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2014
Nama kumpulan : Radioactive
Guru Mata Pelajaran : Chung Sze Meang
Ahli Kumpulan :
Jawatan
Ketua Kumpulan
Nama
Muhammad Firdaus
Kelas
Nur Faezah
Nur Zahidah
Ahli Kumpulan
4 Sains 2
Juwita
Muhammed Azmirrudyn
Charles Hasley
Ian Bidick
Buku Log
Tandatangan
Perjumpaan
1.
2.
Tarikh
21/10/14
22/10/14
3.
4/11/14
Perbincangan topik
Pembahagian tugas
Catatan
Tugas telah
Bab 5, 6 & 7
dibahagikan.
Bab 5 berjaya
Semua ahli
disiapkan manakala
terdapat beberapa
masalah dengan Bab 6
4.
5.
11/11/14
M. Firdaus, Juwita,
4/12/14
Charles
M. Firdaus, Juwita,
Bab 4
&7
Dijalankan dengan
Bab 4, 5, 6.
lancar.
Bab 4 telah disiapkan.
Dijalankan degan
N. Faezah
lancar.
2.
3.
Molecule
-a group of two or more
atoms which chemically
bonded together.
Ion
-a negatively-charged or
positively-charged
particles.
4.
5.
6.
Uses
To determine the age of archeological artifacts
Used in radiotherapy for the treatment of cancer
Explain why the temperature remains unchanged during the melting point.
- At the melting point, the matter is in solid and liquid states
- The latent heat of fusion is absorbed to overcome forces at attraction among solid particles
- Therefore, the temperature remains unchanged at the melting point.
8.
Explain why the temperature remains unchanged during the freezing point.
- At the freezing point, the states of matter is in liquid and solid.
The latent heat of fusion is released to allow forces of attraction to form among particles.
Therefore, the temperature remains unchanged at the freezing point.
9.
10
.
A solid compound is heated until it converts into gas. Explain the changes in energy content,
forces of attraction between the particles, and arrangement of particles.
Changes in energy content
Very weak
Are very apart and randomly arranged
11.
27
13
Relative charge
+1
0
-1
Relative mass
1
1
1/1840
C. Synthesis (Experiment)
12). Solid Z has a melting point of 65C. Describe a labratory experiment to determine the melting
point of Z. Your answer should show how the melting point of Z is determined.
Materials & Apparatus : Boiling tube, Tap water, Solid Z, 250cm beaker, thermometer, tripod
stand, retord stand and clamp, Bunsen burner, stopwatch, and wire gauze.
Procedure :
Thermomet
er
Substanc
Tap water
1
2
3
4
A boiling tube is filled with solid Z and a thermometer is put into it.
The boiling tube is suspended in a beaker half filled with water using a retort stand and a
clamp as shown in the diagram. The level of substance Z in the boiling tube must be below
the level of the water in the beaker.
The water heated and the substance Z is stirred with the thermometer.
The temperature and the state(s) of the substance is recorded on half-minutes intervals by
using stopwatch.
** water bath method is used because the melting point of substance Z is below 100C, the
maximum temperature that can be attained by the water bath.
Result
Time (min)
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
Heating of Solid Z
Temperature (C)
State
Observation
13. Compound W has a freezing point of 82C. Describe a laboratory experiment to determine the
freezing point of W.
Materials & Apparatus : Boiling tube, Compound W, Conical flask, Thermometer, Retord stand
and clamp, stopwatch.
Procedure :
Compund W
1
2
3
The boiling tube that contain compound W is put in a conical flask as shown in thefigure
above.
The compound W is stirred with thermometer continuously.
The temperature and state(s) of compound W is recorded half-minute intervals until the
temperature drops to about 60C.
Result
Time (min)
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
Cooling of compound W
Temperature (C)
State
6.0
Observation
Precautionary steps
1
2
The boiling tube containing liquid W is placed in a conical flask to ensure an even cooling
process and to minimize heat loss to the surroundings.
Liquid W is stirred continuously to avoid supercooling. Supercooling is a condition in which
the temperature of a cooling drops below its normal freezing point, without the appearance of
a solid.
1
12
of carbon-12.
Relative Atomic Mass
(RAM) of an element
2.
Define mole.
- One mole is defined as the number of particles equal to that in exactly 12.00g of carbon-12
isotope.
3.
4.
mol
dm 3
mol1
)
[ i.e. 22.4
5.
dm 3
mol1 at STP or 24 dm 3
6.
Explain why we could not determine the empirical formula of copper (ll) oxide by heating
copper powder in a crucible.
- Copper is less almost not a reactive metal
8.
9.
Compare and contrast empirical formula with molecular formula using ethane as an
example.
Empirical formula
Molecular formula
C2 H 6
C2 H 6
CH 3 COOH .
CH 2 O
(b) 40 %
10
.
(a
)
Element
Mass (g)
Number of moles
Most simplest ratio
Empirical formula :
(b
)
Hydrogen , H
0.8
0.8
3
CH 3
CH 3 ) = 88
n(
n (12+ 3) = 88
15n = 88
n=6
Molecular formula :
11
.
Carbon , C
3.6
0.3
1
C6 H 18
Hydrogen gas is reacted with 20 g of hot copper (ll) oxide powder to produce solid copper
and water.
(a) Write the chemical equation for the reaction.
(b) Calculate the maximum mass of solid copper formed.
[Relative atomic mass : Cu, 64 ; O, 16 ; H, 1]
H2
i
+ CuO
CuO +
H2O
mass
RMM
20 g
80
= 0.25 mol
ii
1 mol of CuO
0.25 mol of CuO
iii
RAM
= 0.25
64
= 16 g
1 mol of Cu
0.25 mol of Cu
C. Synthesis (Experiment)
12. Describe a laboratory experiment to determine the empirical formula of magnesium oxide. Your
answer should include all the precautions and calculations involved.
[Relative atomic mass : Mg, 24; O, 16 ]
Procedure :
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
When the burning is complete, the lid is removed and the crucible is heated strongly for 1 to 2
minutes.
9 The crucible with its lid still on is allowed to cool to room temperature.
10 The crucible with its lid and content are weighed again.
11 The processes of heating, cooling and weighing are repeated until a constant mass is obtained.
The constant mass obtained is recorded.
Result :
Description
Mass(g)
x
y
z
y-x
z-y
Crucible + lid
Crucible + lid + magnesium
Crucible + lid + magnesium oxide
Magnesium
Oxygen
Calculation :
Element
Mass
No of moles =
Mass(g)
Molar mass (gmol )
Simplest ratio (whole no)
Magnesium, Mg
y-x
yx
24
Oxygen, O
z-y
zy
16
Discussion :
Explanation
To remove the oxide formed on the magnesium
ribbbon.
To prevent particles of magnesium oxide from
escaping.
To let it the oxygen gas to ensure there is
sufficient/enough oxygen gas for complete
reaction.
To ensure all magnesium as fully reacted with
oxygen to form oxygen oxide.
Magnesium reacts with oxygen in the air to form white fumes, magnesium oxide.
Magnesium + Oxygen magnesium oxide
Conclusion :
The emperical formulae of magnesium oxide is MgO.
C. Synthesis (Experiment)
13. Describe a laboratory experiment to determine the emperical formula of copper(ll) oxide.Your
answer should include all the precautions and calculations involved.
[Relative atomic mass: Cu, 64; O, 16]
Material : Copper oxide powder, zinc pieces, dilute hydrochloric acid, anhydrous calcium chloride.
Apparatus : Round bottomed flask, combustion tube with small opening at its end, stopper with
delivery tube, chemical balance, retort stand with clamp, thistle funnel,U-tube.
Procedure :
1
2
3
4
5
7
8
Mass(g)
x
y
z
z-y
y-z
Calculation :
Element
Mass
No of moles =
mass(g)
Molar mass(gmol )
Simplest ration (whole no)
Copper, Cu
zx
zx
64
Oxygen, O
yz
yz
16
Explanation
A mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gas can cause
explosion when ignited.
Unstable flow of hydrogen gas can cause oxygen
from air to flow into combustion tube, explosion
may occur.
To ensure that copper(ll) oxide is fully reacted to
form copper.
To prevent the hot copper from reacting with
oxygen in the air to form copper oxide again.
Conclusion :
The emperical formulae of copper(ll) oxide is C
Chapter 4 : Periodic Table of Elements.
A Knowledge (Definition, meaning and facts)
State the basic principle of arranging the elements in the periodic table from its proton number.
The elements are arranged according to the ascending proton numbers of the
electrons.
State the changes in the atomic size and electronegativity of elements across the Period 3.
Atomic size decreases across Period 3.
Electronegativity increases across Period 3.
Going across Period 3 from sodium to argon, the atomic size decreases. Explain.
When going across Period 3 from sodium to argon, the atomic size decreases. This is
because :
- The number of proton in the nucleus increases.
- This increases the positive charge of the nucleus.
- The attractive force between nucleus and the electrons become stronger.
- The electrons are pulled closer to the nucleus causing the atomic size to decreases.
8
Going across Period 3 from sodium to argon, the electronegativity increases. Explain.
When going across Period 3 from sodium to argon, the electronegativity increases. This is
because :
- The number of proton in the nucleus increases.
- This increases the positive charge or the nucleus.
- The attractive force between the nucleus and the electrons in the outermost shell become
stronger.
The increases the tendency to attract electron across the period.
The reactivity of Group 1 increases when going down the group. Explain why.
The reactivity of Group 1 increases when going down the group because :
a) The distance between outermost shell occupied with electrons and the nucleus becomes
further.
b) The force of attraction between nucleus and the valence electron becomes weaker.
c) The atom becomes easier to lose its valence electron to achieve the stable duplet/octet
electron arrangement.
10 The reactivity of Group 17 increases when going down the group. Explain why.
The reactivity of Group 17 increases when going down the group because :
a) The distance between outermost shell occupied with electrons and the nucleus become
further.
b) The force of attraction between nucleus and the valence electron becomes weaker.
c) The atom becomes more difficult to attract electron to its outermost shell.
11 Why helium gas is not reactive?
- Because helium is duplet electron arrangement. These electron arrangement are very stable.
They do not accept, donate or share electrons with other elements.
12 X is an element from Group 1. X is burnt in oxygen and the product is dissolved in water. What is
the property of the solution formed? Explain why.
- X burns slowly with a red flame and liberates white fumes which become a white solid on
cooling.
- The white solid dissolves in water to produce a colourless solution, which turns red litmus
paper blue.
13 Chlorine gas is dissolved in water. What can you observe if a piece of blue litmus paper is
immersed into the solution formed? Explain why.
- This solution turns blue litmus paper to red, then white. This is because chlorine dissolves rapidly in
water forming acidic solutions which turn blue litmus paper to red. The solutions formed are also
bleaching agents which then turn the litmus paper to white due to the presence of hypochlorous acid
or hypobromous acid.
14 W is an element from Group 1. Predict the chemical reaction of W with:
a) water,
W moves slowly on the water surface with a soft hisss sound. A colourless solution that turns red
litmus paper to blue is formed.
Chemical equation : 2Li + 2H2O 2LiOH + H2
b) oxygen,
W burns slowly with a red flame and liberates white fumes which become a white solid on
cooling. The white solid dissolves in water to produce a colourless solution, which turns red
litmus paper to blue.
Chemical equation : 4Li + O2 2Li2O
C Synthesis (Experiment)
15 Describe a laboratory experiment to compare the reactivity of elements in Group 1 : lithium,
sodium and potassium.
Apparatus & materials : water toughs, small knife, forceps, small pieces of lithium, sodium and
potassium, distilled water,red litmus paper and filter paper.
Procedure :
1. A small piece of lithium is cut using a knife.
2. The oil on the surface of lithium is removed by rolling it on a piece of filter paper.
3. The lithium is then placed slowly onto the water surface in a water tough with the help of forceps,
as shown in diagram.
4. All changes that occur are recorded.
5. When the reaction stops, the solution formed is tested with a piece of red litmus paper.
6. Steps 1 to 5 are repeated using sodium and potassium respectively to replace lithium.
Observation :
Lithium : lithium moves slowly on the surface with a hiss sound. A colourless solution that turns red
litmus paper to blue is formed.
Sodium : sodium melts to become a small sphere, moves rapidly and randomly on the surface with a
hiss sound. A colourless solution that turns red litmus paper to blue is formed.
Potassium : potassium melts to become a small sphere, burns with a lilac flame, moves very rapidly
and randomly on the water surface with a hiss and pop sounds. A colourless solution that turns red
litmus paper to blue is formed.
16 Describe a laboratory experiment to compare the reactivity of chlorine, bromine and iodine in the
reaction with iron wool. State the observation and the write chemical equations involved in
reactions.
Apparatus & materials :
combustion tubes, boiling tubes, conical flask, retort stand and clamp, Bunsen burner, thistle funnel,
stoppers, delivery tubes, potassium manganite (VII) crystals, concentrated hydrochloric acid, liquid
bromine, solid iodine, iron wool and soda-lime.
Procedure :
1 The arrangement of apparatus as shown in it set up.
2 The iron wool is heated strongly until is it red-hot .
3 Chlorine gas is passed over the red-hot iron wool in the combustion tube until no further change
occurs.
4 All the changes are recorded.
Step 1- 4 is repeated by replacing chlorine gas with bromine and iodine vapour ( heating is
necessary to evaporate bromine and iodine)
Observation:
Chlorine : The hot iron wool ignites rapidly with a bright flame .A brown solid is formed.
Bromine : The hot iron wool glows moderately bright, moderately fast and less vigorously. A brown
solid is formed.
Iodine : The hot iron wool glows dimly and slowly. A brown solid is formed.
What is anion?
- Anion is a negatively charged ion that would be attracted to anode in electrolysis.
- Anion is formed when an atom receives electron.
- Anion are attracted to cation by strong electrostatic force of attraction in ionic bond.
What is cation?
- Cation is a postively charged ion that would be attracted to cathode in electrolysis.
- Cation is formed when an atom releases electron.
- Cation are attracted to anion by strong electrostatic force of attraction in ionic bond.
State two physical properties of ionic compound :
- High melting or boiling point
- Conducts electricity in liquid and in aqueous solution.
- In aqueous state, sodium chloride dissolvesin water and dissociates to produce Na and Cl
ions. These ions can move freely in the solution and conducts electricity.
- In solid state, sodium chlorides ion are bond together tightly and cannot move freely to conduct
electricity
6. Magnesium chloride and hydrogen chloride are two compunds of chlorine. At room temperature,
magnesium chloride existed as solid but hydrogen chloride exist as a gas. Explain why.
Magnesium Chloride
and Cl
-
ions.
(ionic compound)
Magnesium is a metal and chlorine is non
metal.
Has high melting and boiling point.
8. By using examples, describe the formation of covalent bond between element from Group 14 and
element from Group 17.
Formation of covalent bond of Methane, CH4
A carbon atom has an electron arrangement of 2.4.
Carbon atom has 4 valence electrons.
A carbon atom needs 4 more electrons to achieve the stable octet electron arrangement.
A hydrogen atom has 1 valence electron.
A hydrogen needs 1 more electron to achieve the stable duplet electron arrangement.
Each of the 4 hydrogen atoms contributes 1 electron and a carbon atom contributes 4 electron
for sharing to form the single bond covalent compound, methane, CH4.
C. Synthesis
9. Draw electron arrangement of the compound formed from the following elements.
a) Nitrogen and hydrogen
Ammonia, NH3
Chapter 6: Electrochemistry
A. Knowledge (Definition, meaning and facts)
1. State the meaning of electrolyte.
Electrolytes are substances that can conduct electricity in the molten state or aqueous solution.
2. State the meaning of electrolysis.
Electrolysis is the decomposition of a substance (electrolyte) in the molten state or aqueous
3.
i.
ii.
iii.
B. Understanding/Application/Analysis
4. Explain why solution of hydrogen chloride in water can conduct electricity but hydrogen chloride
in methylbenzene cannot conduct electricity.
a. Water molecules, H2O, in aqueous solution ionise or dissociate slightly to form hydrogen ions,
H+ and hydroxide ions, OH-.
H2O (l)
H+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
Therefore, aqueos solutions containts hydrogen ions, H + and hydroxide ions, OH-, in addition
to electrolyte ions.
b. Methylbenzene or toluene, C7H8, cannot conduct electricity because it is a non-electrolyte
substance which does not undergo any chemical change when an electric current passes through.
Methylbenzene consists of molecules only. The absence of ions that can carry electrical charges
makes it unable to conduct electricity.
By using example, explain how the following factors can determine the selective discharge of
ions at the electrodes.
ii Types of electrodes.
If the type of metal used as the anode (positive electron) is the same as the type of metal ion
present in the electrolyte solution, then the metal atom (anode) will release electrons to form
metal ions at the anode. For example :Electrolysis of copper(II) chloride solution using copper electrodes.
Half equation:
Cu (s)
Cu2+ (aq) + 2eAt the cathode, the metal ions receive electrons and are deposited as metal atoms.
Half equation:
2+
Cu (aq) + 2e
Cu (s)
2Cl (aq)
Cl2 (g) + 2eAt the cathode, H+ ions will be discharge because it is located at lower position of the
electrochemical series than Na+ ions.
Half equation:
2H+ (aq) + 2eiv Position of ions in the Electrochemical series.
H2 (g)
The positions of ions in the electrochemical series influences the selection of ions discharged
in an aqueous solution.
Cations: K+ Na+ Ca2+ Mg2+ Al3+ Zn2+ Fe2+ Sn2+ Pb2+ H+ Cu2+ Ag+
There is greater tendency for ions located in the electrochemical series to be selected for
discharge compared to ions located higher in the series. For example:Electrolysis of sodium sulphate solution, Na2SO4
Ions present: Cathode: Na+, H+
Anode: SO42-, OHAt the anode, OH- is selectively discharged because it is located lower than SO 42- ion in the
electrochemical series.
Half equation:
4OH- (aq)
At the cathode, H+ is selectively discharged because it is located lower than Na + ion in the
electrochemical series.
Half equation:
2H+ (aq) + 2e-
H2 (g)
2Br- (l)
Br2 (g) + 2e
At the anode:
-
2O2- (l)
O2 (g) + 4e-
At the cathode:
-
Draw the structure of Daniell cell and explain how it can produce electricity.
The Daniell cell consists of two metal electrodes that are connected through the external
cricuit with the electrolyte solution, either separated by a porous pot or a salt bridge.
The porous pot or salt bridge functions to separate the two electrolyte solutions, but allows
ions to pass through to complete the circuit.
A metal which is located higher in the electrochemical series (the more electropositive metal)
will act as a negative terminal of the cell. These metals tend to donate electrons.
A metal which is located lower in the electrochemical series (the less electropositive metal)
will act as a positive terminal of the cell. Thus, converting chemical energy to electrical
energy.
Draw the strucuture of a dry cell and explain how it can produce electricity.
A dry cells converts chemical energy into electrical energy. The chemical reaction produces
electrons, which then collect at the negative terminal of the battery. When there is a
connection between the positive and negative terminal, the electrons flow to the positive
terminal. This electron flow is what we experience as an electric current.
10 Describe a laboratory experiment to extract lead from lead(II) oxide using electrolysis.
Carbon reduction method
On heating with carbon, the carbon (charcoal) is oxidized to carbon dioxide (or carbon
monoxide) while lead is reduced from a positive ion in lead(II) oxide to the neutral metallic
element:
2PbO + C
2Pb + CO2
11 Describe a laboratory experiment to show that types of electrodes affect the seletive discharge of
ions in electrolysis of copper(II) sulphate solution.
Problem statement: Does the type of electrode influence the selective discharge of ion?
Hypothesis: The type of electrode will affect the selective discharge of ion.
Variables
a) Manipulated: Type of electrode.
b) Responding: Product at the electrodes.
c) Constant: Type of electrolyte.
Electrode
Copper
Observation
Copper electrode dissolves/becomes thinner
Carbon
Inference
Copper(II) ion is formed Cu(s)
Cu2+ (aq) + 2eCopper is formed
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e-
Cu (s)
Conclusion: The type of electrode will influence the type of ion discharge
12 Describe a laboratory experiment to show that concentration of ions affect the selective discharge
of ions in electrolysis of hydrchloric acid solution.
Problem statement: How does the concentration of ion affect its selective discharge?
Hypothesis: The more concentrated ion will be selected for discharge at the anode.
Variable:
a) Manipulated: concentration of ion
b) Responding: product at the electrodes.
c) Constant: type of electrode/type of electrolyte.
Electrode
Anode
Cathode
Observation
Greenish yellow gas bubbles
are released
Colourless gas bubbles are
released
Inference
Chlorine gas is produce
2Cl- (g)
2H (aq) + 2e
H2 (g)
Conclusion:
a. In a concentrated electrolyte solution, ions that are more concentrated, that is chloride ions, are
selected for discharge at the anode to form chlorine gas.
b. At the cathode, ions that are lower in the electrochemical series are selected for discharge to form
hydrogen gas.
13 You are given magnesium ribbon, copper plate, magnesium nitrate solution, copper(II) sulphate
solution, connecting wires with crocodile clips, 250cm3 beaker, voltmeter and porous pot.
Construct a voltaic cell by using the above materials. Explain how the voltaic cell can produce
electricity. Your answer must include observations and half equations for reaction at anode and
cathode.
A porous pot has fine pores that allowions to flow through but can prevent the two different
aqueous solutions from mixing.
As magnesium is more reactive than copper, magnesium becomes the negative terminal. It
release 2 electrons to come Mg2+ ions.
Anode[Oxidation]:
Mg
Mg2+ + 2eAt the positive terminal, Cu2+ ions in the copper(II) sulphate solution accept 2 electrons to
form copper.
Cathode[Reduction]:
Cu2+ + 2eCu
Overall equation:
Mg + Cu2+
Mg2+ + Cu
Problem statement: How does the position of two metals in the electrochemical series affect the
voltmeter reading?
Hypothesis: The further apart the position of the two metals in the electrochemical series, the higher
the value of the voltmeter reading.
Variables:
a) Manipulated: metal pairs.
b) Responding: The voltage value/voltmeter reading
c) Constant: The concentration of copper(II) sulphate solution (electrolyte)
Result:
Metal pairs
Copper and zinc
Copper and lead
Copper and magnesium
Voltage/v
1.1
0.5
1.8
Conclusion
The electrochemical series can be constructed by measuring the voltage value of the different pairs of
metals in the voltaic cell.
2NaOH + H2SO4
Na2SO4 + 2H2O
(0.5)(10)/(M2)(20) = 1/2
M2 = 0.5 mol dm-3
Molarity of sodium hydroxide when neutralizing with nitric acid.
NaOH + HNO3
NaNO3 + H2O
(0.5)(20)/(M2)(20) = 1/1
M2 = 0.5 mol dm-3
Based on the calculation, the reason why sulphuric acid needed less volume to neutralize the
sodium hydroxide solution because sodium hydroxide has higher number of moles needed to react
than the reaction with nitric acid. Hence, the number of moles of alkali or acid affects the volume
needed to neutralize.
C. Synthesis (Experiment)
8. Describe a chemical test to show that a give solution is an acid.
Test with litmus paper.
- To test whether the chemical is an acid, a blue litmus paper is used to determined it.
- The blue litmus paper is immersed in a beaker of 50 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm-3 of hydrchloric acid.
- The blue litmus paper turns to red and indicates the solution as an acid.
9. Describe an experiment to determine the concentration of sodium hydroxide by using tiltration
process. You are give 0.2 mol dm-3 of dilute sulphuric acid, phenolphthalein, burrette, pipette and
a conical flask.
Aim: To determine the end point of a tiltration between sodium hydroxide solution and sulphuric acid
and hence calculate the concentration of the sulphuric acid.
Problem statement: Can sulphuric acid concentration be determined by tiltration?
Hypothesis: The concentration of sulphuric acid can be determine b tiltrating with a standard solution
of sodium hydroxide.
Variables:
a) Manipulated: concentration of sulphuric acid
b) Responding: volume of sulphuric acid required
c) Constant: concentration of sodium hydroxide, volume of sodium hydroxide.
Material:
0.4 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution, 0.2 mol dm-3 of sulphuric acid, phenolphthalein.
Apparatus: Burette, pipette, pipette filler, beaker, conical flask, burette stand and clamp, white tile,
filter funnel.
Procedure:
1 A clean burette is rinsed with a little sulphuric acid. The burette is clampted to a retort stand.
2 The burette is filled with sulphuric acid. The initial burette reading is recorded.
3 A pipette is rinsed with sodium hydroxide solution.
4 25.0 cm3 of the aqueos sodium hydroxide solution is pipetted into a conical flask.
5 Two drops of phenolphthalein are added to the conical flask. The alkali solution turns pink.
6 The flask is placed on top of a white tile as shown in the diagram.
7 The sulphuric acid is added slowly into the conical flask. The solution in the flask is swirled
8
continuosly.
When the solution in the conical flas starts to become pale pink, the acid is added drop by drop.
1
20.40
2
21.00
3
28.00
(cm3)
Initial burette reading
0.5
1.00
8.00
(cm3)
Volume of sulphuric acid
19.90
20.00
20.00
(cm3)
Average volume of sulphuric acid used
= 19.90 + 20.00 + 20.00/3
= 20.00 cm3
Calculation:
The concentration of sulphuric acid determine by tiltrating with a standard solution of sodium
hydroxide is 0.25 mol dm-3.
10. You are given solid sodium chloride. Describe how you can prepare sodium chloride solution of
0.2 mol dm-3 in a laboratory using 250 cm3 volumetric flask.
Aim: To prepare 250cm3 of a standard solution of 0.2 mol dm-3 sodium chloride, NaCl.
Materials: Solid sodium chloride, NaCl, distilled water.
Apparatus: 250cm3 volumetric flask, beaker, chemical balance, spatula, filter funnel.
Procedure:
1. Calculate the required mass of sodium chloride
Number of moles of NaCl = MV/1000 = 0.2 x 250/1000 = 0.05 mol.
Mass of sodium chloride = 58.4 x 0.05 = 2.92 g
2. An empty beaker is weighed.
3. 2.92 g of solid sodium chloride is weighed.
4. Distilled water is added to the solid sodium chloride in the beaker. The mixture is stirred until
all the solid dissolve.
5. Distilled water is added into volumetric flask up to one-third full.
6. Sodium chloride solution is poured into the volumetric flask using filter funnel.
7. The beaker and the filter funnel is rinsed several times with a little distilled water and the
washings are transferred into the volumetric flask.
8. Distilled water is added to the volumetric flask slowly until the meniscus is exactly at 250cm 3
graduation.
9. The volumetric flask is stoppered and inverted several times until the solution mixes well.
Conclusion:
250cm3 of standard solution of 0.2 mol dm-3 sodium chloride can be prepared by dissolving 2.92g of
solid sodium chloride in 250cm3 volumetric flask.
Chapter 8 : Salts
A. Knowledge [Definition, meaning and facts]
1. What is salt?
A salt is a compound formed from the replacement of hydrogen ions, H +, in an acid by a metal ion or
ammonium ion, NH4+.
2. What is double decomposition reaction?
3. A double decompostion reaction is a reaction involving ion exchange to produce insoluble salts
(precipitate).
4. State one uses of salts in agriculture, medical field and food preparation.
Salts
Food
1. Table salt, (NaCl) Monosodium glutamate,
Uses
Food flavouring
C5H8NO4Na
Food preservatives
2. Sodium benzoate, (NaC7H5O2) & sodium
nitrite, NaNO2
Medicine
Calcium sulphate sesquihydrate,
Plaster of Paris
2CaSO4.H2O
Milk of Magnesia (magnesium hyrdroxide),
Antacid
B.
Mg(OH)2
Barium sulpate, BaSO4
Agriculture
Ammonium sulphate, (NH4)2SO4
Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3
Ammonium phosphate, (NH4)3PO4
1
ynthesis
Describe the preparation of zinc sulphate.
- 50cm of 1 mol of dm-3 zinc(II) nitrate solution is added to 50cm3 of 1 mol dm-3 sodium
sulphate solution in a test tube.
-
Fertilisers
Describe an experiment to construct the ionic equation for formation of lead(II) sulphate.
Aim
To construct an ionic equation for formation of lead(II) sulphate.
Problem statement
How can the ionic equation for the reaction between lead(II) nitrate, Pb(NO 3)2 with potassium
sulphate, K2SO4, be constructed?
Hypothesis
The ionic equation can be constructed by determining the volume of potassium sulphate, K 2SO4,
which is added to the lead(II) nitrate, Pb(NO3)2, to produce a specific height of precipitate of
lead(II) sulphate, PbSO4.
Variables
b) Manipulated: The volume of lead(II) nitrate solution.
c) Responding: The height of the precipitate.
d) Constant: Volume and concentration of potassium sulphate.
Materials
Solutions of 1.0 mol dm-3 lead(II) nitrate solution, Pb(NO3)2, 1.0 mol dm-3 potassium sulphate,
K2SO4.
Apparatus
Two burettes, retort clamp and stand, eight test tubes, eight test tubes rack, beakers, ruler
Procedure
K2SO4
12 Using a burette, 5.0cm3 of 1.0 mol dm-3 potassium sulphate solution is filled into 8 test tubes.
13 By using the second burette, 0.5cm3 of 1.0 mol dm-3 lead(II) nitrate is added to the first test tube,
1.0 cm3 in the second, 1.5cm3 in the third and so on until 4.0 cm3 is added to the 8th test tube.
14 Each test tube is shaken and left for about 30 minutes
15 The height of the precipitate in each test tube is measure with a ruler.
Results
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
1.5
solution (cm3)
Height of precipitate (cm)
Analysis
From the table, 2.0 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm-3 lead(II) nitrate solution reacts with exactly 2.0 cm3 of
1.0 mol dm-3 potassium sulphate solution, K2SO4.
Calculation
Number of moles of Pb(NO3)2/Pb2+
MV/100 = 1.0 x 2/1000 = 0.002 mol
Number of moles of K2SO4/ SO42+ = MV/1000 = 1.0 x 2/1000 = 0.002 mol
0.00025 mol of ion Pb2+ reacts completely with 0.005 mol of ion SO42+
1 mol of ion Pb2+ reacts completely with 0.002/0.002 = 1 mol of ion SO 42Therefore the ionic equation for the reaction is
PbSO4 (s)
Conclusion
The ionic for the double decomposition reaction between the solution of lead (II) nitrate and
2+
2-
PbSO4 (s)
16 Solid W is a salt. Describe the tests you would carry out to confirm the presence of zinc ions and
17 nitrate ions in the salt.
Test for presence of zinc ions, Zn2+
Sodium
hydroxide
solution
Solid W
Solid W
18 Solid X is a metal carbonate. Describe the tests you would carry out to confirm that X consists of
carbonate ions besides heating.
Tests of carbonate ions, CO32-
Ammonia
solution
Aqueous solution
of cations (Pb2+,
Zn2+, Al3+, Mg2+)
20 You are given potassium chloride solution, lead(II) oxide powder and dilute nitric acid. Describe
how you would prepare lead(II) chloride salt from the given materials.
- 50cm3 of 1 mol dm-3 dilute nitric acid is measure and poured into a beaker and is heated.
- Lead(II) oxide powder is added to the nitric acid and the mixture is stirred until lead oxide is
-
in excess.
The mixture then triggers a reaction and produced a solution of lead(II) nitrate.
paper.
Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2KCl (aq)
Pb2+ (aq) + 2I- (aq)
21 You are given dilute sulphuric acid, copper(II) nitrate solution and sodium carbonate solution.
Describe how you would prepare copper(II) sulphate salt from the given materials.
- Dilute sulphuric acid is poured into sodium carbonate to produce sodium sulphate, carbon
dioxide and water.
-
H2SO4 (aq) + Na2CO3 (aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
The produced sodium sulphate solution is the poured into a test tube filled with copper(II)
nitrate solution to produce blue solution of copper(II) sulphate salt and sodium nitrate salt
through double decomposition.
Na2SO4 (aq) + Cu(NO3)2 (aq)
State four types of glass and their compositions. List the uses of each glass.
Type of glass
Compositions
Uses
Borosilicate glass
ornamets (crystal)
What is ceramics? State the properties and list the uses of ceramics.
Ceramics are substances made from clay that has been heated to high temperatures.
Main content of ceramics is a silicate, SiO2.
Properties of ceramics include:
a. Brittle
b. Very hard
i.
Resistant to the chemicals
c. Corrosion resistant
(withstands corrosion)
d. Very high melting point
e. Cracks with extreme temperature changes
f. Heat insulator
g. Withstands compression
h. Non-conductor of electricity
B. Understand/Application/Analysis
7 Bronze is an alloy consisting of copper and tin. Explain why bronze is harder than copper.
- Copper atoms have the same size and shape, are closely and orderly arranged but there is still
-
copper atoms in size, and will fill the empty spaces in the copper metal.
The tin atoms prevent layers of copper atoms from sliding over one another easily.
These increases the strength and hardness of metals, prevent corrosion of metals and improve
the appearance of the metal to be more attractive or easily.
Copper
atoms
the rain, sleet, snow, and fog that we experience on certain days.
Acid rain causes many environmental pollution. For instance, acid rain decreases the pH
levels and increase acidity of water sources such as lakes and rivers, which in turn will not be
suitable for organisms such as plants, animals and even humans. Moreover, acid rain causes
corrodes building, statues, damage to crops, catastrophe such as landslide and in some rare
cases causes the corrosion of the skin and affects health.
S (s) + O2 (g)
SO2 (g)
b) Roasting of sulphide ores such zinc sulphide, ZnS, in air.
2ZnS (s) + 3O2 (g)
v Stage II
Mixture of sulphure dioxide gas, SO2, and air is passed over vanadium(V) oxide, V2O5, (acting
as catalyst) at a temperature of 450C and the pressure at one atmosphere to produce sulphur
trioxide gas, SO3.
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g)
vi Stage III
2SO3 (g)
Sulphur trioxide gas, SO3, is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid, H 2SO4, to produce oleum,
H2S2O7.
SO3 (g) + H2SO4 (l)
H2S2O7 (l)
vii Stage IV
Water was added to oleum, H2S2O7 to dilute it to produce sulphuric acid
H2S2O7 (l) + H2O
2H2SO4 (l)
2NH3 (g)
3. Ammonia gas, NH3, obtained is cooled and condesnsed to form liquid ammonia, NH3 (aq).
Conditions:
Nitrogen is obtained
by fractional
distillitation of
liquid air
2NH3 (g)
Temperature :
450C
Pressure: 200
atmosphere
Hydrogen is
obtained from
natural gas
methane, CH4.
Catalyst: Iron
fillings
C. Synthesis
1. Describe the laboratory experiment to prepare ammonium sulphate (ammonium fertilizer).
Neutralisations reactions between aqueous ammonia , NH3 (ak), (alkali) and an acid solution to
produce ammonium salts, NH4+, which can be used in fertilisers.
Example:
3NH3 + H3PO4
NH3 + HNO3
2NH3 + H2SO4
The apparatus set-up below can be used to prepare ammonium sulphate salt, (NH 4)2SO4
(NH4)2SO4 (aq)
Copper block, brass block, steel ball bearings, cellophane tape, string.
Apparatus
Metre rule, a weight of 1 kg, retort stand.
Procedure
1.
2.
3.
4.
A steel ball is stuck on the surface of the brass block using cellophane tape.
A weight of 1 kg is hung at a height of 50cm from the surface of the brass block.
The weight is released to fall on the steel ball bearing
Diameter of the dent made in the brass block surface is measured using a metre rule and
1
3.0
4.3
Average
3
3.1
4.2
Analysis
The dent on the brass block is smaller than the dent on pure copper block.
Conclusion
Brass is harder than copper.
diameter (mm)
3.1
4.3