Uncertainty and error in measurement

Describe and give examples of random and systematic errors.

Uncertainties arise from various properties of the measuring process. Random
uncertainties include variations that produce different results when the
experiment is repeated. These variations could be caused by such things as
slight changes in atmospheric pressure, room temperature, supply voltage, or
by changes of friction or pulling force when a trolley is pulled down different
parts of a runway. Uncertainties in instrument readings can also be random
you may misread the scale.
Errors can be simple mistakes or (more importantly) can be the difference between
the experimental value and the correct value. Systematic errors are produced
by constant factors in the experiment, such as an ammeter that is not correctly
zeroed and gives consistently low readings, or a meter stick that has been
contracted and given consistently high readings.

Distinguish between precision and accuracy.

The precision of a series of measurements is an indication of the agreement
among repetitive measurements (associated with random error). A relatively
small range of measurements represents a high degree of precision, while a
large range of measurements represents a low degree of precision. Precision
is usually quantified as the standard deviation of the measured values.
The accuracy of a measurement is its relation to the true or accepted value
(associated with systematic error). This can be expressed as a percentage
deviation from the known value
The measured charge of an electron e = (-1.60217730.0000005) x10-19 C is both
highly accurate and precise. The error represents an uncertainty of only 3x10-5
%. Another example is the measured equivalence of inertial and gravitational
mass, where mi mg is good to 1 part in 1012, and an uncertainty of only 10-10 %.

Explain how the effects of random uncertainties may be reduced.

Making a number of readings of a given quantity and taking the average will reduce
the overall random error. Repeated measurements will have no effect on
systematic errors but graphing your data can reveal the consistent shift in data.
To eliminate systematic uncertainties introduced by a measuring instrument, we
must calibrate it using standards that are known to be of high precision and
accuracy.
It is always dangerous to discard a measurement; plot data point as usual, but the
value may be eliminated from subsequent calculations/determination of best fit
line if 1) there is a definite physical explanation of why (which is recorded in lab
book) and 2) 3 error bars away from the mean

Calculate quantities and results of calculations to the appropriate number of

significant digits.
The number of significant digits should reflect the precision of the value or of the
input data to a calculation. Therefore the number of significant digits in a result
should not exceed that of the least precise value upon which it depends. The

number of significant figures in any answer should reflect the number of significant
figures in the given data.

State uncertainties as absolute, fractional and percentage uncertainties.

The absolute value of a measured quantity is x.
e.g. A length of wire might be l = 24.5 cm
The last significant figure in any value should usually be of the same order of
magnitude (in the same decimal position) as the uncertainty.
(*)The absolute uncertainty in x is stated as delta x = x.
For an analogue scale, we can usually detect with confidence one-half the
smallest division. This is true for both the zero value and the measured
value, hence we can say that our measurement has an uncertainty of plus or
minus twice one-half the smallest division or simply plus or minus the
smallest division.
For a digital readout, the displayed value is uncertain to at least plus or minus
one digit of the last significant figure (the smallest unit of measurement).
e.g. The uncertainty in the length of wire might be l = 0.2 cm.
Uncertainties should usually be rounded to one significant figure.
The measured quantity and its uncertainty range is stated as x plus or minus
delta x = x x. This means that it is reasonable to say the value lies
between a minimum of x - x and a maximum of x + x. For the wire, the
uncertainty is l = 0.2 cm, so its length is 24.50.2 cm. The range for the
probable wire length is from the lower limit of 24.3 cm to the upper limit of
24.7 cm.
The percentage of uncertainty (percentage error) is x% = (x / x) x100%
In the wire, (l / l) x100% = (0.2 cm/ 24.5 cm) x100% = 0.816% 1%

Determine the uncertainties in results.

For functions such as addition and subtraction, absolute uncertainties may be
added. For multiplication, division and powers, percentage uncertainties may be
added. For other functions (for example, trigonometric functions), the mean,
highest and lowest possible answers may be calculated to obtain the uncertainty
range. If one uncertainty is much larger than others, the approximate uncertainty
in the calculated result may be taken as due to that quantity alone.

Uncertainty in graphs
Identify uncertainties as error bars in graphs.
State random uncertainty as an uncertainty range () and represent it graphically
as an error bar.
Error bars need be considered only when the uncertainty in one or both of the
plotted quantities is significant.
Error bars will not be expected for trigonometric or logarithmic functions.
Say error bar is too small to be seen

Determine the uncertainties in the gradient and intercepts of a straight-line graph.

When a graph includes uncertainty limits or error bars, the best straight line more
easily connects to the data regions. With an uncertainty bar, the data point
becomes a data area.
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Line of best fit doesnt mean straight line but it also could be curved