Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) developed in the 1970s by

Richard Bandler and John Grinder is an approach that aims to enhance

the effectiveness of communication and facilitate learning and personal
development. It is becoming increasingly familiar in formal education,
professional development, and informal learning. A recent book called
`NLP for Teachers (Churches & Terry 2007) has received a very
favourable review from the distinguished Canadian scholar, Michael
Fullan. NLP is also a popular approach to coaching (e.g. Henwood &
Lister 2007) and is also a recognised mode of psychotherapy in the
UK [i].
Evidence of the application of NLP to education can be found in
practitioner magazines and journals [ii], websites [iii] and discussion
groups, and at conferences. How widespread or popular NLP has become
in practice is difficult to say with precision, though. As an indication the
number of people to have been trained to `Practitioner level in the UK
since NLPs inception seems likely to number at least 50,000 [iv].
Trainings in NLP are found across the world, principally in countries
where English is the first language, but including Norway, Spain and
Brazil [v]. There is no unified structure to the NLP practitioner
community. Probably in common with other emergent fields there is
diversity in both practice and organisation, and there are resulting
tensions.
Many publications give accounts of the nature and development of NLP.
To complement our direct experience of the field, we have drawn from
McLendon ( 1989), Dilts and DeLozier (2000), Walker (1996), and Bostic
St. Clair and Grinder (2001). The latter includes a valuable retrospective
commentary from one of the founders, though it is not widely available.
The origins of Neuro-Linguistic Programming
Neuro-Linguistic Programming was developed by Richard Bandler and
John Grinder in the early 1970s. Bandler was studying at the University
of Santa Cruz, where he met John Grinder, an assistant professor of
linguistics [vi] (Bostic St.Clair & Grinder 2001 pp 142-3). They began to
pursue a curiosity about what differentiated excellent therapists from
others. Their initial study of the work of Fritz Perls, the founder of

Gestalt therapy, and Virginia Satir, the family therapist, resulted in a two
volumes titled The Structure of Magic (Bandler & Grinder 1975b; Grinder
& Bandler 1976), which describe language patterns that the authors
identified as characteristic of excellent therapists.
The development of NLP was influenced in particular by conversations
with Gregory Bateson, who was Bandler and Grinders neighbour in
Santa Cruz in the 1970s (Bostic St.Clair & Grinder 2001p.118).
Bateson, an English epistemologist who made important contributions to
many fields, including anthropology and family therapy (Bateson 2000),
contributed a foreword to the first volume ofThe Structure of Magic and
introduced Bandler and Grinder to Milton Erickson, the hypnotherapist
(Bostic St.Clair & Grinder 2001pp. 175-8). That contact resulted in two
books on Ericksons approach, which analysed his use of language
patterns (Bandler & Grinder 1975a; Grinder, DeLozier, & Bandler 1977).
Neuro-Linguistic Programming, learning and educating
The title, `Neuro-Linguistic Programming, refers to the view that a
person is a whole mind-body system, and that there are assumed to be
systematic, patterned connections between neurological processes
(`neuro), language (`linguistic) and learned behavioural strategies
(`programming) (Dilts, Bandler, & DeLozier 1980 p.2). The term neurolinguistics was first used, we believe, by Alfred Korzybski in 1941 (Dilts
& DeLozier 2000 p. 849), who is an acknowledged influence on NLP
(Bandler & Grinder 1975b p.7).
NLP has been defined in various ways, and agreement on a singular
definition is likely to prove elusive. Its promotional literature often
emphasises the notion of excellence in communication. A common
alternative definition, as in the subtitle to Dilts et al ( 1980), is `the
study of the structure of subjective experience.
According to Dilts and DeLozier ( 2000 p.849) NLP can be seen as a
technology, a methodology, and an epistemology. As a technology, NLP
comprises a substantial collection of frameworks, tools and techniques,
some specific to NLP and some borrowed or adapted from other fields.
These are presented in numerous popular publications.

Learners and professional educators can apply these tools to virtually

any aspect of learning and teaching; self-management, presentation
skills, use of language for precise communication, study skills,
classroom management, teaching design, and so on. Many practical
applications to teaching are described by Churches and Terry ( 2007).
One example is the use of space and locations in the classroom to
manage learners states, called `spatial anchoring:
By consistently adopting a particular behaviour or approach when you
stand or sit in one place, your learners will begin to associate that space
with what you are about to do and what will happen next. Your learners
own internal state will change in anticipation for what they know from
experience will come next. As their internal state changes so will their
behaviour. This works for adult learners in a training environment just as
well as it does with children in the classroom. (Churches & Terry 2007
p.110)
Note that NLP assumes that all educators necessarily influence learners
responses through their use of space (and language, and so on),
regardless of whether they are using NLP. Many will do so without being
aware of it, and may unintentionally use space in ways that negate
rather than support educational objectives. The intent of using NLP in
this example is to enable the educator to align their behaviour more
effectively with their purpose.
While NLP appears to comprise a plethora of techniques, it was originally
portrayed as a method, which the authors called `modeling (Bandler &
Grinder 1975b p.6). Stemming from Bandler and Grinders original
interest in identifying what distinguished excellent therapists from
others, and informed by Grinders knowledge of linguistics, NLP began
as a means of studying how people process information, construct
meaning schemas, and perform skills to achieve results. Bandler and
Grinder also emphasised a pragmatic intent, saying We have no idea
about the real nature of things, and were not particularly interested in
whats true. The function of modeling is to arrive at descriptions which

are useful (Bandler & Grinder 1979 p.7). In tune with this view, we
regard NLP first and foremost as a praxis.
NLP modelling therefore aims to identify what is distinctive about the
strategies of exemplars in a given skill, including internal cognitive as
well as behavioural elements, such that other people can learn to
perform the same skill. As described by Dilts, `The objective of the NLP
modeling process is not to end up with the one `right or `true
description of a particular persons thinking process, but rather to make
an instrumental map that allows us to apply the strategies that we have
modelled in some useful way (Dilts 1998 p.30). Modelling has been
used to identify the cognitive strategies that lie behind everyday
capabilities such as motivating oneself, negotiating, spelling (Dilts,
Bandler, & DeLozier 1980), and so on. Dilts ( 1994) has also modelled a
number of `strategies of genius, yielding for example the creative
process that appears to have been used by Walt Disney [vii].
Modelling continues to be identified by the founders as the core of the
field. Even so its nature is contested; for example Bostic St Clair &
Grinder emphasise a non-verbal approach that eschews conscious
reflection or analysis, which contrasts with Dilts more conceptual
emphasis. NLP modelling has directly influenced a contemporary
European academic approach to the study of consciousness and human
experience, known as `Psychophenomenology (Vermersch 2004).
A question often asked of NLP is that of whether it has a theory. As
noted above, authors in the field emphasise pragmatism, and have
seldom shown interest in articulating NLP as a theory. Because NLP has
always aimed to model `what works, one can find evidence within its
practices of an eclectic approach that draws from (among other things)
cognitive-behavioural approaches, Gestalt therapy, hypnotherapy, family
therapy, and brief therapy. For more extensive discussion of NLPs
theory in relation learning see Tosey and Mathison ( 2003; 2008). [viii]

According to Dilts and DeLozier, NLP does espouse underlying

epistemological principles, concerning the processes through which
people perceive, know and learn. Typically articulated for practitioners
as a set of `presuppositions (Dilts & DeLozier 2000 pp 1000-4), these
appear to be based substantially on Gregory Batesons interests in
ecology and cybernetics systems. Accordingly, NLP is committed to a
cybernetic view of how processes of perception and conceptualisation
are structured and how they operate.
Characteristics of Neuro-Linguistic Programming
Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) is a growth-orientated rather than
pathology-orientated approach. It emphasises learning as the key to
personal change and development and assumes that people are
inherently creative and capable. It adopts a constructivist position in
that people act according to the way they understand and represent the
world, not according to the way the world is. Korzybskis dictum, `the
map is not the territory, is often cited to emphasise that NLP works with
peoples `maps of the world, or constructions.
There is a strong emphasis on understanding the structure and process
of, rather than the content of, experience. In other words NLP is
interested in how people construct their experiences through cognitive
processes, rather than in seeking causal explanations in the past for why
they experience the world as they do, or in the contents of a particular
experience.
For example, in their original study Bandler and Grinder suggested that
effective therapists appeared to match certain language patterns used
by their clients. For instance they matched a clients use of visual
predicates (e.g. `this is how I see the problem, `I dont have enough
clarity about my situation) in their responses (e.g. `so this is how
youre viewing the world, `what are you looking for?), whereas
ineffective therapists used auditory or kinaesthetic predicates in
response to the same client statements (`what Im hearing you saying
is; `that feels like a hard place to be.). This principle of matching or
mismatching predicates can be applied in any context of human

interaction, and is not peculiar to therapy. Bandler and Grinder

concluded that, `One of the systematic things that Erickson and Satir
and a lot of other effective therapists do is to notice unconsciously how
the person they are talking to thinks, and make use of that information
in lots of different ways (Bandler & Grinder 1979 p.10).
NLP also espouses the potential for self-determination (e.g. Bandler &
Andreas 1985) through overcoming learnt limitations, and shares with
the more recent field of positive psychology an emphasis on well-being
and healthy functioning. Bandler and Grinder expressed their original
motives as `sharing the resources of all those who are involved in
finding ways to help people have better, fuller and richer lives [ix]. In
this way NLP embodies a discourse of democracy and self-improvement
congruent with its origins in 1970s California, and in tune with the
ideals of the human potential movement. This stands alongside a
frequent, more contemporary emphasis on the potential for NLP to
enable individuals to achieve success, with an attendant array of
consumer products in the form of training courses, books, video and
audio materials, and related services.
Evaluation of Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP)
The pragmatic, atheoretical stance espoused by the founders appears to
have left a legacy of little engagement between practitioner and
academic communities. The academic literature on NLP is sporadic,
scattered across several fields. Research into NLP is also thin so far,
dominated by a number of experimental studies from the 1980s and
1990s that focused on two particular NLP frameworks [x]. Heap (1988)
concluded that those studies failed to support the two frameworks in
question, though the status and validity of the studies that Heap
reviewed is disputed (Einspruch & Forman 1985). There is growing
contemporary interest in research among NLP practitioners, and in
identifying the relevance of recent work in disciplines such as cognitive
linguistics (e.g. Lakoff & Johnson 1999) and neuroscience (e.g.
Rizzolatti, Fogassi, & Gallese 2006). In our view there is a need for
research through a variety of methodological approaches to help sift the
innovations and effective methods from claims that cannot be supported
by evidence. Issues of ethics in the field are also important to address.

Summary
NLP has endured for more than thirty years. It is a field of practice and
innovation with a wide range of tools and techniques that learners and
professional educators can apply within both formal and informal
educational settings. The distinctive contribution of NLP may lie in its
applied methodology, known as modelling. While NLP is eclectic, its
world view is fundamentally systemic and constructivist. It is a
contested field, and there is a need for contemporary research to
evaluate its claims and practices.
References
Bandler, R. & Andreas, S. 1985, Using your Brain for a Change. Real
People Press, Moab, Utah.
Bandler, R. & Grinder, J. 1979, Frogs into Princes. Real People Press,
Moab, Utah.
Bandler, R. & Grinder, J. 1975a, Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of
Milton H.Erickson, M.D. Vol. 1. Meta Publications, Cupertino, California.
Bandler, R. & Grinder, J. 1975b, The Structure of Magic: a book about
language and therapy. Palo Alto: Science and Behavioural Books.
Bateson, G. 2000, Steps to an Ecology of Mind: Collected Essays in
Anthropology, Psychiatry, Evolution and Epistemology, Revised edn.
University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Bostic St.Clair, C. & Grinder, J. 2001, Whispering in the Wind. J & C
Enterprises, Scotts Valley, CA.
Churches, R. & Terry, R. 2007, NLP for Teachers. Crown House,
Carmarthen.
Dilts, R., Bandler, R., & DeLozier, J. 1980, Neuro-linguistic programming:
volume 1, the study of the structure of subjective experience. Meta
Publications, California.
Dilts, R. & DeLozier, J. 2000, Encyclopedia of Systemic NLP and NLP
New Coding.Meta Publications, Capitola, California.
Dilts, R. B. 1994, Strategies of genius. Meta Publications, Cupertino,
California.
Dilts, R. B. 1998, Modeling with NLP. Meta Publications, Capitola, CA.

Einspruch, E. L. & Forman, B. D. 1985, Observations concerning

research literature on neuro-linguistic programming, Journal of
Counseling Psychology, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 589-596.
Grinder, J. & Bandler, R. 1976, The Structure of Magic 2: a book about
communication and change. Science and Behaviour Books, Palo alto.
Grinder, J., DeLozier, J., & Bandler, R. 1977, Patterns of the hypnotic
techniques of Milton H. Erickson, M.D. vol II. Meta Publications, Capitola,
CA.
Heap, M. 1988, Neurolinguistic programming an interim verdict,
in Hypnosis: current clinical, experimental and forensic practices, M.
Heap, ed., Croom Helm, London, pp. 268-280.
Henwood, S. & Lister, J. 2007, NLP and Coaching for Healthcare
Professionals.John Wiley & Sons, Chichester.
Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. 1999, Philosophy in the Flesh: the embodied
mind and its challenge to Western thought.Basic Books, New York.
McLendon, T. L. 1989, The Wild Days: NLP 1972 1981. Meta
Publications, Cupertino, CA.
Rizzolatti, G., Fogassi, L., & Gallese, V. 2006, Mirrors in the
Mind, Scientific American no. November, pp. 30-37.
Tosey, P. & Mathison, J. 2003, Neuro-linguistic Programming and
Learning Theory: a response, The Curriculum Journal, vol. 14, no. 3,
pp. 361-378.
Tosey, P. & Mathison, J. 2008, Neuro-Linguistic Programming as an
Innovation in Education and Teaching, Innovations in Education and
Teaching International, vol. to be confirmed.
Vermersch, P. 2004, Prendre en compte la phnomenalit: propositions
pour une psychophenomenologie, Expliciter no. 57 (December), pp. 3546.
Walker, W. 1996, Abenteuer Kommunikation: Bateson, Perls, Satir,
Erickson und die Anfange des Neurolinguistischen Programmierens
(NLP). Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart.
________________________
Notes

[i] Accredited by the UK Council for Psychotherapy, assigned to the

Experiential Constructivist Therapies
section:http://www.psychotherapy.org.uk/experiential_constuctivist.htm
l, accessed 6th February 2008
[ii] For example, `Rapport, published by the Association for
NLP,http://www.anlp.org/ accessed 6th February 2008
[iii] For example, Robert Dilts website http://www.nlpu.com/ accessed
6th February 2008
[iv] Based on an informal survey of estimates on UK NLP training
providers websites, and endorsed by personal communication with the
UK Association for NLP.
[v] For example, see trainings listed
at http://www.nlpconference.co.uk/;http://www.inlpta.org/; Accessed
6th February 2008
[vi] Grinder gained his doctorate, titled `On Deletion Phenomena in
English, from the University of San Diego, California, in 1971
[vii] Dilts relied on documentary and video sources, as Disney died in
1966.
[viii] IETI; see also our project website, www.NLPresearch.org.
[ix] From the book jacket of Bandler and Grinder ( 1975b).
[x] These are `eye accessing cues; and the notion that a person uses a
primary representational system.
Author details: Dr Paul Tosey & Dr Jane Mathison,Centre for
Management Learning, School of Management, University of Surrey,
Guildford, Surrey GU2 7XH, UK
Tel. +44 1483 689763. e-mail P.Tosey@surrey.ac.uk
Picture: NLP for dummies by Paul Downey reproduced here under a
Creative Commons attribution 2 generic licence.
How to cite this article: Tosey, Paul and Mathison, Jane (2008)
Neuro-Linguistic Programming, learning and education. An
introduction, the encyclopaedia of informal education.
[http://infed.org/mobi/neuro-linguistic-programming-learning-andeducation-an-introduction/. Retreived: insert date].