INTRODUCTION AND

BASIC CONCEPTS
CDB 2023: PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER
Jan Semester 2015

DR. YEONG YIN FONG

1

Outline
Chapter 1: Introduction and Basic
Concepts
Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
Application of Heat Transfer in Process
Industries
Heat Transfer Mechanisms
Units and Dimensions

Lesson Outcomes:
At the end of this session:
1) Understand how thermodynamics and heat transfer
are related to each other.
2) Understand the basic mechanisms of heat transfer,
which are conduction, convection, and radiation, and
Fourier's law of heat conduction, Newton's law of
cooling, and the StefanBoltzmann law of radiation.
3) Identify the mechanisms of heat transfer that occur
simultaneously in practice.

Reference Books:
Cengel, A. Y. and Ghajar, J. A., Heat and Mass
Transfer: Fundamentals and Applications, 5th Ed.
McGraw Hill 2015.
Holman, J. P. Heat Transfer, 10th Ed., McGraw Hill,
2009.
F. P. Incropera, D. P. Dewitt, T. L. Bergman, A. S.
Lavine. Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 6th
Ed. Wiley, 2007.

Outline
Chapter 1: Introduction and Basic
Concepts
Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
Application of Hear Transfer in Process
Industries
Heat Transfer Mechanisms
Units and Dimensions

Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Heat: The form of energy that can be transferred from
one system to another as a result of temperature
difference.
Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat
transfer as a system undergoes a process from one
equilibrium state to another.
Heat transfer deals with the determination of the rates
of such energy transfers as well as variation of
temperature.

The transfer of energy as heat is always from the

higher-temperature medium to the lower-temperature
one (temperature difference).
Heat transfer stops when the two mediums reach the
same temperature.
The larger the temperature gradient/difference, the
higher the rate of heat transfer.
Heat can be transferred in three different modes:
i) conduction,
ii) convection, and
iii)radiation
7

Thermodynamic Laws
First law: The rate of energy transfer into a
system is equal to the rate of increase of the
energy of that system (also known as the
conservation of energy principle: energy can
neither be created nor destroyed; it can only
change forms).
Second law: The heat is transferred in the
direction of decreasing temperature.

Basics of Heat Transfer

The rate of energy transfer into a system is equal to the rate
of increase of the energy of that system (First law).
The heat is transferred in the direction of decreasing
temperature (Second law).

We are normally interested in how long it takes for the hot

coffee in a the cup to cool to a certain temperature, which
cannot be determined from a thermodynamic analysis alone.
9

The science of thermodynamics deals with the

amount of heat transfer as a system undergoes a
process from one equilibrium state to another, and
makes no reference to how long the process will take.
Where as in engineering, we are often interested in
the rate of heat transfer.
However, the law of thermodynamics lay the
framework for the science of heat transfer.

10

Outline
Chapter 1: Introduction and Basic
Concepts
Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
Application of Heat Transfer in Process
Industries
Heat Transfer Mechanisms
Units and Dimensions

11

Applications of Heat Transfer

Heat transfer is commonly encountered in engineering
systems and other aspects of life.
The human body is constantly rejecting heat to its
surroundings.
The heating and air-conditioning system, refrigerator
or freezer, water heater, iron and even the computer,
TV.
Heat transfer plays a major role in the design of many
devices ie., car radiators, solar collectors, various
components of chemical plants.
Exchange of heat between two fluids is a widely used
unit operation in chemical process industries.
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13

Outline
Chapter 1: Introduction and Basic
Concepts
Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
Application of Heat Transfer in Process
Industries
Heat Transfer Mechanisms
Units and Dimensions

14

Heat Transfer Mechanism

When two objects at different temperatures are
brought into contact, heat flows from the object at
the higher temperature to that at the lower
temperature.
Heat is thermal energy in transit due to a spatial
temperature difference, flowing from high
temperature to low temperature.
The mechanisms (modes) by which the heat may
flow are three: Conduction, Convection, and
Radiation.
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Conduction
Conduction is the transfer
of energy from the more
energetic particles of a
substance to the adjacent
less energetic ones as a
result of interactions
between the particles.
Conduction can take
place in solids, liquids, or
gases.

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Fouriers law of heat conduction: Heat

flux is proportional to the temperature
gradient.

Q cond

T 1T2
T
= kA
= kA
x
x

(W)

Eq (1.21)

k is the thermal conductivity of the

material, which measure of the ability
of a material to conduct heat.
In heat conduction analysis, A
represents the area normal to the
direction of heat transfer.
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Heat conduction
through a large plane
wall of thickness x
and area A.

The rate of heat conduction

through a solid is directly
proportional to its thermal
conductivity.
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In metals, thermal conduction is by the motion of free

electrons.
In poor conducting solids, thermal conduction is by
the momentum transfer between vibrating molecules
or atoms.
In liquid and gases, conduction occurs by random
motion of molecules, so called thermal collision and
diffusion.

19

The mechanisms of
heat conduction in
different phases of a
substance.

20

Thermal Conductivity

The rate of heat

transfer through a
unit thickness of the
material per unit
area per unit
temperature
difference.

21

The range of thermal conductivity of various materials at room

temperature
22

The variation of the thermal conductivity of various solids, liquids, and

gases with temperature.
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Example 1.5: The Cost of Heat Loss

through a Roof
The roof of an electrically heated
home is 6m long, 8m wide, and
0.25m thick, and is made of a flat
layer of concrete whose thermal
conductivity is k = 0.8 W/m.K. The
temperature of the inner and the
outer surfaces of the roof one night
are measured to be 15C and 4 C,
respectively, for a period of 10
hours. Determine:
a) The rate of heat loss through the
roof that night, and
b) The cost of that heat loss to the
home owner if the cost of the
electricity is $0.08/kWh.

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Solution
Given: k = 0.8 W/m.K, A = 6 m x 8 m = 48 m2, T1
= 15oC and T2 = 4oC,
Determine:
a) The rate of heat transfer
The steady rate of heat transfer through the roof
is:
.

Q cond
.

Q cond

T 1T2
= kA
x

(W)

Eq (1.21)

0
T 1T2
W
(
15

4
)
C
= kA
= 0 .8
48 m 2
= 1690W
x
m.K
0.25 m
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b) The cost of that heat loss

For 10 hours period, the amount of heat lost and it
cost:
.

Q = Qcond t = 1.69kW 10h = 16.9kWh

Cost = amount of energy x unit cost of energy
= 16.9 kWh x $ 0.08/kWh
= $1.35

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Convection
Convection refers to the flow
of heat associated with the
movement of a fluid.
Examples: hot air from a
furnace enters a room,
transfer of heat from a hot
surface to a flowing fluid.
The faster the fluid motion,
the greater the convection
heat transfer.
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The convective flux is proportional to the difference

between the surface temperature and the fluid
temperature, referred as Newtons law of cooling.
.

Qconv = hAs (Ts T )

(W)

Eq (1.24)

where Q = heat flow rate, As = surface area of heat

transfer, h = heat transfer coefficient (W/m2.K), Ts = surface
temperature, T = temperature of the fluid

Heat transfer
from a hot
surface to air by
convection.
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Typical values of convection heat transfer coefficient

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Natural and Forced Convection

Forced convection: If the fluid is forced to flow over
the surface by external means such as a fan, pump,
or the wind.
Natural (or free) convection: If the fluid motion is
caused by buoyancy forces that are induced by
density differences due to the variation of temperature
in the fluid.

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The cooling of a boiled egg by forced

and natural convection.
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Example 1.8 : Measuring Convection

Heat Transfer Coefficient
A 2m long, 0.3cm diameter electrical
wire extends across a room at 15 oC.
Heat is generated in the wire as a
result of resistance heating, and the
surface temperature of the wire is
measured to be 152 oC in steady
operation. Also, the voltage drop and
the electric current through the wire
are measured to be 60 V and 1.5 A,
respectively. Disregarding any heat
transfer by radiation, determine the
convection heat transfer coefficient for
heat transfer between the outer
surface of the wire and the air in the
room.
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Solution
Given: wire = 2m long, 0.3cm diameter, voltage drop
= 60V, 1.5 A. room temperature = 15 oC, surface
temperature of wire =152 oC.
Determine h.
When steady operating conditions are reached, the
rate of heat loss from the wire equals the rate of
heat generation in the wire as a result of resistance
heating. That is
.

Q = E generated = VI = 60 V 1.5 A = 90 W
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The surface area of the wire is:

As = DL = (0.003m)(2m) = 0.01885 m 2
Newtons law at cooling for convection heat
transfer is express as
.

Qconv = hAs (Ts T )

(W)

Eq (1.24)

Rearrange Eq 1.24, the convection heat transfer

coefficient is determined to be:
.

Qconv
90 W
W
h=
=
= 34.9 2
2
o
As (Ts T ) (0.01885m )(152 15) C
m K
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Radiation
Radiation is the energy
emitted by matter in the
form of electromagnetic
waves (or photons) as a
result of the changes in the
electronic configurations of
the atoms or molecules.
Does not require the
presence of an intervening
medium.
Example: energy of the sun
reaches the earth.
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The maximum radiation flux emitted by a body at

temperature T is given by Stefan-Boltzmann law
.

Q emit , max = AsTs

(W)

Eq (1.25)

where Ts is absolute temperature in kelvins, As is the

surface area is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant [ =
5.6697 x 10-8 W/(m2 . K4)].
The idealised surface that emits radiation at this maximum
rate is called blackbody.

36

The radiation emitted by

all real surfaces is less
than the radiation emitted
by a blackbody at the
same temperature and is
expressed as:
.

Qemit = AsTs

(W)

Eq (1.26)

where , emissivity lies

between 0 and 1
37

When a surface of emissivity and surface area As at

a temperature Ts is completely enclosed by a much
larger surface at temperature Tsurr, the net rate of
radiation heat transfer between these two surfaces is:

Q rad = As (Ts - T

surr

(W)

Eq (1.28)

38

Example 1-9: Radiation Effect on

Thermal Comfort
Consider a person standing in
a room maintained at 22oC at
all times. The inner surface of
the walls floors, and the ceiling
of the house are observed to be
at an average temperature of
10oC in winter and 25oC in
summer. Determine the rate of
radiation heat transfer between
this person and the surrounding
surfaces if the exposed surface
area and the average outer
surface temperature of the
person are 1.4 m2 and 30oC,
respectively.
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Solution
Given: Tsurr,winter = 10oC, Tsurr,summer = 25oC, Ts = 30oC, As
= 1.4 m2
= 0.95 (Table 1-6), = 5.6697 x 10-8 W/m2 . K4
The net rates of radiation heat transfer form the body to
the surrounding walls, ceiling, and floor in winter and
summer are: (from equation 1.28)
.

Q rad, winter = As (Ts - T 4 surr )

-8

= (0.95)(5.6 7 10 W/m K )(1 .4 m )

[(30 + 273) 4 (10 + 273 ) 4 ]K 4
= 152 W
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Q rad, summer = As (Ts - T 4 surr )

-8

= (0.95)(5.6 7 10 W/m K )(1 .4 m )

[(30 + 273) 4 ( 25 + 273 ) 4 ]K 4
= 40.9 W

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Simultaneous Heat Transfer

Mechanism
Heat transfer is only by conduction in opaque (dense)
solids, but by conduction and radiation in semitransparent
solids
a solid may involve conduction and radiation but
not convection.
A solid may involve heat transfer by convection and/or
radiation on its surfaces exposed to fluid or other surfaces.
For examples: the outer surface of a cold piece of rock will
warm up in a warmer environment as a result of
i) heat gain by convection (from the air)
ii) radiation (from the sun or the warmer surrounding
surface)
But the inner part of the rock will warm up as this heat
transferred to the inner region of the rock by conduction.
42

Heat transfer is by conduction

and possibly by radiation in a
still fluid (no bulk fluid motion)
and by convection and radiation
in a flowing fluid.
When deal with the heat
transfer through a fluid, we
have either conduction or
convection, but not both.
Heat transfer through a vacuum
is by radiation only since
conduction or convection
requires the presence of
material medium.

Although there are three mechanisms of

heat transfer, a medium may involve
only two of them simultaneously.
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Example 1-10: Heat Loss From a

Person
Consider a person standing
in a breezy room at 20 oC.
Determine the total rate of
heat transfer from this
person if the exposed
surface area and the
average outer surface
temperature of the person
are 1.6 m2 and 29 oC,
respectively, and the
convection heat transfer
coefficient is 6 W/m2.K
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Solution
Given: Room temperature (surrounding) = 20
oC, surface temperature of the person = 29 oC,
surface area = 1.6 m2 , convection heat transfer
coefficient = 6 W/m2.K
Determine: The total rate of heat transfer from a
person by both convection, Qconv, (Eq 1.24) and
radiation, Qrad, (Eq 1.28) to the surrounding air
and surfaces at specified temperatures.

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The rate of heat transfer through convection (Eq 1.24):

.

Qconv = hAs (Ts T )

= (6 W/m2 K)(1.6m2 )(29- 20)o C
= 86.4 W
The rate. of heat transfer through radiation (Eq 1.28):
4

Q rad = As (Ts - T

surr

)
-8

= (0.95)(5.6 7 10 W/m K )(1 .6 m )

[(29 + 273) 4 ( 20 + 273 ) 4 ]K 4
= 81.7 W
The total heat transfer from the body
= 86.4 +81.7 = 168 W
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Example 1-11: Heat Transfer between

Two Isothermal Plates
Consider steady heat transfer
between two large parallel plates at
constant temperature of T1 = 300 K
and T2 = 200 K that are L =1 cm
apart. Assuming the surfaces to be
black (emissivity =1), determine the
rate of heat transfer between the
plates per unit surface area
assuming the gap between the
plates is
(a) filled with atmospheric air
(b) evacuated
(c) filled with urethane insulation
(d) filled with superinsulation that
has an apparent thermal
conductivity of 0.00002 W/m.K
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Solution
Given, T1 = 300 K,T2 = 200 K, L =x = 1 cm, = 1, A = 1m2.
(a) Filled with atmospheric air, the rates of heat transfer =
conduction, Qcond (Eq. 1.21) + radiation, Qrad (Eq. 1.28)
From Table A-15, the average thermal conductivity for air
at 250 K is 0.0219 W/m.K.
.
T T
W
(300 200 ) K
Q cond = kA 1 2 = 0 .0219
1m 2
= 219 W
x
mK
0 .01m
and
.

Q rad = A s (T1 - T 2 )
= (1)(5.67 10 -8 W/m 2 K 4 )(1m 2 ) [300 200 ] K 4
= 369 W
QTotal = Qcond + Qrad

= 219 +369 = 588 W

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Table A-15,pg 924

-23oC

49

(b) When the air space between the plates is evacuated,

there will be no conduction or convection, and the only
heat between the plates will be radiation, therefore,
QTotal = Qrad = 369 W
(c) The urethane blocks direct radiation heat transfer
between the plates. Thermal conductivity for urethane is
0.026 W/m.K (Table A-6). The rate of heat transfer:
.

Q cond

T 1T2
W
(300 200 ) K
2
= kA
= 0 .026
1m
= 260 W
x
m K
0 .01m

QTotal = Qcond

= 260 W

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Table A-6,pg 914

51

(d) Given, apparent thermal conductivity of superinsulation,

k = 0.00002 W/m.K.
Note that the layer of the superinsulation prevent any direct
radiation
heat transfer between the plates
.
.
T T
Q Total = Q cond = kA 1 2
x
W
( 300 200 ) K
2
= 0 . 00002
1m
= 0 .2 W
m K
0 . 01 m

52

Outline
Chapter 1: Introduction and Basic
Concepts
Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
Application of Heat Transfer in Process
Industries
Heat Transfer Mechanisms
Units and Dimensions

53

Units and Dimensions

A dimension is a fundamental quantity, a property of a
physical entity.
Base dimensions: length (L), mass (M), time (t),
temperature (T), amount of substance (n).
Derived dimensions dimensions of other quantities
derived from the base dimensions. Eg. M/Lt2

54

Units are scales used to quantify the dimensions in a

standard way.
Systems of units: CGS, SI, and American Engineering
System.
Base units are the units for the base dimensions.
Multiple units multiples or fractions of base units. E.g.,
minutes, hours, milliseconds, all of which are defined in
terms of the base unit of time, second.
Derived units units for the derived dimensions.
a) By multiplying and dividing base or multiple units (e.g.,
cm2, ft/min, kg.m/s2). Derived units of this type are
referred to as compound units.
b) As defined equivalents of compound units
(1 lbf = 32.174 lbm.ft/s2).
55

SI and CGS Systems of Units

SI and CGS are metric systems of units.
The base units in SI (International System of Units) are:
meter (m) for length, kilogram (kg) for mass, second (s) for
time, Kelvin (K) for temperature, and mole (mol) for the
amount of substance.
CGS system : almost identical to SI, the difference being
that gram (g) and centimeters (cm) are used instead of
kilograms & meters as the base units of mass and length.
SI has gained widespread use in international scientific
and engineering community.

56

American/British Engineering System

Base units: foot (ft) for length, pound-mass (lbm) for
mass, second (s) for time.
Still widely used in the United States.
The derived unit of force is pound-force (lbf), which is
defined as 1 lbf = 32.174 lbm ft/s2.
Derived Units of Force in Various Systems

57

Units in Heat Transfer

Q (heat flow) J/s or W
q (heat flux) J/(s-m2) or W/m2
k (thermal conductivity) W/m oC or W/m K
h (heat transfer coefficient) W/m2 oC or W/m2 K
(Stefan-Boltzmann constant) W/(m2 . K4)
58

Summary
Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
Application areas of heat transfer
The First Law of Thermodynamics
Heat Transfer Mechanisms
- Conduction
Fouriers law of heat conduction
-Convection
Newtons law of cooling
- Radiation
StefanBoltzmann law
Simultaneous Heat Transfer Mechanisms
Unit and Dimensions
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End of Chapter

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