pockets are connected to a city by a road, in the initial stages,
development in the form of service centers such as shops, cafeteria, etc. is seen on the roadside,
which eventually become the hub of economic activities leading to sprawl. Eventually a
significant amount of upsurge could be observed along these roads. This type of upsurge caused
by a road network between urban / semi-urban / rural centers is very much prevalent and
persistent in most places in India. These regions are devoid of any infrastructure, since planners
are unable to visualize this type of growth patterns. This growth is normally left out in all
government surveys (even in national population census), as this cannot be grouped under
either urban or rural centre. The investigation of patterns of this kind of growth is very crucial
from regional planning point of view to provide basic amenities in these regions. Further, with
the Prime Minister of India's pet project, "Golden Quadrilateral of National Highways
Development Project" initiative of linking villages, towns and cities and building 4-lane roads,
this investigation gains importance and significance. Prior visualizing of the trends and patterns
of growth enable the planning machineries to plan for appropriate basic infrastructure facilities
(water, electricity, sanitation, etc.). The study of this kind reveals the type, extent and nature of
sprawl taking place in a region and the drivers responsible for the growth. This would help
developers and town planners to project growth patterns and facilitate various infrastructure
facilities. In this direction, an attempt is made to identify the sprawl pattern, quantify sprawl
across roads in terms of Shannon's entropy, and estimate the rate of change in built-up area over
a period with the help of spatial and statistical data of nearly three decades using GIS.
114

Cause
Reason
Objection
Affluence
Periods of rapid land development coincide

with prosperity. Sprawl is an inevitable sign
of good times
Developers and home buyers do not

shoulder the entire cost of sprawl
Government
Subsidy
Sprawl is encouraged by government

spending and subsidized strategies to
decongest the city core
Over the years, public subsidies have been

scaled back. Yet sprawl has not been
diminished
Population
Growth
Birth and immigration rates drive sprawl
Sprawl has occurred in every metropolitan

area whose population has stagnated or
shrunk
Technological
change
Sprawl is the result of innovation of

automobiles and peoples capacity to spend
on private transport
Countries with abundant land also went

through similar changes without producing
much sprawl
Government
shortsightedness
It is because of governments inability to

plan for the future with long term planning
goals
Poor executions is less a cause than an

effect. Had there a will, government would
have found a way
Source (Chen 2000)
Some major consequences of urban sprawl in order to understand the extent of issue can be
summarized as follows.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
x.
xi.
xii.
xiii.
Loss of open space

Increased cost of infrastructure
Loss of rural character
Loss of farms and forestland
Loss of community character
Air pollution
Water pollution
Increased time in traffic/increased vehicle miles traveled (VMT)
Increased energy consumption
Loss of urban population to non-urban areas
Urban decay
Increases in housing starts and building permits
Housing location trends in once rural areas
3.0
WAY FORWARD AND CONCLUSIONS:
Those who criticize sprawl, in general, dream about densely populated urban communities with
plenty of green spaces, sharp distinctions between city and countryside, few cars, and lots of
public transportation. In spite of the fact that the patterns of sprawl in developed and
developing countries are very different, the solutions proposed are similar with a little bit of
modification to fit into the context of the developing world since there are more prior needs to
be addressed. For developing countries, the people living on the periphery of the city are mainly
rural migrants who have come to the city in search of employment. In rural areas, where
agriculture is most common, the activity often tends to be seasonal and therefore unreliable.
The problem that needs to be addressed is, therefore, the creation of employment opportunities
away from the major metropolitan areas. A number of small towns and cities that are closer to
the hinterland could be developed as potential sources of employment for rural people. This
would reduce the burden on larger cities and create an alternative source of work, thereby
addressing the problems of both unemployment and sprawl.
115

Brownfield redevelopment or the reuse of existing land within the city and concentrating
growth: Abandoned building sites such as old schools, industrial land and parking space may
be reused providing alternatives to using virgin land outside of city limits. This attacks the
problem of city sprawl encroaching on new land outside the city. The problem is that in most
cases there are zoning policies that do not permit such redevelopment. Policies therefore have
to be adjusted by providing incentives for developers to re-use land. Concentrating growth may
be achieved through a variety of methods such as moving the concentration of population back
towards the city centre and not pushing it outward, away from the core and by promoting the
reuse of land within the cities. This is the same as increasing density in already existing
developments and building upwards rather than spreading horizontally.
Use of improved mass public transport systems: Lack of well-developed mass transit system
increases dependence on private means of transport. The advantages that are provided by
private means of transport are highlighted by the fact that the mass transit system in most cities
is non-existent or very poorly developed. While it is true that the automobile has led to the suburbanization of the wealthy, it is not clear what the solution to this problem should be. One
approach might be to tax car or charge higher parking fees and push the rich back into cities.
Municipalities and concerned bodies can also act on the problem by giving a lot of attention
and allocating the necessary fund for developing mass public transport modes. Good
transportation planning relies less on new highway construction - which encourages sprawl and more on mass transit solutions, such as light rail and commuter trains. In addition,
awareness should be increased among people on the benefits of using mass transport and
through time make it a culture. Some European countries such as Stockholm are good examples
of mass transport culture.
Development and use of better and most efficient land use policies: Communities can grow in
an efficient manner by using existing infrastructure, or by building away from natural wildlife
resources. For these development policies can be targeted more towards an already urbanized
area
Implement means to decrease or stop migration: In addition to the push factors, the pull
factors that attract migrants to cities other than job opportunities need to be addressed.
Improving efficiency of land use or other proposed solutions would not be effective in the long
run
Idea of Smart Growth: Concentrating growth is what many planners recommend as a measure
against sprawl for a sustainable city. The term Smart Growth was coined to describe the
response to the unchecked urban expansion in America during the past half century. Taking the
seriousness of the situation, Smart Growth idea was to suggest an alternative to the problem of
growth describing the application of sustainable development concept to land-use issues. The
idea channels development to areas with existing infrastructure and consumes less land for
roads, houses and commercial buildings. Smart Growth could mean smart management of
resources in both growing and declining communities.
The ultimate goals of Smart Growth to counteract sprawl are not that different from general
solutions forwarded by planners and usually include following ten principles:
i.
ii.
Mix land uses

Take advantage of compact building design
116

iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
x.
Create a range of housing opportunities and choices

Create walkable neighborhoods
Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense of place
Preserve open space, farmland, natural beauty, and critical environmental areas
Strengthen and direct development towards existing communities
Provide a variety of transportation choices
Make development decisions predictable, fair, and cost effective
Encourage community and stakeholder collaboration in development decisions
More modern Smart Growth principles need to address housing opportunities for middle-class
and low-income families in cities and close-in suburbs while creating more affordable housing
near job centers. The denser the better is one of the chief ideas behind the initiative. The
success of Smart Growth will ultimately depend on its adaptation to the unique political
cultures, market realities and developmental trends. The great differences in regional growth
patterns should be accounted for. Smart Growth can be an effective anti-sprawl measure in only
one-way: by confining more and more people into existing urbanized areas.
Most of the focus of physical planning in western countries during the 20th century has been on
ways of controlling urban growth but the recent wave of economic and related forms of
institutional deregulation have given the problem a new urgency. Traditional solutions such as
reducing our ability to locate in suburban locations through selective taxation of travel,
combined with incentives to develop residential and other activities nearer the core of old cities
are being suggested once again. But such policies are doomed in that they ignore completely
the structure of the modern spatial economy where the central city is now just one of many
nodes within a complex sea of urbanization. More sensitive policies, particularly those being
canvassed in North America, admit that such growth is going to take place and that it will be
suburban, but more selective ways of letting it take place are being proposed. This is the idea of
"Smart Growth" which basically involves controlled or managed sprawl where balance is the
watchword for developing communities in which there is much the same variety of opportunity
in travel and recreation as there is in less controlled growth.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
Bekele. H., (2005); Masters of Science Thesis, Stockholm, Department of Infrastructure,

Section of Building and Real Estate Economics, Kungliga Tekniska Hgskolan
Franz. G, Maier. G., Schrck. Pia.; Urban Sprawl-How useful is this concept?, Vienna
University of Economics and Business Administration, Vienna, Austria
Batty. M., Xie. Y., Sun. Z.; the Dynamics of Urban Sprawl , Working Paper Series Centre for
Advanced Spatial Analysis
Ewing. R., Pendall. R, Chen. D.; Measuring Sprawl And Its Impact, Volume I
Bolioli. T. (2001); The Population Dynamics Behind Suburban Sprawl, Masters Thesis,
Center for Environmental Studies, Brown University
Belal N Fallah; Three Essays on Urban Economics: Wage Inequality, Urban Sprawl, and
Labor Productivity; PhD Thesis report, Department of Bioresource Policy, Business, and
Economics, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon
Shekhar. S., (2011); Urban Sprawl and other Spatial Planning Issues in Shimla, Himachal
Pradesh, Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 8 - 3, 2011
Getting Started: Driven to Action, A Citizens Toolkit, Published by the David Suzuki
Foundation, October 2003
117


National Scenario
Shubham Arora1
1.0
OVERVIEW
The phenomenon of urban sprawl is potentially observed as a threat for achieving sustainable
urbanisation. Hence, it is very essential to understand the phenomenon of urban sprawl
especially with the perspective of a developing country. Further, the problem of urban sprawl
is known to be an outcome of improper planning, inadequate policies and lack of good
governance due to various reasons. The inability of the planning machinery to visualise
probable areas of sprawl and its growth is persistent with the lack of appropriate spatial
information and indicators. Therefore, this paper discusses the causes and consequences of
Urban Sprawl at National Level and also tries to explore a viable solution to begin with, for
controlling the laissez faire development around the urban areas of the country.
Land Consumption and Sprawl cannot be stopped but guided and controlled
-Dr. Alexander Kohli (2012)
2.0
INTRODUCTION
Urbanisation is a form of metropolitan growth that is a response to often less understood

implications of technological, economic, social, and political forces and to the physical
geography of an area. It takes place either in radial direction around a well-established city or
linearly along the highways. This dispersed development along highways, or surrounding the
city and in rural countryside is often referred as Sprawl.
In other words, Urban Sprawl is the outgrowth of the urban areas caused by the uncontrolled
and uncoordinated urban growth. Sprawl generally infers to some type of development with
impacts such as loss of agricultural land, open space, and ecologically sensitive habitats in
and around the urban areas.Indian economy is mainly agrarian (contribution to GDP is about
28%) with about 70% of the population residing in rural areas. Lopsided developmental
activities have led to large-scale deforestation and about 30% of land has become barren or
unproductive. It is thus imperative, on a National account, to identify the intricacies and
implications associated with the problem of unplanned urban growth or the sprawl.
Student, B.Tech (Urban and Regional Planning), Semester VII, Guru Ram Dass, School of Planning, Guru
Nanak Dev University, Amritsar
118

Several authors (Batty et al., 1999; Batty et al., 2002; Torrens and Alberti, 2000; and TRB,
2002) and organisations have attempted to define sprawl since the problem of urban sprawl
has been acknowledged for nearly fifty years. A working definition of urban sprawl was
arrived at after reviewing different definitions of urban sprawl. Sierra Club (1998), defines
sprawl as low-density development beyond the edge of service and employment, which
separates where people live from where they shop, work, recreate, and educate - thus
requiring cars to move between zones. This definition ascribes sprawl induced directly by the
location of work-home and aided by individual transportation (such as cars), the phenomenon
that is more prevalent in the developed countries than developing countries.
Figure 4: Inter-relation: Unplanned Urbanization and Urban Sprawl
3.0
Promoters of Urban Sprawl
The causes of urban sprawl are quite similar with those of urban growth. In most of
theinstances they cannot be discriminated since urban growth and sprawl are
highlyinterlinked. However, it is important to realise that urban growth may be
observedwithout the occurrence of sprawl, but sprawl must induce growth in urban area.
Some of the causes (for example population growth, economic growth, industrialisation,
speculation, legal disputes, etc.) may result in uncoordinated sprawled growth.
Causes of Urban Sprawl
Population Growth
Physical Geography
Transportation
Lack of Proper
Planning Policies
Economic Growth
Development &
Property Tax
Road Width
Failure to Enforce
Planning Policies
Industrialization
Living & Property

Cost
Nucleus Family
Large Lot Size
Speculation
Lack of Affordable
Housing
Credit & Capital Market
Housing Investment
Legal Disputes
Public Regulations
Government &
Development Policies
Land Hunger
Attitude
The foremost reason of urban sprawl is vigorous increase in urban population. Rapidgrowth
of urban areas is the result of two population growth factors:
119

i. Natural increase in population

ii. Migration to urban areas
Natural population growth results from excess of births over deaths. Migration is defined as
the long-term relocation of an individual, household or group to a new location outside the
community of origin. Migration is often explained in terms of Push & Pull Factors (Refer
Figure 1);
Push factors: conditions in the place of origin which are perceived by migrants as
detrimental to their well-being or economic security, and
Pull factors: the circumstances in new places that attract individuals to move there
On the other hand, expansion of economic base (such as higher per capita income, increase in
number of working persons) creates demand for new housing or more housing space for
individuals (Boyce 1963; Giuliano 1989; Bhatta 2009b). Also, the transition process from
agricultural to industrial employment demands more urban housing. Single-storey, lowdensity industrial parks surrounded by large parking lots are one of the main reasons of
sprawl. Speculation about the future growth, future government policies and facilities (like
transportation etc.) may cause premature growth without proper planning (Clawson 1962;
Harvey and Clark 1965).
Legal disputes (e.g., ownership problem, subdivision problem, taxation problem, and tenant
problem) often causes to left vacant spaces or single-storied buildings within the inner city
space. This also causes outgrowth leaving the undeveloped land within the city. Lack of
affordable housing within the city forces people to set their residences in the countryside.
Lack of consistent and well-experimented planning policies may also cause urban sprawl.
4.0
National Scenario: State of Urban Sprawl in India
In India, unprecedented population growth

coupled with unplanned developmental
activities has resulted in development of
urban periphery in every major city & town,
which lack infrastructure facilities. This also
has posed serious implications on the
resource base of the region.
Delhi, which was not even among the
world's top ten urban sprawls by population
Figure 6: Sub-urban Growth in Delhi Metropolitan

Area in the years 1978 and 1999 resp.
in 1990, is already the second largest behind

Tokyo and will continue to retain that
position till 2025. The projections made in
the UN's recent publication, State of The
World's Cities 2012-13, suggests that the
Delhi urban agglomeration will have a
population of 28.6 million by 2025.
Mumbai, which was at No. 5 in 1990, has
climbed to the fourth spot and will be No. 3 in
120
Figure 5: Sub-Urban Growth of ChennaiCity in 1989,

1998 and 2009 resp.

the next 13 years. New Mumbai and Thane are a result of the urban sprawl of Mumbai just as
Noida, Ghaziabad and Gurgaon are of Delhi.
Recently released census data shows that the urban sprawl in Chennai is spreading much like
in other major metros such as Mumbai and Delhi away from the inner city and towards the
suburbs. As an urban agglomeration a census term that groups over 50 local bodies in and
around the city Chennai had 24% more people in 2011 compared to 2001. The population
within what used to be the Chennai Corporation limits grew by less than 8% or 3.5 lakh,
indicating that much of the 22 lakh growth in Chennai urban agglomeration took place in the
suburbs.
The periphery of Kolkata Metropolitan Area also has been expanding for the last three
decades. In 1991, the area KMA was 1,350 square km housing 12.5 million population. Most
recently in 2007 that area has increased to 1,886.67 square km and population has exceeded
15.5 million. It has been visualized that population of KMA would increase to 22.04 million
and approximately 5.80 million populations is going to settle either in municipalities and nonmunicipal areas within the KMA or outside it in 2025.
Taking into account the studies conducted in India, the earliest investigations on urbanisation
are documented in Turner [95], which includes studies by Davis (1962), Bogue and Zachariah
(1962), Brush (1962) and others. The process and pattern of urbanisation in India and abroad
has been documented for selected cities by Sovani (1966). Arguing that urbanisation should
have followed after sufficient industrialisation, the rapid urbanisation in post-independent and
a developing country like India without adequate industrialisation had caused a situation of
over-urbanisation (Sovani, 1966) as early as in the fifties and sixties of the last century.
Significant attempts linking urbanisation with land use change models and transportation are
undertaken in the recent years by Srinivasan (2001) and Sudhira et al. (2004) using the
cellular automata techniques. In India, several studies addressed urbanisation and urban
growth in relation to transportation, energy, land use, climate, etc. but not many studies
addressed the problem of urban sprawl until recently (Jothimani, 1997; Lata et al., 2001;
Subidhi and Maithani, 2001; Sudhira et al., 2003 & 2004a). Furthermore, there are very few
studies on modelling urban sprawl in India (Subudhi and Maithani, 2001; Sudhira et al.,
2004b). Similar to trends in research on urban sprawl in advanced countries, the problem of
sprawl has been largely addressed in isolation in India. However, the need for integrative
approach is now being suggested (Gakenheimer, 2002).
5.0
Consequences of Urban Sprawl
Consequences of urban growth may have both positive and negative impacts; how-ever,
negative impacts are generally more highlighted because this growth is often uncontrolled or
uncoordinated and therefore the negative impacts override the positive sides. One of the major
effects of rapid urban growth is sprawl that increases traffic, saps local resources, and
destroys open space. Urban sprawl is responsible for changes in the physical environment,
and in the form and spatial structure of cities.
Sprawl is blamed due to its environmental cost and economic cost- (Buiton 1994)
Cities have experienced an increase in demand for public services and for the maintenance
and improvement of urban infrastructures (Barnes et al. 2001) such as fire-service stations,
121

police stations, schools, hospitals, roads, water mains, and sewers in the countryside. Sprawl
requires more infrastructures, since it takes more roads, pipes, cables and wires to service
these low-density areas compared to more compact developments with the same number of
house-holds.
Sprawl contributes to loss of farmlands and open spaces. Provincial tax and land-use policies
combine to create financial pressures that propel farmers to sell land to speculators. Low
prices of farm commodity in global markets often mean it is far more profitable in the long
term for farmers to sell their land than to continue farming it. In addition, thousands of
relatively small parcels of farmland are being severed off to create rural residential
development. Collectively, these small lots contribute to the loss of hundreds of hectares of
productive agricultural land per year.
The loss of agricultural land to urban sprawl means not only the loss of fresh local food
sources but also the loss of habitat and species diversity, since farms include plant and animal
habitat in woodlots and hedgerows. The presence of farms on the rural landscape provides
benefits such as green space, rural economic stability, and preservation of the traditional rural
lifestyle.
Urban sprawl causes more travel from the suburbia to the central city and thus more fuel
consumption. Furthermore, it also causes traffic congestion. More cars on the roads driving
greater distances are a recipe for traffic gridlock resulting in more fuel consumption. With
electricity, there is a cost associated with extending and maintaining the service delivery
system, as with water, but there also is a loss in the commodity being delivered.
In many cases private utility systems serving the main segment of the settled area cannot be
expanded for technical and financial reasons. Urban sprawl often occurs in peripheral areas
without the discipline of proper planning and zoning; as a result, it blocks the ways of future
possible quality services.
The reach of urban sprawl into rural natural areas such as woodlands and wetlands ranks as
one of the primary forms of wildlife habitat loss. Roads, power lines, subdivisions and
pipelines often cut through natural areas, thereby fragmenting wildlife habitat and altering
wildlife movement patterns.
Urban sprawl, a potential manifestation of development, has its negative impacts in coastal
regions also, where beach-oriented tourism and amenity-driven populationgrowth and land
development are prominent (Crawford 2007).Sprawl also includes aesthetic impacts such as
more ugly and monotonous sub-urban landscapes.
6.0
Controlling Urban Sprawl
While the causes and consequences of sprawl may seem daunting, there are multiple
strategies and techniques that can reduce the intensity of unsustainable growth patterns in the
country. These include structural measures (i.e. innovative spatial planning and designing
mitigation strategies) as well as non-structural measures (i.e. policy framework to control
organic/laissez faire development) too.
Compact City Development / Smart Growth: The Compact City is an urban planning and
urban design concept, which promotes relatively high residential density with mixed land
uses. It is based on an efficient public transport system and has an urban layout which
122

encourages walking and cycling, low energy consumption and reduced pollution. An
influential study in 1989 by Peter Newman and Jeff Kenworthy compared 32 cities across
North America, Australia, Europe and Asia; which states thatThe Compact City can reduce
problems of automobile dependency associated with urban sprawl.
Land Management Techniques: As stated earlier, Land Consumption and Sprawl cannot be
stopped but guided and controlled. Therefore the following Land Management techniques
focus on guiding the uncontrolled development in urban peripheries:
First, land development prescriptions, such as subdivision regulations, zoning
provisions, building permit limits, and urban growth boundaries can prohibit or
direct growth away from undesirable locations.
Second, incentive-based techniques, including special taxing districts, clustering
houses, development density bonuses, and transfer of development rights from rural to
urban settings can encourage the containment of growth to areas within a central
business district.
Third, infrastructure-based policies, such as targeted public investments, social
overhead capital improvements and urban service areas can provide proactive
approaches to guide growth in controlled manner.
Finally, theland acquisition and land pooling techniques, which range from feesimple purchase of parcels to conservation easements, enable local governments to
acquire and protect ecologically critical areas.
Government Acts and Policies: Specifically, Government enacted planning acts and policies
with the legal backing can help concentrate growth within targeted areas, restrain
development from sprawling uncontrollably into rural settings, and help protect or restore a
region's natural resource base.These policies, among others, can help reduce sprawl without
compromising needed development. The end result is cleaner air and water, the protection of
natural systems, lower infrastructure costs, and increased quality of life.
But it is important to note that any growth management policy is not enough to mitigate
outwardly expanding development; until enforced strictly by the government concerned.
To explain this, a case has been prepared on the study of The Punjab New Capital (Periphery
Control) Act, 1952 ahead.
7.0
Case Study: The Punjab New Capital (Periphery Control) Act, 1952
Chandigarh, when planned by Mons. Le Corbusier was visualized as having a number of

mechanisms to control and regulate the development within and outside the city. In order to
effectively manage the development in the area around Chandigarh, the Punjab New Capital
and Periphery Control Act 1952 was enacted. It provided for creating a zone around the city
(initially up to 5 miles which was subsequently increased to 10 miles), essentially meant to
cater all the basic needs of the city in terms of agriculture, dairy, milk products, etc. No
construction except those subservient to agriculture was permitted in the periphery area of
Chandigarh. Le Corbusier has said, In order to maintain harmony between the city and the
periphery area, their functions must not be interchanged otherwise chaos would prevail. The
city was to provide all the social, physical and civic amenities and the periphery was to
provide a support system to the city. Thus not only a mechanism for ensuring planned
123

development of the city was provided, but enough safeguards were made to regulate and
control the development in the periphery of Chandigarh as well.
As per Periphery Control Act, 1952, a Periphery Control Plan was prepared. In this plan the
land use in the periphery controlled area has specifically been defined and it has been laid
down that in the agriculture and afforestation zones, only buildings subservient to agriculture
as approved by the Deputy Commissioner (Periphery) shall be allowed. It has further been
provided in the plan that commercial and industrial buildings required to cater to primary
needs of the village shall be allowed only within the village abadi area.
In the year 1966, the Secretary to the Government of Punjab Capital project, had issued
certain guidelines regarding use of land in the Periphery Control Area. These guidelines were
meant to regulate the residential use (within the abadi and extended abadi of the villages),
farm houses, cattle sheds, dairy farms, tube wells, poultry sheds etc. Permission for
construction of such buildings in the periphery areas in accordance with these guidelines is
being granted by the Deputy Commissioner (Periphery) in consultation with the Chief
Architect and Secretary Urban Planning.
Further in the year 1983, some guidelines were also prepared by the Department of urban
Planning for the construction of poultry sheds, mali hut, cattle sheds, etc. As per the se
guidelines, the minimum agriculture land for permitting the construction of cattle sheds was
fixed as 3 acres and the building area of the cattle shed was fixed as 300 sq. ft. (which was
subsequently reduced to 200 sq. ft.). Similarly for mali hut and poultry sheds, the minimum
land holding capacity and build up area was standardised.
In the year 1993, detailed guidelines and building norms were also made by the Chandigarh
Administration for various types of Commercial buildings required for abadi area in villages.
The city grew gradually till 1966 and No doubt, the provisions of the act were compromised
during the time of re-organization of Punjab when Chandigarh became capital of Punjab and
Haryana as well and in the proposition of the Defence Cantonment of Chandimandir. But
emphasis should be laid on the Comprehensive and Precise Management of Periphery
Land which the act displays and the objectives it can achieve under the strict application
by the Local Government.
8.0
Conclusion
In order to control the urban sprawl, preserve the loss of fertile agricultural land and to make
available affordable housing units with efficient public transport accessibility, it is imperative
to evolve and adopt an alternative sustainable urban development pattern. The sustainable
urban development concepts like Compact city, New Urbanism, Transport Oriented
Development and Smart Growth which have evolved in response to the increasing need for a
resource-conserving, sustainable, and people-centric city, have already found enthusiastic
supporters among governments, urban development agencies, planners and urban designers in
many parts of the world and India. But these diverse approaches can only be successful if
some comprehensive, powerful and sustainability promoting policies for the periphery
development of urban areas are devised first; because Land Consumption and Sprawl cannot
be stopped but guided and controlled (Kohli 2012).
124

References
[1]
Barnes, K.B., Morgan III, J.M., Roberge, M.C. and Lowe, S. (2001), Sprawl
Development: Its Patterns, Consequences and Measurement, Towson University.
[2]
Batty M., Besussi E., and Chin N. (2004), Traffic, Urban Growth and Suburban
Sprawl, Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis, University College London, Working
Paper Series, Paper 70.
[3]
Batty M., Chin N., and Besussi E. (2002), State of the Art Review of Urban Sprawl
Impacts and Measurement Techniques, Sprawling Cities And Transport: from
Evaluation to Recommendations (SCATTER), Work package 1, Version 1.0.
[4]
Batty M., Xie Y., and Sun Z. (1999), The Dynamics of Urban Sprawl, Centre for
Advanced Spatial Analysis, University College London, Working Paper Series, Paper
15.
[5]
Besussi E. (2002), System Analysis of Urban Sprawl by Experts, in the case cities,
Sprawling Cities and Transport: from Evaluation to Recommendations
(SCATTER), Work package 2, Version 1.0.
[6]
Brueckner, J., (2001), Urban Sprawl: Lessons from Urban Economics, Unpublished
Manuscript, (Department of Economics an d Institute of Government and Public
Affairs, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
[7]
Benfield, F. K. et al. (1999), Once There Were Green Fields: How Urban Sprawl Is
Undermining America's Environment, Economy and Social Fabric. New York:
Natural Resources Defence Council.
[8]
Dash, D.K., (2012), Delhi and Mumbai in Worlds Top Four Urban Sprawls, Times
of India, New Delhi
[9]
Kohli, A. (2012), Sustainable Land Management on Fast Approach Cadastral

Documentation, (Annual World bank Conference on Land and Poverty)
[10]
Sudhira, H. S., T. V. Ramachandra, M. H. BalaSubrahmanya, (2007), Urban Sprawl

Management: Need for an Integrated Spatial Planning Support System, Centre for
Sustainable Technologies and Department of Management Studies, Indian Institute of
Science, Bangalore.
[11]
The Punjab New Capital (Periphery Control) Act 1952, Punjab Government 1952.
[12]
Squires, Gregory D (2002), Urban Sprawl and Uneven Development of Metropolitan

America In Urban Sprawl: Causes, Consequences and Policy Responses.
Washington DC: The Urban Institute Press.
125

LAND MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES AND GOVERNANCE

MECHANISM: NATIONAL SCENARIO
Palak Thakur1
Land rights and institutions are critical to development outcomes, and governments are realizing the
importance of equity and sustainability amid land appreciation, urbanization and weak public services.
Klaus Deininger, Lead Economist, World Bank Research Department
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Land is a subject which is there in the State List of the Constitution of India, 1950. Clause (3)
of Article 246 of the Constitution of India confers an exclusive power on the States to making
manage land by make laws with respect to the matters enumerated in the State List (list II of
the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution of India). The story about land is a story of power
relations, the relationship between government and people, and experiences both good and
bad during periods of nationalization, colonization, restitution or privatization during
political transition.
Land as it is a scarce resource whose management should be subject to public surveillance or
controlling the interest of the nation. As per the Urban Land Policy 2007, Land is a unique
form of economic good and owing to its unique characteristics, land may be viewed as a
natural resource, as it is not produced by human endeavor. Its role as commodity is made in
and on the land, which transforms it into some form of human use. [1] General principles for
good asset management have to be established that governments need to adopt in order to
strengthen their land management systems and enhance their efficiency and transparency. The
most critical element in guiding improvement in this area is the formulation of an explicit
public land management policy in line with land policy and fiscal policy that sets out clear
objectives related to economic growth, equity and social development, environmental
sustainability and transparent fiscal policy.
The paper consists of land management need, issues related thereof at national level models
followed in India and suggestions for the land development.
2.0
LAND MANAGEMENT - DEFINED
Land management is the process by which the resources of land are put into good effect. It is
the operational processes of implementing land policies in comprehensive and sustainable
ways. Figure 1 describes land management activities may be described by the three
components: Land Policies, Land Information Infrastructures, and Land Administration
Functions in support of Sustainable Development.
Student, Master in Planning (Infrastructure), Third Semester, Guru Ramdas School of Planning, Guru Nanak
Dev University, Amritsar.
126

Figure1 Land Management Paradigm

3.0
URBAN LAND MANAGEMENT ISSUES AT NATIONAL PERSPECTIVE
The pressure on land is increasing due to number of factors resulting in challenge for
development of land for the government. The factors includes urbanization as one of the
prime factor as per 2001 population census 285.35million resides in urban areas which
constitutes to 27.8% of the total population of the country whereas in 2011 the urban
population contributes to 311million that is 31.2% , a rise of 91 million since post
independence era while the population of India has grown 3times the urban population has
grown five times. The urban area has emerged as the engines of economic progress in the
country. The management of urban land issues is of immediate concern to the economies of
the country.
The rising urban population has also given rise to increase in poor. As per 2011 census
estimates, the slum population is estimated 93 million or 7% of total population. It is
important to note that the contribution of urban sector to GDP (gross domestic product) is
currently expected to be in range of 50-60 percent. But the land issues seem to be unaddressed
as there is wide range of population which is unable to get land for shelter. The rising slums
has resulted in enormous land degradation by establishing of jhuggi- jhopdi areas in
metropolitan cities like Mumbai the financial capital of the country also contributes to the
Asias largest slum Dharvi.
There is wide range of inequality in the accessibility to land which further leads to irregular
plot sizes, conversion of land uses, high land values, large private ownership of land, less
number of open spaces and traffic congestion. Government intervention in the form of
regulations, infrastructure investments and taxation has a direct impact on urban land supply
and on demand for land, and therefore on the price for land and housing.
In India, the combined effect of multiply layers of poorly conceived central, state and
municipal regulations contribute to an artificial urban land shortage. As a result urban land
prices are abnormally high in relation to Indias household income, and households consume
127

less floor space than they could afford if the regulatory environment were reformed. In
addition, some regulations have a negative impact on the spatial structure of cities. By
unreasonably reducing the amount of floor space that can be built in centrally located areas,
and by making land recycling difficult, some regulations tend to push urban development
toward the periphery. As a result, commuting tripe become longer, public transport become
difficult to operate and urban infrastructure has to be extended further than what would have
been the case if land supply had been unconstrained. [2]
Some regulations contribute to a decrease land supply, other artificially increase land
consumption and therefore demand for land. The double effect of restricting supply and
mandating high land consumption has an evident impact on price. Such as
Urban Land (Ceiling & Regulation) Act, 1976 major effect of the act has been to
freeze large in legal disputes. These areas are not available for development or
redevelopment. An additional negative impact of the act was to prevent private
developers to assemble land for subsequent development. The act gave an effect
monopoly on land development to government developers such as housing boards or
Development Authorities.
Land subdivision regulations tend to over-design roads right of ways, open space
and other land reserves. This practice results in an increase in the consumption of land
compared to what would be necessary. Many of the right of ways reserved are never
used for circulation.
Minimum plot sizes are often set at different value for state development agencies and
for the private sector. This practice results in excluding the private sector from the
supply of plot sizes should be adjusted to reflect land values and the affordability of
various socio economic groups and the same standards should be available for both
the private and public sectors.
4.0
LAND MANAGEMENT MODELS IN INDIA
In India due to its diversity various states uses various models for development of land.
Following are the important models of land management in India that have proved successful
in the recent years.
4.1. Gujarat
Model
and
Maharashtra
In Gujarat and Maharashtra, the model

for land development is the use of Town
Planning (TP) Scheme mechanism to
manage growth. The TP Scheme
process is laid down in the Gujarat
Town Planning and Urban Development
Act (GTPUDA), 1976, and in
Maharashtra, the TP Schemes are
prepared and implemented under
Maharashtra Regional and Town
Planning Act, 1966.
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Using a Town Planning Scheme Mechanism, the new growth areas are opened up for
development. The typical size of each such TP scheme varies in the range of about 100 to 200
hectares. It is based on land pooling mechanism; land is not acquired by the authority. It is
basically an area planning technique patterned on the concept of land re-adjustment. It
involves consolidation of separate private land holdings for their unified planning, servicing
and sub-division as a single estate (refer figure 2). The preparation of Town Planning
Schemes is one of the oldest but most efficient means of land pooling in the country and acts
as a cost effective and participatory process of urban planning.
It is normally implemented for infrastructure investment in already semi-developed areas.
Before implementation of the TP scheme, the area the original plots are of irregular shape,
without proper access and infrastructure. Special care is taken to provide direct access to each
and every single plot. The Urban development Authority identifies such areas having potential
of urban growth and notifies a town planning scheme. The TP Schemes are numbered starting
from one, two, three, etc., and are usually named after the village they fall in. The land
falling within the notified area of a Town Planning Scheme is pooled together from the
owners of the original plots. A complex system is used to simultaneously reorganize land
parcels or plots, provide access to each land parcel or plot, set aside land for public uses by
taking a portion from each landholding, and appropriate increments in land values for
infrastructure development. Owners of the land get the final plot in better shape, size and
connectivity.
Also, in this mechanism, size of reconstituted plots (Final Plots) reduces by around 40%-50%
- this land is collectively used for the following;
Provision of roads (15%-20%)

Reservations for social amenities and utility services (5%)
Reservations for sale through auctions (15%)
Reservations for EWS housing (5%-10%)
About 15 per cent land that is made available to the Authority for sale thought auctions,
thereby rendering a major source for financing infrastructure. Thus the finance required for
meeting the expenses of the Town Planning scheme is raised from within the scheme itself
and therefore it is called a self-financing scheme. The reconstituted plots are redistributed to
the original owners. Increase in Land value of Final Plots is the compensation to the land
owner for the portion of land lost from their original plots. There is no financial transaction
between the land owner and the Authority. Eventually, once the final plot is reverted back to
the owners, it is consumed for fresh development depending on its potentiality.
Advantages
Respects property rights and is non-disruptive: The process respects property rights
and is non-disruptive; the landowners are not thrown off their lands and are given a
better-shaped land parcel, usually very close to the original land parcel.
Win-win proposition: The process has been a win-win proposition for both the
landowners and the planning agenciesboth gain from the appreciation in the land
values.
129

Making development pay for the cost of infrastructure: The cost of infrastructure is in
a sense paid for by the owners directly, and the planning agency and development
authority is not required to make huge investments up-front.
Limitations
Time limits for Sanctioning: The processes are far too centralizedtoo much power is
vested in the State Government to approve and sanction the TP Schemes. There are no
time limits defined for these sanctions from the State Government.
No asset management framework is in place: The significant land assets generated by

the local authority are not managed in an appropriate manner. Most local authorities or
development authorities do not even have a comprehensive list of all such land assets
created.
4.2. Ghaziabad Development Authority (GDA) Model
GDA had been carrying out land development and housing construction under Urban
Planning and Development Act, 1973. Over a period of such operations, the authority realized
that there was a paucity of funds to continue with such development works and to overcome
this problem it launched the Public Private Partnerships Model of development via a
Government Order in 1987. It is based on joint venture between the Development Authority
and the Private Developer which means that the Authority and the Developer shares the
expenditure and gains in a pre-decided ratio for the selected project. The developer need not
have proven track record, but a clean record in terms of past performance, income tax
clearance and balance sheet is expected.
Salient feature of the Joint Venture Model:
The equity sharing between the development authority and the private developer is in
the ratio of 10:90.
Private developers earn revenue from the sale of 60% of plots in the free market
Development Authority earns annual revenue of 1% from the private developer (tie up
cost index).
In this model, 20% of the plots are reserved for the EWS/LIG at predetermined rates.
The model is applicable in selective residential areas with a minimum size of 50 acres
It does not take into consideration the city/zonal level infrastructure facilities.
5.0
RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1.
Spatial Perspective
Comprehensive development plans need to be prepared for all the urban settlements in
order to have the development in a planned way.
The mis-proportionate development of area under different activities need to be

checked with help of land use plans by providing adequate area under transportation
and parks and open spaces.
Zoning regulation related to use, height and density need to be fixed in the city in
order to have orderly development.
Instead of focusing on higher income group only, land should also be available for
lower income groups with help of proper enforcement of government policies.
130

5.2.
Administrative Perspective
An urban land management is related to changing role of government and private

sector. So there is need of undertaking development with the help of equal
participation of government and private partnership under PPP model
Government policies should be there for the welfare of the society as a whole and
should not favor members from single community. High EDC, CLU and LF need to
review as these increased charges affect the cost of developed land.
75.33% of the area private hands so instead of using the conventional method of
acquiring the land under the Land Acquisition act, 1894 an effort should be made
towards new land management models by involving private people with help of
public- private partnership.
The policies and guidelines related to land pooling and transfer of development rights
should be there as it would be helpful in increasing the speed of land planning and
development.
There should be similar policies related to infrastructure in public sector as well as

private sector.
Private colonies develop under the Punjab Apartment and Property Regulation Act,
1995 that fix the 5% area of site for E.W.S housing but it is not provided, so there is
need to have check on the norms and standards mentioned under the act while
sanctioning the scheme as well as while implementation of the scheme.
There should be third party check on the material being used in the construction that
whether it as per the specification mentioned in the documents while taking
permission or not.
In private sector profit margin should be fixed as it done in Haryana Under Haryana
Development and Regulation of Under Areas Act, 1975 in order to control the land
value.
There is check on development under public sector that is the beneficiary has to
develop the plot within time period of 3 years otherwise penalty would be there
similar check should be there in case of development under private sector in order to
check land speculation.
Policy related to OUVGL need to be viewed in comprehensive manner with wider

public participation.
Financial Perspective
5.3.
The high land values in the city leads to change in land use creating pressure on
existing infrastructure need to check with help of comprehensive development plans.
Instead of going for land acquisition new land management models should be used
such as land pooling and public-private partnership.
Private sector should also provide sale facilities as done in Haryana under Haryana
Development and Regulation of Urban Areas Act, 1975.
10% of land cost within 45 days.
25% of cost within 90 days
75% in five half yearly installments
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5.4.
Individual/ Stakeholder Perspective
Regulations related to land use should be made such that individual can not exploit the
situation. Proper check on layout plans there approval should be there.
In case of schemes undertaken by public sector the saleable area is kept up to 40%
(minimum vary as per scheme) while private developers can have up to 60% saleable
area but still the rates are less in schemes of public sector. But still land is available at
low rates in public sector as compared to private sector. This situation can be checked
with help of fixation of margin of profit as done in Haryana Development and
Regulation of Urban Areas act, 1975.
All the income groups should be undertaken to check the imbalanced development,
while planning and developing an area. As in case of private developers the focus is
there on HIG & MIG people while LIG & EWS are generally ignored.
There should be check on land speculation by fixing land development period as it

exists under public sector.
Further there should be check on provision of housing for lower income group and
economically weaker section as PAPRA act, 1995 specify 5% area of site to be used
for EWS housing but it is not been developed by developers.
CONCLUSION
6.0
It is observed that government policies also affect the land management. Therefore they must
be well integrated for the development. The model can be as under:
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
Urban Land Policy, 2007, Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India.

Bertaud Alian & Malpezzi Stephen (2001), Measuring the Costs and Benefits of
Urban Land Use Regulation: A Simple Model with an Application to Malaysia,
Journal of Housing Economics, Elsevier, 10(3), September, pp. 393-418.
132

A comparative framework of management options for urban

sprawls in India
Arjun Satheesh1
1.0
OVERVIEW
The paper attempts to discuss the causes and realities behind the urban sprawling in India.
The paper also makes an effort five different management options for urban sprawls and then
sets them up on a comparative framework for an evaluation of the options suggested. The
options presented are supported with various facts soured from the census of India, various
newspaper articles, selected bibliography and other papers. The options presented are
validated against the Indian scenario and the shortfalls of these options according to the
author are laid out in plain view. The paper suggests that urban sprawls are not a standalone
issue and cannot be treated as one and therefore the cure for the problem lies in its cause
which the author finds is a very deep rooted one. While the discussion has a considerable
amount of background study, the final suggestions are designed to deal with the issue at hand.
The management options include an increase in current FAR/FSI permitted and Rural-urban
partnerships to stem the current sprawling trend. Increasing public awareness about planning
policies and providing urban amenities to rural areas are two long term suggestions. Preemptive action plans have been suggested for an immediate and effective solution but it is
noted that the implementation would need a considerable amount of technical know-how and
certain amount of initial resources. The paper in effect is an attempt list indicative
management options for combatting urban sprawling with its causative agents and compare
these options.
2.0
INTRODUCTION
The 2011 census of India has a unique first attached to its name, for the first time since
Independence the absolute increase in population for the last decade was more in urban areas
than in rural areas. The urban area population rose by 9.1 crore while the rural population
increased by 9 crore in comparison to the 2001 census. India has 7935 urban units settled by
397 million people which is more than the entire population of the USA. In contrast to this
India has only one thirds of the land area available to the United States of America. This
shows a very important fact that the urban population in India is living on much lesser land
than most other countries with sizeable urban populations and that number is fast increasing.
Land needs are going to outpace requirements by thousands of square miles in another ten
years and India needs solutions as fast as possible. The initial reaction to decreasing core city
space was to expand outwards and this has created a host of other problems which we today
call the urban sprawl. The rural-urban fringe area is defined as an area of mixed rural and
urban land uses which begins at a point where areas near cities have agricultural land uses and
ends at a point where residences of people who commute to the city can be found. The area is
characterised by relocated slums, highly polluting industries, brick kilns, cremation and burial
grounds, garbage and sewage dumps etc. (Najamuddin, 2007). Peri-urban areas are defined to
be outside formal boundaries and urban jurisdictions but are under the process of aggressive
1
Student, M.U.R.P 1st year, IIT Roorkee, e-mail id - (arjun0satheesh@gmail.com)

133

urbanization and therefore progressively assume the characteristics of urban areas separating
them from the rural milieu. The sprawling is noted to occur when people migrate from rural
areas to urban areas resulting in villages developing in to peri-urban areas which later morph
in to towns and then become cities finally culminating in the metropolitan state. Due to lack
of prior planning these outgrowths/sprawls are initially devoid of basic amenities like water
supply, electricity, sanitation etc. resulting in inefficient and drastic change in land use which
affects the eco-system (Vyas & Sharma, 2006). This is basically the urban sprawl in a
nutshell.
2.1
Origin of Urban sprawls
India is an aggressively urbanizing country with urban population growth rates hitting 30%
and more. This urban population growth rate itself increased by 0.3% as witnessed by 2011
census in comparison to the 2001 census. This trend is expected to go further up. Expanding
peri-urban populations and the related problems are not a new issue. Farmland used for
construction decreases agricultural productivity, inefficient use of space in peri-urban fringes
due to unregulated development, deterioration of living conditions in peri-urban sprawls due
to lack of services and infrastructure, the loss of taxable revenue in a large scale due to the
informal and extra-legal real estate market that currently aids the creation of such peri-urban
agglomerations and also higher crime rates due to lesser legal intervention. There is a real
possibility that India the country will become one big urban agglomeration of suburban
exteriors and urban cores which are inadequately serviced and inefficiently taxed, from
Punjab to Kerala. Some reasons for this undesirable development are immediately apparent
and some are not. There are three stages of urbanization for a settlement and they are (Banerji
& Barman, 2006)
1. Urbanization Core city grows at a faster rate than the periphery.
2. Sub-Urbanization Core declines and the suburbs (peri-urban areas) grows at a faster
rate.
3. Decentralization Both the core and periphery declines. At this stage the shifting of
activities take place outside the metropolitan area.
The metropolitan area in stage 3 would presumably include the suburbs and core city of stages
1 and 2. Urban sprawls are created in stages 2 and 3 and in case of newly forming or formed
cities, the urban sprawl existed as the precursor to urbanization (stage 1).
2.2
Causes of urban sprawl
One of the biggest indicators of urban affluence is considered to be the land rates in the
region. The cost of urban land or built-space in India has bubbled since the late 1970s with
the rate increasing faster than the general income levels in the country. While average
income-levels in country have tripled since late 1990s, land rates have increased fivefold
while rates for built-up areas have gone up nearly eight times since then. Core city areas have
extremely high rates that a large percentage of the population in core cities live in
accommodations they do not own; as renting tenants or in employee quarters. Renting rates
are also not far behind as well. Rents in so-termed posh localities of big cities have
quadrupled. [Source: Economic times article of Jul 24, 2011 based on comparison of
economic surveys]. The average Indian just cannot afford to live in the core of a city with all
the services and infrastructure that any person needs to have access to. The only way a
134

middle-class citizen of India can survive is to go in search of lesser rates for tenancy and if
possible ownership. These lesser rates are available only in the outskirts where developers
buy-up parcels of fallow agricultural land and resell it unsuspecting buyers who have no
notion of Development Control Regulations and end up either being cheated or having to
adjust with the lack of proper infrastructure or both.
The census 2011 lists a total of 981 urban outgrowths in India and this is an inevitable sideeffect of the skyrocketing land costs. In the Indian socio-economic system, no problem is
isolated and every event is connected to every other event through a chain of political and
socio-economic causes and triggers. Similarly the skyrocketing land costs are a side-effect of
multiple issues including but not limited to bad planning policies. Very low Floor Space
Index or Floor Area Ratio, Central and State government push to develop urban areas while
neglecting the rural regions, lack of political will and rampant corruption involved in
infrastructure and rural development projects are some of them. The less apparent causes for
urban sprawling include the lack of profitability of agriculture in rural areas, the lack of
forward thinking development in urban centres of which a case in point would be the
commencing of construction of Chennai metro in 2010 after the city had reached over 7
million population rather than before, unchecked misuse of urban resources, cultural affinity
to dense communities of homogenous ancestry (based on similar caste, religion etc.), chronic
inflation and formation of exclusive areas within city cores servicing the affluent classes
based on unreasonable pricing of goods and services within the area.
3.0
MANAGEMENT OPTIONS
3.1
FAR/FSI as a tool for denser development in the urban core
The FAR applicable for most of the city of Chennai is 1.5 while Mumbai grants 2.5 in certain
areas without any special permits. No Indian city grants an FAR of 4 without special
permissions and the tallest building in India is a 60 floor residential tower which falls under
the category of exclusive posh locality for the affluent. The primary cause of urban sprawl
being the land and floor space prices, the best way to tackle the same would be to decrease the
prices. The easiest way to decrease these prices would be to increase the FAR in areas where
there are no other restrictions to doing so. Some benefits of high FAR and high density
developments are listed here.
3.2
Decreases overall development cost for the developer and therefore they would be able to
sell at lesser prices without a decrease in profit.
More development in lesser space implies lesser area to be covered with a larger volume
of services thereby decreasing the overall infrastructure costs.
More people will be able to enjoy the benefits of the urban amenities at cheaper prices
leading to a higher spending power and a stronger economy and added social benefits.
Increased tax base without having to manage an expanded area and thereby making the
entire bureaucratic process efficient.
Rural-Urban partnerships
The rate at which agricultural land is being converted in to plotted layouts and built-up spaces
is alarming. A notable case here would be the Noida and greater Noida with extensions. The
entire density of the developments under Noida and greater Noida are around 26 persons per
hectare (2634/km2). The density of the India as a whole is 4 persons per hectare (362/km2). In
135

comparison to this the density of Mumbai is 204 persons per hectare (20482/km2), density of
New York City in the USA is 102 persons per hectare (10233/km2), density of Shanghai - the
most populous city in China is 37 persons per hectare (3700/km2). While the densities of USA
and China can afford to be at the current level, India cannot do the same as India has only
lesser than one-thirds the total land area of both these countries. A rural-urban partnership
needs to be looked in to as a method of solving this crisis. A two phase approach is suggested.
Phase 1 would include
1. Developments must encourage more densities.
2. Agricultural land must be protected at all costs using stringent legislature that must be
applied diligently.
3. Agricultural land holdings must be pooled physically or administratively so that the
larger groups of farmers (through co-operatives etc.) or farmers with larger land
holdings can achieve higher profits.
In phase 2, Urban local authorities can join with the local rural farmer co-operatives in the
outlying areas and produce the agricultural products needed by the city (urban area) by
official agreement. Urban administrative bodies can directly involve themselves with the sales
of the produce as an extra revenue stream or they can facilitate such a produce sale by
providing shops for a cheaper rent for this purpose. This would lead to a scenario where the
farmers have a profitable local market and the urban area has a local food supply making a
sustainable environment. Such an official intervention would prevent extra-legal conversion
of arable land in to building space by eliminating the need for such an action. The farmer will
be under no-pressure to sell the land as profits are almost assured and urban bodies can even
provide amenities to farmers as an exchange for reduction in prices of goods benefiting both
the rural and urban population. The farmers need not be under the mercy of middlemen. The
bureaucratic intervention can be direct or on-contract as is generally done with solid waste
collection and disposal.
3.3
Taking the community along with public policy, planning and governance
Extensive reviews of existing policies and increased public awareness about the need to
regularize the process of urbanization along with large-scale encouragement of public
participation in the planning process has to be done along all these regions and India in
general. The average Indian citizen has no inkling of planning policies or urbanization and
therefore community participation and awareness is next to zero. In the more developed
countries of North America and Europe, every member of the community has a say in the
development process of the area, regardless of their individual socio-economic status, political
affiliation and religious background. This interpersonal freedom is not available in India.
There are multiple advantages from doing this which include
1. Public who are aware of planning permits will not be cheated in to buying
undeveloped or underdeveloped parcels of land in the urban fringes.
2. Awareness about land-pooling/town-planning schemes and the ease of providing
infrastructure services in such regularized areas will discourage developers and
purchasers from creating irregular land parcels and also will encourage the pooling of
such irregular developments that might already exist.
3. The people who are aware of the multiple issues that urban sprawling bring about will
be discouraged from creating an urban sprawl.
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3.4 Simulation, Prediction and the Pre-emptive action plan

As stated before, many
Indian
settlements
sprawl as a part of
natural evolution process
of the settlement. In
India a system of preemptive evaluation and
action does not exist,
while such techniques
have been experimented
in many other countries
as early as 1996-97.
Geographic Information
Systems were used to
predict urban sprawl
models.
Figure 1: Diagram of computer urban sprawl simulation in the case
study of Portage county sub-region (Ohio, USA) by Kent State
University and EMPACT
The example in Figure-1 is not directly applicable to the Indian context. Figure-2 describes a
more inclusive process/methodology to prepare a pre-emptive action plan that can be applied
to the Indian context.
137
Figure-2: Methodology that can be used to form a pre-emptive action plan.

The pre-emptive action plan is an exercise to understand what the settlement might become
and then to guide it to what it must become according to the planners and the communities
will and requirements.
An attempt to further the concept of pre-emptive action plan is made here:
3.5
Consider the settlement as a living, breathing child albeit a very naughty child.
Just like how a child is made up of a lot of biological systems and has a mind of its
own, the urban settlement has a lot of involved and interested subsystems with a
community acting as the mind that is influenced and counter-influences the systems
that consist its body.
The planners here will take the role of a guardian angel similar to a parent and
carefully watch the child as it grows and shape its growth but in agreement with the
child as the child (here the urban settlement) has a mind of its own.
To be able to do this, the guardian will need information about all the systems
involved and also the interaction between these systems and most importantly know
the mind of the child.
Inviting the communitys suggestion proactively for the growth and development
requirements and analysing the real estate trends in each land use over the past
decades through GIS and direct survey lets the planner understand the mind of the
city.
In case a settlement is growing in a certain direction (physical or socio-economic
growth) then the planner must pre-emptively analyse and provide infrastructure and
services to aid growth in that direction, given that there are no other objections or
major problems. For example if the city has saturated and a new settlement is being
settled by in-migrants and the less fortunate city population, the planner must be in a
position to identify this growth and provide the facilities required in the region.
This need for a pre-emptive action plan can be clearly understood if one studies he
case of Navi Mumbai and Bhiwandi taluka villages under the Mumbai Metropolitan
Area or the urban sprawl that covers the 527 towns/villages, 72 cities, 38
municipalities and the 3 municipal corporations under the Kolkata metropolitan area.
Just like how a small child does not always know what would be best for it the urban
area will make some undesirable decisions and the planner has to use regulations (like
DCR) and incentives (like increased FAR, rural-urban partnerships etc.) similar to
how a parent would punish and reward a child and also facilitate growth.
Providing Urban Amenities in Rural Areas
On the eve of Indias 54th Republic Day 2003, Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam addressed the nation
explaining them his vision for a new India. He visualised providing four elements of
connectivity: physical connectivity, electronic connectivity, knowledge connectivity leading
to economic connectivity of rural areas and where there will be lesser Urban-Rural Divide.
Rural Development Minister Jairam Ramesh on 24 February 2012 launched the restructured
PURA scheme that combines rural infrastructure development with economic regeneration in
Private Public Partnership (PPP) mode and seeks to harness the efficiencies of the private
sector. He slammed former president APJ Abdul Kalam's concept of PURA (Providing Urban
Amenities in Rural Areas) as a failure. The ministers declaration is very debatable and may
not stand up to scrutiny as one of the reasons why there are lesser options and opportunities in
rural areas is the lower education rate and knowledge transfer is very vital to counteract this.
Hence, the restructured PURA is not the answer and the original PURA will create more
opportunities in rural areas reducing rural to urban migration and thereby urban sprawls will
disappear.
138

4.0
DISCUSSION ON THE COMPARATIVE FRAMEWORK OF MANAGEMENT

OPTIONS
While there are no immediate total solutions, the pre-emptive action plans may show
immediate results depending up on legal and political scenarios and effectiveness of
application off the plan. Political willingness is generally found wanting and the most
desirable options in terms of administrative ease would be increase of FAR and pre-emptive
action plans. Technical ability and high resource requirements might come in the way of
effective implementation of Pre-emptive action plans and PURA but these options are
indicative suggestions and more research needs to be done before comprehensive
methodologies can be evolved.
5.0
The way forward
India has suffered a lot from mismanagement and unguided development. Urban sprawling is
just one of the symptoms of a very deep-rooted tumour. The treatment of a symptom will
never cure the disease and hence the symptom of urban-sprawls and slums in the peri-urban
areas will have to be treated from the roots. The discussion has attempted to bring out the
entirety of this fact to the surface and is a concentrated effort to treat the cause. As a closing
note two oft-repeated English proverbs are stated for consideration
A stitch in time saves nine and Prevention is better than cure.
References
Kent State university study on urban sprawl in Portage County, Ohio.
Census of India data highlights 2001, 2011
Surpass of urban sprawl in India Dr. S V S Sastry
Planning for Integrated development of the urban fringe Dr. Najamuddin
Problems of Peri-urban areas: A case of South-Bhopal Supriya Vyas & Dr. Ashutosh
Sharma
Best utilization of Peri-urban areas Haimanti Banerji & Dr. Jaydip Barman
139

Planning and Urban Sprawl in the Eastern Fringes of Kolkata

Arpita Podder1
1.0
OVERVIEW
More specifically the research stress on the form of urban morphology and also has explored
the land dynamics at the urban fringes- case study Kolkata. In the overall complexity of the
city there is a need to understand and assess the functional imperativeness in the long run to
acquire accountability and responsibility for increasing consumption patterns which envisages
certain responsibilities by adapting proper policies. Thus the needs to control the overall size
and form of the largest cities- being created by the unprecedented growth of population
leading to illegal physical expansion resulting to urban sprawling is important. Urban sprawl
is the uncontrolled and uncoordinated outgrowth of towns and cities. Noting the various
studies, the pattern of urban sprawl is characterized by using spatial metrics based on the
extent of paved surface or built-up areas. The process of urban sprawl can be described by
change in pattern over time, like proportional increase in built-up surface to population
leading to rapid urban spatial expansion.
Extraordinary population growth and rapid changes in population distribution are two of the
most dramatic phenomena of our times. The rapid urbanization process and the concentration
of population in metropolitan areas is a result of the mass migration of people from rural to
urban areas. This rapid growth in metropolitan areas has resulted in a number of paradoxes. In
spite of the increase in national wealth and personal income, the condition of urban areas is
declining. Although the supply of goods and services has vastly increased, the quality of life
is diminishing. The rapid influx of migrants into the central cities has resulted in
overcrowding. Meanwhile, the middle-class residents move to the outlying suburbs or fringe
villages. Village located today in the periphery of the city, tomorrow agglomerates within an
urban area. That is why, now the developing countries are causing an exceptionally rapid
increase in the demand for urban land. Land location is specific and existing urban plots
cannot be reproduced. Of these, the most important transition for the rapidly expanding cities
in developing countries is usually the initial transfer from rural to urban use. The lack of
proper guidelines and monitoring systems at the institution level in the peri-urban areas often
attracts the people and developers to concentrate or to invest in these areas, particularly in the
immediate peripheral area of the urban limit. Gradually, the area develops but without
planning or land use specification.
2.0
BACK GROUND
Land is the most crucial resource component for any development work, like road, building,
power project or a housing colony. With the increasing pace of urbanization, the pressure on
land, particularly on the urban land is getting more and more pronounced. Land is already a
scarce commodity in most of the urban centers across the country. Due to the increasing
population pressure in cities and towns, the process of urbanization is engulfing the precious
agricultural land on the outskirts of urban agglomerations.
In such situation, the pressure increases in the urban area, the demand of land increases, the
land prices goes up. Herewith, the demand of basic infrastructure like road network, water
1
Student, M.Sc., M. Plan, Urban and Regional Planning, CEPT University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat
140

supply, sewerage and pressure on natural resources like land, ground water also increases. To
cope this situation local authorities are try to imply the planning framework for the guided
development of peri-urban areas.
The present global scenario of globalization has extended the metropolitan regions and now
moved towards dispersal and location of growth on the peripheries or fringes of cities. The
lack of planning control in these areas marks its impact as improper standards of social and
physical infrastructure. Thus leads to poor utilization of resources and environmental
deterioration. So it is important to plan for the appropriate utilization these future city areas.
3.0
URBANISATION AND URBAN SPRAWL:
Urbanization is a form of metropolitan growth that is a response to often less understood

implications of technological, economic, social, and political forces and to the physical
geography of an area.
With significant economic and livelihood opportunities in the urban areas, an expansion for
accommodating the immigrants (or immigrating populations) is resulting in greater
urbanization.
Urbanization, as such, is not seen as a threat to the environment and development but it is the
unplanned urbanization and dynamic urban growth, or the sprawl that affects the land-use of
any region that becomes a matter of concern through its affectation in the loss of prime
agricultural lands. It is thus imperative to study and bring out the intricacies and implications
associated with the problem of unplanned urban growth ensuing into sprawl.
Sprawl is low density, leapfrog development with unlimited outward extension that consumes
significant amounts of natural and manufactured resources, including land and public works
infrastructure of various types. Speculation in peri - urban land development is one of the
main causes of sprawl, scattered development through leap frog residential sub-division and
higher land price (Archer, 1973). Three type of physical sprawl described by Harvey.
Low density continuous development
Ribbon development and
Leap frog development.
Richard Moe, president of the National Trust for Historic Preservation- Sprawl is lowdensity development on the edge of cities and towns - poorly planned, land-consumptive,
auto-dependent and designed without respect to its surroundings (Lockwood 1999).
Since the course of this research is to understand what is causing sprawl and costs accrued
from it, a working definition of sprawl was needed. Using the definitions from above as a
baseline from which to work from, a definition was created which encompassed the main
points for which there was the greatest agreement.
Therefore, Sprawl is an inefficient development pattern. Sprawl is a leap frog
development with a tendency to discontinuity & describes land development trends and
patterns that are wasteful (Desai, Sowmya J, 2004).
4.0
PATTERN AND PROCESS OF URBAN SPRAWL:
Sprawl is a dynamic phenomenon, the pattern may be define in term of spatial configuration
of a metropolitan area in a temporal instant and process may be stated as changing spatial
structure of cities over time. The dynamics of sprawl process can be understood from the
theoretical framework of urban growth process. (B.Bhatta)
141

Expansion of cities and towns in certain pockets has been experiencing a rapid changes in the
land use along the highways due to ad hoc approaches in regional planning, governance and
decision-making. The outgrowth along highways and roads connecting a city and in the
periphery of the cities is caused by the uncontrolled and uncoordinated urban growth. This
sorts of dispersed development outside compact urban and rural centers that is along
highways and in rural countryside is referred to as sprawl.
Sprawl generally refers to some type of development with impacts such as losses of
agricultural lands, open spaces, and ecologically sensitive habitats in and around the urban
areas. These regions lack basic amenities due to the unplanned growth and lack of prior
information and forecasts of such growth during policy, planning and decision-making. The
engulfing of villages into peri-urban areas, peri-urban areas into towns and towns into cities
are common phenomenon. Thus due to lack of prior planning, coordinated decision-making
and monitoring of the outgrowths, the regions remain devoid of basic amenities like water,
electricity, sanitation, etc. and result in inefficient and drastic changes in land-use, affecting
the ecosystem and thus threatening the sustainable development of the region. (Dr.
H.S.Sudhira)
5.0
URBAN GOVERNANCE AND PLANNING:
The elected local bodies are considered to be the key organizational structure responsible and
representing the citizens in the urban areas. In case of the metropolitan cities, there exists the
City Corporation surrounded by neighboring municipal councils, which are generally a part of
the larger urban agglomeration. The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts passed in
1993 mandates the urban local bodies for administering, managing and preparing master
/development plans. Instead, planning in the form of land-use zoning is undertaken for the
metropolitan region while their regulation is vested with a parastatal agency. Apart from the
urban local bodies represented by the local elected representatives, all other organizations
responsible for essential services are parastatal bodies controlled by the State governments.
Thus, there exist striking contrasts with respect to devolving powers to the respective urban
local bodies by the State governments much against the policies of Central government.
A critical aspect in the regulated development of urban areas is through proper
implementation of master plans / development plans. Although 1200 master plans /
development plans for towns and cities have been prepared so far in India, their
implementation has not been satisfactory due to a variety of reasons, which in turn have
resulted in mushrooming of slums and squatters, unauthorized and haphazard development
and above all environmental degradation and transportation problems within and around the
urban areas. Further, the development plans / master plans are mostly documents prepared
with limited forecasting capabilities without capturing the entire dynamics and are generally
not responsive to dynamic problems and responsive to policy changes. Besides this, these
plans mostly restrict to demarcate only land-use zones with little or no effective regulation for
the same.
Further, with planning authorities restricting to mostly land uses, there is hardly any
coordinated effort to involve or integrate transport, water and sanitation, etc. in the planning
process. This results in, organizations involved or catering to different services (transport,
health, water, energy, etc.), work in disintegration to address basic amenities. Lack of
coordination among many agencies has led to unsustainable use of land and other resources
and also uncoordinated urban growth.
142

With numerous organizations responsible for addressing various city functions, it is

imperative that these organizations acknowledge their interdependencies formally through
appropriate mechanisms. Much of the urban growth is normally attributed to migration of
people from other places. Migration takes place mainly due to uncertain employment in rural
areas where the majority relies on agriculture, which is dependent on unpredictable
monsoons. In the absence of effective rural-employment guarantee schemes and prevalent
macro-economic initiatives, catering to urban areas further fuel rural-urban migration with
some formal or informal employment in the offing. Thus, for certain critical issues planning
and governance cannot confine itself even to limited boundaries of the urban area, but
acknowledge conditions and factors to address and plan effectively at a regional level. (Dr.
H.S.Sudhira)
6.0
URBANIZATION VERSUS SPRAWL IN INDIAN CITIES
Cities are just like a system, its a two way process, a city depends on the surrounding region
and the similarly, the surrounding depends on the city. There are some activities which get
attracted to the cities and some activities which get attracted to the surrounding of the city.
Because of increased land value, land scarcity and congestion associated with the central
location; urbanization proceeds and some land uses are driven out the city centers.
Transportation and social variation in Indian scenario is much flexible and thus the
morphological pattern of cities in India follows axial growth. It is evident from the Indian
cities show simultaneous land use changes around the center, along the radiating highways
and on the city fringe. Urbanization is a natural process and is inevitable for the villages or the
rural areas surrounding a city. As a city grows economically, it has to grow spatially also.
This engulfs the surrounding rural canvas. The spatial and functional development largely
depends on: Land and land market, Development activity (residential, commercial and
industrial, etc.) and Actors of development (land owners, developers, users, controlling
authority). The extended zones of the city, attracts the residential development, industrial
estates, pulling some urban land uses of the city to outside the city and simultaneously
creating transportation networks. For a well planned development, this whole region along
with the city has to be taken into consideration while making plans. This extended
metropolitan region along the cities actually is the face of the city which is functioning in the
region. Urbanity of an area can be found by many factors, like, time taken to reach to the city
periphery, Urban influence, Public Utility, Land Value, Non Agricultural Activity, No. of
Families Per House, Sex Ratio, Daily Commuters, Population Density, Literacy, Primary
activity, Agricultural Activity and Built up Area. Along with these, spatial factors like, the
area and no. of land sold, average value of land, no. of land diversions, and no. of
development permissions taken will give a clear picture of any area about the developments
taking place in the area.
The succession of the urban land use over agricultural land use because of more intensity and
value, generate speculative demand even before land is ripe for urban use based on expected
future value. If we see the effects of this speculation we will find that the lands are going on
to the hands of richer and richer class pushing the poorest to periphery. Value of fringe land is
dependent on the future productivity of the land due to its unique characters. Urban demand
emerges before ripening of the land for urban use. This demand in mainly speculative in
nature, based on expected future value. Sometimes due to speculators presence in the market
before the urban pressure drives out the genuine consumers from the land market. By properly
timing between purchase and sales of the land, speculator can reduce price fluctuation and
help stabilizing the market. Speculation based on over optimistic expression may lead to a
situation of speculative boom (Wadhwa K., 1983).
143

7.0
PERI-URBAN DEVELOPMENT IN INDIAN CITIES
Mumbai (Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority)
Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority (MMRDA) visualizes the

development issues in the context of the metropolitan regions.
The plan proposals include various towns and municipalities besides the new town of
Bombay & Vasai-Virar.
Farmhouses and Independent Township with local facilities and amenities in the periurban area.
Land suitability studies of the entire metropolitan region.
Regional linkages and other infrastructures have been given priority to integrate rural
and urban Environment.
Delhi (Delhi Development Authority)
8.0
Scattered small pockets of development by small builder have been discouraged.

Delhi development authority owns all the land within the urban development authority
area.
A regional development plan around Delhi must be prepared to control and guide the
development pattern and for this purpose, a national capital region plan has been
prepared.
ISSUES IN THE URBAN FRINGE AREAS:
Rapid expansion of cities & jurisdiction conflict:

An increasing proportion of the rapidly growing world population, is attempting to satisfy its
economic and social needs and desires in an urban context. The enormous migration of people
into cities and towns has produced a very distinct possibility of an uncontrollable urban
explosion an unprecedented increase in population, greater demands of urban infrastructure,
higher rates of pollution and a decrease in the non-material and in some cases material
standard of life. In the wake of rapid expansion of metropolitan cities, the local governments
can barely cope up with only operation & maintenance of the existing services within their
jurisdiction. While serviced urban land may indeed be far below the requirement of the urban
area, the processes of speculative purchase and land conversion from agriculture to nonagricultural use continue unabated in the peri-urban areas.
The distance doesnt matter
Urbanization, a process of concentration of people and socio-economic activities within
limited geographical areas, created a pattern of interpersonal dependencies, unknown in the
rural areas.
Lack of basic infrastructure services
As a result, provision of shelter, infrastructure facilities like water supply, sewerage, transport,
law and order, etc. becomes a very complex task. The forces of the free market have often
been found inadequate to fulfill this responsibility.
Environmental degradation
In the rural setting, it may be possible to leave the decisions pertaining to housing and
residential environment etc. to the private individuals, with certain amount of financial and
administrative support from the state. In urban areas, however, such decisions necessarily call
for significant exogenous intervention.
144

The limitation of the administration

The need to assign the responsibility of providing infrastructure of controlling and
coordinating the decision of the inhabitants, entrepreneurs etc. in the cities and towns to
certain exogenous agency, say state, therefore, becomes amply dear.
Divisions in cities have always existed. It is not the fact that they are divided that is the particular
characteristic of the partitioned city today; rather it is the source and manner of their division. Some
division arise of economic functionality, some are cultural, and some reflect and reinforce
relationships of power; some are combination of all three.(Marcus, 2003)
9.0
PLANNING OF KOLKATA TURNS TO PLANNING FOR FRINGES:
Over last two decades or rather more the space in the periphery of the city of Kolkata has
been witnessed significant transformations. Such transformation have evolved in spite of a
near absence of well-defined well integrated plans. Emerging new space with rapid
displacement of already marginalized communities, resulting in formation of new Kolkata,
where the burgeoning private sector, conjunction with government and its planning
development agencies all set to redesign and restructure the spatial parameters in the fringe
areas of the sprawling metropolis.
Since 1951, population growth rate has been slowed down in all three major constituents of
the metropolitan region, Kolkata Municipal Corporation (KMC), Kolkata Urban
Agglomeration (KUA) and Kolkata Metropolitan District (KMD). But the remarkable feature
is the urban sprawl outward from the city core extended in the all direction. The decadal
growth rate of population in the fringe has surpassed that of the city core since Calcutta
attained the status of metropolis.
10.0
URBAN SPRAWL IN THE EASTERN FRINGES OF KOLKATA:
Urban sprawling in the citys eastern fringe, in environmentally vulnerable lands, has
continued unhindered ever since setting up of Salt Lake City. The construction of the state
highway i.e. eastern metropolitan bypass through the wetlands, resultant in critical threat to
the entire ecosystem. As the city is expanding along the highway the issues are getting more
critical. Moreover the salt lake township have swallowed up over half of the wetlands and the
E.M Bypass naturally attracting further development in and around the area, while the road is
acting a barrier to the natural eastward drainage flow. This region has experienced various
proposal of township development, East Kolkata Township, Patuli Township which has
engulfed a large portion of the wetland creating ecological imbalances. These physical
constraints were adhere to for a considerable period, till the reclamation of wetlands in the
east and south east and even in the south, made some new neighborhood like Ballygunge,
Jodhpur park etc. mostly occupied by the affluent class because of their contiguity to the city
Centre.
Influx of migrants during the 1947 partition of Bengal, resulted into instrumental in further
urbanizing the south and southeast fringes of the city. Primarily along the rail line In
Dhakuria, Jadavpur, Baghajatin. The growth pattern of the metropolitan agglomeration did
not followed the proposed outline i.e., northward and westwards. The urban sprawl in the
wetland was characterized by setting of the Salt Lake City in the early 1970s. The chaotic
145

sprawl that had plagued the metropolis over the decades, has been highlighted several
interrelated issues concerning environment, displacement and development.
Development of salt lake township during 1970 has been followed by numerous private
public sectors projects. New projects along the highways changed the character and
functionality of the entire area. Market forces focused the high potentiality for the future
development and gradually city spread. The speed of such changes, the active support of the
government and transformation of the city into post industrialized globalized metropolis is the
reason for a new cultural mind seems to have overtaken the old.
11.0
CONCLUSION:
The study highlights particularly the marked changes in terms of spatial planning and
emergence of new agendas in the management of cities, especially in context of the spatial
transformation and newly planned townships. The massive influx of refugees in 1947, became
instrumental in further urbanizing the south and south-eastern fringes of the city. Meanwhile,
the middle class residents move to the outlying suburbs or the peripheries. Villages located
today in the periphery of the city, tomorrow agglomerates within an urban area. Planning
however did not play a crucial role in such developments.
Thus over the last two decades the eastern fringes of Kolkata have been witness to the gradual
emergence of a marked distinct social and economic and physical organization of space. The
dichotomy is much more explicit between the city and its fringes. The intrusion of modernity
via medium of planning with considerable level of intervention over space is bringing along
with an exclusionist agenda, where the existence of the already marginalized yet integral
segment of the populace is wiped out. Social polarization, exclusion and how individuals,
communities and institutions manage public space are issues, which should be consider first
to define a proper urban growth. (ANNAPURNA SHAW)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] ANNAPURNA SHAW. INDIAN CITIES IN TRANSITION. DELHI: ORIENT LONGMAN,
[2]
[3]
2008. BOOK.
B.Bhatta. "Spatio- Temporal Analysis to Detect Urban Sprawl using Geoinformatics: A Case
Study Kolkata." THOUGHTA SOCIAL TECHNICAL ROUNDS UP (2008): 434.
Dr. H.S.Sudhira. Studies on urban sprawl and spatial planning support system for Bangalore,
India. THESIS. Bangalore: Centre for Sustainable Technology and Department of Management
studies,IISC, May 2008. Internet.
146


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CONTENTS OF THE PUBLISHED ARTICLE

Theme 1: Land Management Techniques and Governance

Where Will 7 Billion People Live? (The) Un-sprawl Global Initiative

Theme 2: Metropolitan Fringe and Megacity Governance: The

Economy at the Fringe: Kolkata Metropolitan Area

Presentations and Articles Infrastructure Management and

Peri Urban Areas Issues and Challenges

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Urban Sprawl and its Smart Management

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potential source of legitimacy- effectiveness in solving regional problems- is therefore

Published in National Symposium on Managing Lands in Urban Fringes: Controlling

like spatially integrated planning and infrastructure provision, environmental conservation,