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INVESTIGATORY
PROJECT
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
PROJECT MADE BY
GUIDED BY
CERTIFICATE
Date: February 2015
______________
___________ ____________
External Examiner
Principal
K.V.No-2, Colaba,
Mumbai
Place: Mumbai
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It gives me great pleasure to express my gratitude towards
Mrs. Manju Rani Rawat, PGT, Physics for her untiring
help and encouragement throughout the duration of the
project. Without her motivation and help, successful
completion of the project would not have been possible.
Lastly, I would like to thank my parents and people those
who provided me all the material required so as to finish
the project within the allotted time period.
Navneet Kumar,
XII B
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INDEX
1. AIM OF THE
PROJECT
2.THEORY
3. MATERIALS AND
EQUIPMENTS USED
4.PROCEDURE
5. WORKING OF THE
CIRCUIT
6. BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. AIM OF THE
PROJECT
TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OF 24
LED DANCING LIGHT
2. THEORY
SEMICONDUCTOR
Properties
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1. Variable conductivity
A pure semiconductor is a poor electrical conductor as a consequence of having just the
right number of electrons to completely fill its valence bonds. Through various
techniques (e.g., doping or gating), the semiconductor can be modified to have an excess
of electrons (becoming an n-type semiconductor) or a deficiency of electrons (becoming
a p-type semiconductor). In both cases, the semiconductor becomes much more
conductive (the conductivity can be increased by one million fold or more).
Semiconductor devices exploit this effect to shape electrical current.
2. Depletion
When doped semiconductors are joined to metals, to different semiconductors, and to the
same semiconductor with different doping, the resulting junction often strips the electron
excess or deficiency out from the semiconductor near the junction. This depletion region
is rectifying (only allowing current to flow in one direction), and used to further shape
electrical currents in semiconductor devices.
4. Light emission
In certain semiconductors, excited electrons can relax by emitting light instead of
producing heat. These semiconductors are used in the construction of light emitting
diodes and fluorescent quantum dots.
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
Semiconductor devices are electronic components that exploit the electronic
properties of semiconductor materials, principally silicon, germanium, and gallium
arsenide, as well as organic semiconductors. Semiconductor devices have replaced
thermionic devices (vacuum tubes) in most applications. They use electronic
conduction in the solid state as opposed to the gaseous state or thermionic emission
in a high vacuum. Semiconductor devices are manufactured both as single discrete
devices and as integrated circuits (ICs), which consist of a numberfrom a few
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Diode
The diode is a device made from a single pn
junction. At the junction of a p-type and an ntype semiconductor there forms a region called
the depletion region which blocks current
conduction from the n-type region to the p-type
region, but allows current to conduct from the ptype region to the n-type region. Thus, when the device is forward biased, with the p-side
at higher electric potential, the diode conducts current easily; but the current is very small
when the diode is reverse biased. Exposing a semiconductor to light can generate
electronhole pairs, which increases the number of free carriers and its conductivity.
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Transistor
Bipolar junction transistors are formed from two pn junctions, in either npn or pnp
configuration. The middle, or base, region between the junctions is typically very narrow.
The other regions, and their associated terminals, are known as the emitter and the
collector. A small current injected through the junction between the base and the emitter
changes the properties of the base-collector junction so that it can conduct current even
though it is reverse biased. This creates a much larger current between the collector and
emitter, controlled by the base-emitter current. Another type of transistor, the field-effect
transistor, operates on the principle that semiconductor conductivity can be increased or
decreased by the presence of an electric field. An electric field can increase the number of
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free electrons and holes in a semiconductor, thereby changing its conductivity. The field
may be applied by a reverse-biased pn junction, forming a junction field-effect transistor
(JFET) or by an electrode isolated from the bulk
material by an oxide layer, forming a metaloxide
semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET).The
MOSFET, a solid-state device, is the most used
semiconductor device today. The gate electrode is
charged to produce an electric field that controls the
conductivity of a "channel" between two terminals,
called the source and drain. Depending on the type of
carrier in the channel, the device may be an n-channel
(for electrons) or a p-channel (for holes) MOSFET.
Although the MOSFET is named in part for its "metal"
gate, in modern devices polysilicon is typically used
instead.
RESISTORS
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. Resistors act to reduce current flow, and, at the same time,
act to lower voltage levels within circuits. In electronic circuits resistors are used to limit
current flow, to adjust signal levels, bias active elements, terminate transmission lines
among other uses. High-power resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power
as heat may be used as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test
loads for generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that only change slightly with
temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit
elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat,
light, humidity, force, or chemical activity. Resistors are common elements of electrical
networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical
resistors as discrete components can be composed of
various compounds and forms. Resistors are also
implemented within circuits. The electrical function of a
resistor is specified by its resistance: common
commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of
more than nine orders of magnitude. The nominal value
of the resistance will fall within a manufacturing
tolerance.
CAPACITORS
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical
component used to store energy electrostatically in an electric field. The forms of
practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors (plates)
separated by a dielectric (i.e. insulator). The conductors can be thin films, foils or sintered
beads of metal or conductive electrolyte, etc. The "nonconducting" dielectric acts to
increase the capacitor's charge capacity. A dielectric can be glass, ceramic, plastic film,
air, vacuums, paper, mica, oxide layer etc. Capacitors are widely used as parts of
electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor
does not dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor stores energy in the form of an electrostatic
field between its plates. When there is a potential difference across the conductors (e.g.,
when a capacitor is attached across a battery), an electric field develops across the
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dielectric, causing positive charge +Q to collect on one plate and negative charge Q to
collect on the other plate. If a battery has been attached to a capacitor for a sufficient
amount of time, no current can flow through
the capacitor. However, if a time-varying
voltage is applied across the leads of the
capacitor, a displacement current can flow.
An ideal capacitor is characterized by a
single constant value for its capacitance.
Capacitance is expressed as the ratio of the
electric charge Q on each conductor to the
potential difference V between them. The SI
unit of capacitance is the farad (F), which is
equal to one coulomb per volt (1 C/V). Typical capacitance values range from about 1 pF
(1012 F) to about 1 mF (103 F). The capacitance is greater when there is a narrower
separation between conductors and when the conductors have a larger surface area. In
practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and
also has an electric field strength limit, known as the breakdown voltage. The conductors
and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance. Capacitors are widely used in
electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass.
In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power supplies. In resonant circuits
they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power transmission systems, they
stabilize voltage and power flow.
3. MATERIAL AND
EQUIPMENTS
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4. CONSTRUCTION
PROCEDURE
1. Collect all the material as per required
2. Check whether all the LEDs are functioning
or not
3. Solder all the LEDs in the circuit board.
4. Solder all the capacitors, resistors and
transistors to the circuit board
5. Check whether the circuit formed is working
or not by connecting to 12 v battery/adapter
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5. WORKING
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6. BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. INTERNET
a. www.wikipedia com
b. www.instructables.com
c. www.google.co.in [images]
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