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Power factor improvement

Power System Analysis (PSA) is a very broad subject, so broad that it is a


course within the
Electrical Engineering programs worldwide. In light of this particular topic,
one must realize that Power System Analysis covers a correlation of how
power is mathematically defined, produced, created,generated, transmitted,
distributed, and governed within our global spectrum. Power SystemAnalysis
can be broken into various sections, but the main areas of importance that
will be covered in the synopsis of Power System Analysis is the power factor,
local power, US power, method of transmission of power, and the different
problems in transmission and distribution of power.

Power Factors
Definition of Power Factor
From engineering and technology as it relates to PSA, the power factor can
be defined as a ratio of the average power to the apparent power. The
mathematical definition of the power factor is: (Irwin 433). The variables
present in the equation are as follows: pf the power factor, P average
power, Vrms voltage rating of an ac electrical device, Irms constant
current value. (Note: from the power factor definition the Vrms* Irms product
represents the apparent power in the ratio given). The calculated power
factor is a percentage or decimal that corresponds to the
approximation of how much power should be generated within a facility (i.e.
power plant).
The definition of the power factor as it relates to PSA can effectively be
described from a graphical approach. In Figure 1, it displays the calculated
power factor at unity, which is approximately 1 or 100%. This means that the
average power, P is equally divisible to the apparent power, Vrms* Irms and
this also states the power company does not have to spend as much money
producing electricity because enough is being generated. As for Figure 2, it is
the opposite and displays a lower power factor of .71 or 71%. In this
representation of the power factor, the apparent power is larger than the
average power, and the large current in the apparent power is the reason for
the low power factor. Having a low power factor is not good for the power
company, because it affirms that the power company will have to exhaust
more finances due to lack of power being generated. So, the company is
forced to seek ways to correct the problem of power lack, by way of the
power factor correction.

Power Factor Correction


Power factor correction (PFC) is the process of adjusting the characteristics
of electric loads in order to improve power factor so that it is closer to unity
(1) (Maini ). In using power factor correction to improve the low power factor

problems, power companies have to install such devices called capacitors


into their power generated network. Power companies spend money on the
use capacitors due to an electrical element in them that can readily store
voltage, which is helpful in producing a leading power factor close to unity
and generating electricity efficiently and effectively. In the Computer-Aided
Power System Analysis text book it clarifies the beneficial reasons on why
Power Factor Correction is important to power utilities and its customers, as it
relates to PSA: The benefits due to the power factor correction for the utility
are: release in systemgeneration capacity, savings in transformer capacity,
reduction in line loss and improved voltage profile. The benefits due to power
factor correction to the customer are: reduced rate associated with power
factor improvement, reduced loss causing lower peak demand, reduced loss,
reduced energy consumption and increased system short circuit rating.
Another reason why power factor correction is important in PSA, is because it
seals the process of the power company being able generate the electricity
and it also gives them the opportunity to go the next phase in PSA, which is
the transmission of power to various locations, locally or nationwide.

Local Power: Duke Energy Company


Carolina Power Delivery System

of

North

Duke Energy is one of our local power companies in North Carolina and most
of the southeastern United States. How Duke Energy circulates daily to
customers and other distributions, has a great deal to do with their
sophisticated power delivery system or commonly known transmission
system that is described by Duke Energy to have, An interconnected group
of electric transmission lines and related equipment for moving or
transferring electric energy in bulk between points of supply and points at
which it is transformed for delivery over a distribution system to customers,
or for delivery to other electric transmission systems. (Duke
Energy) Duke Energy transmission system is operated by highly trained
individuals who have been taught specifically how to monitor the
transmission system by way of computerized devices
that can protect against system-wide blackouts and computer virus that
may infiltrate the system (computer virus are not likely to appear, because
Duke Energys system is secure under
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition System (SCADA)a transmission
control systemthat is protected by firewalls and intrusion detection
systems. Intrusion detection devices designed specifically for the SCADA
system are monitored continuously (Duke Energy)). The general makeup of
the transmission system consists of generating stations which can either be
nuclear, coal-fired, conventional hydro, oil/gas fired, or pumped-storage
hydro. Also, in accord with its makeup are substations with interconnections
of ransmission lines and distribution lines, which will be elaborated on later

in the section. The figure above depicts the process of the Duke Energys
transmission system.

Company Generating Stations


Generally, within Duke Energys transmission system, there are have
generating stations that produce various utilities such as: nuclear, coal-fired,
conventional hydro, oil/gas fired, or pumped-storage hydro. Within these
different generating facilities electricity is produced and then it is filtrated
onto the transmission lines. Depending on the type of utility being used for
generating of electricity, the frequent amount that is stored on the
transmission lines for delivery is between 44000 and 525000 volts. This
amount of power generated onto the lines in its next phase, before the
consumer usage, is thereafter delivered to local substations.

Local Substations
The next phase, one would state, before the electricity is received by the
consumer, is the local stop at the substation. The substation is familiarly
known to house electrical equipment such as transformers, capacitors, circuit
breakers and the like. A particular station within the transmission system is
present so that it can convert the transmission line voltage to lower levels
that are suitable for distribution power lines. The distribution power lines, in
comparison to the transmission power lines, are interconnections that can be
installed above ground or below, which is able to harbor between 4000 and
25000 volts of electricity to final phase, the customer. These avenues
presented are the transient means for local PSA.

U.S. Power: National Power Grid


Definition of the National Power Grid
In discussing PSA from the national perspective, the best relational depiction
is from the National Power Grid. The National Power Grid is defined to be:
High-voltage electrical transmission lines in the United States are divided
into three separate grids The three grids cover the contiguous 48 states
and parts of Canada and Mexico and are known as the Western
Interconnection, the Eastern Interconnection, and the Electric Reliability
Council of Texas (ERCOT) Interconnection. The three grids operate
independently for the most part but are connected in a few places by

directcurrent lines. All United States power utilities, except those in the
states of Alaska and Hawaii, are connected to other power utilities through
the national power grid. Dispatch centers maintain and control the flow of
electricity over the grid, supplying electricity to meet the demand. (MSN
Maps) The National Power Grid defined, interjected that three grids were
interconnected within the United States sector. Viewing only the three grids,
there are thousands of volts being perused across thousands of miles of
transmission lines across the nation to large amounts of distribution systems
and customers. In light of this fact, The National Grid is such a commodity
and entity to the world that it has to be supervised in comparison to the local
venue. If used unwisely, as to say adding more transmission lines to the
infrastructure, there could be possible overloads and massive power outages
throughout the nation, which can result to potential harm to innocent
citizens. This observation will be examined in latter sections.

Extensive Detail of Power System Analysis


General Process of Power Transmission
Previously PSA has been discussed on a surface platform. But PSA has a
much more involved outlook that any average person can image. In PSA, the
power system goes through a series of processes constantly so that
industrial and residential consumers will get the appropriate amount of
electricity to function daily. Generation, Transmission and Distribution are a
part of the process of PSA. This process is what humankind is fortunate
enough to experience on a daily basis.

Generation
Generation of electricity begins the route of the power system. In order to
generate electric power into the system, it is most efficient to use a device
called the generator. The generator is defined as An energy conversion
device, converting the energy from some non-electrical form into electrical
form (Gross, 9). Notice that in the definition of the generator it states that
energy is converted from a non electrical form into an electrical form, in
research I found that it is common to use different sources of non-electrical
energy such as: Nuclear, Coal-Fired, Conventional Hydro, Oil/Gas Fired,
Pumped-Storage Hydro. In the table below, these type forms and the purpose
of usage will be described (Duke Energy).

Nuclear Source of Energy to be Used Description of


Purpose
Nuclear generation of electricity is similar to the generation of electricity
from coal. The relative
is its source of heat which is produce by fission of the uranium 235 atom
which replaces the
position of coal in the generation of electricity. Uranium has the ability when
split by fission, to produce heat when it collides with other uranium atoms.
When heat is produced, it goes through a specific process that takes its heat
energy and generates electricity. Coal-Fired Coal-Fired generation of
electricity is a replica of nuclear generation except for their source energy,
which in this case is coal. In the process to electricity, coal is granulated into
talcum powder which is burned to produce heat. That heat is used to boil the
water that produces steam. The massive amount steam yielded is eventually
used to generate electricity. Conventional Hydro
Conventional Hydroelectricity generation is known to be economically
and environmentally friendly. This type of generation of electricity begins
with a lake, a dam, and a path within the dam that allows the water to flow
through it in order to reach the turbine and the generator. Once the water
reaches that particular point in its destination, the generator which is a
system of magnets and wires, that when rapidly turned by flowing water,
generates electricity. Oil/Gas Fired Oil/Gas Fired generation of electricity
consists of using air as a systematic cycle to generate electricity. This
process is done by first using air which is then ignited by low sulfur oil and/or
natural gas. The process defined is called combustion, which produces heat.
After the heat is produced, just like steam from the coal generation, it is
pushed into the turbines and generators, which generates heat. PumpedStorage Hydro
Pumped-Storage Hydroelectricity generation has become on of the most
economical electric power generation forms of our time. The reason why it
has acclaim such an important role is because has the ability to use the
same water over and over again. The pumped-storage of water does this by
taking the water in a lower reservoir and pushing it back up into the
beginning position in the upper reservoir that in turn generates electricity. It
has the same process as
the conventional hydroelectricity generation. Another type of equipment
found in generating electric power is the transformer. Thtransformers
primaryfunction is to link the generator to the transmission by transforming
lower generated voltages to higher transmission voltages. There are two
common types transformers used that exhibit the previously defined

functionality, which are the step up and step down transformers. The step up
transformer by definition, Reduces power losses in line, which makes the
transmission of power over long distances possible (Gross, 10). In addition
to, the step up transformer is obligated the position of being that link that
changes
lower voltage to higher voltages so that power can be transmitted. The latter
used in the transmission is the step down transformer, which will be
elaborated on in the next phase of PSA.

Transmission
The purpose of an overhead transmission network is to transfer electric
energy from generating units to various locations to the distribution system
which ultimately supplies the load (Saadat, 6). This previous definition
explains the transmission portion of the PSA. The transmission section is the
middle-man in PSA. In order for it to link to the other phases, it is made of
transmission lines as a means of connection. The transmission lines
functionality is to interconnect neighboring utilities which permits not only
dispatch of power within regions during normal conditions, but also the
transfer of power between regions during emergencies (Saadat, 6). In order
for power to be carried along those lines, it is governmentally and
environmentally important as well as safe to have line voltages between 115
to 765 kV (kV:Kilo-Volts). Having an awareness of the line voltages, it is
highly advantageous to have locations in
place for the transmission lines to be connected. The locations are found
either underground in ducts or more commonly set up overhead, spanning
long distances of up to hundreds of kilometers. Eventually, these
transmission lines have their power receive at places called substations,
where the power undergoes another voltage transformation.
Substations main functions are to Receive energy transmitted at high
voltages from the generating stations, reduce the voltage to a value
appropriate for local use, and provide facilities for switching (Pansini, 162).
The substations are unique places that house electrical equipment and it is a
place where transmission lines from various locations can interconnected. In
addition to the housing of substations, there are different types of
substations such as: the unit substation and the metal clad switchgear, in
which both can be found either indoor or outdoor. Unit substations are found
to be a great economic investment, because it is built with enclosures of all

equipment needed for transmission to distribution. The equipment that is


needed in a substation will be elaborated on in the latter. Another type
substation that is more commonly used is the metal clad switchgear. The
metal clad switchgear is described as A weatherproof housing for circuit
breakers, protective relays, meters, current transformers, potential
transformers, bus
conductors, and other equipmentan in indoor switchgear, it must be
protected from the environment and
contains the same types of equipment as the outdoor type (OSHA).

Substation Equipment Functions


Transformers
Substation transformers are generally used to reduce transmission voltage
for distribution and utilization.

Regulators
Substation Regulators are common transformers that regulate voltage. The
regulators have an apparatus that can adjust the voltage to its
predetermined value.

Circuit Breakers
Substation circuit breakers are used as detection for current overloads.

Air Break and Disconnect switches


Substations air breaks and disconnectswitches are used to effectively deenergize equipment from high voltage, in order to do maintenance.

Switchboard
Substation switchboards are basically used to run the substation. The
switchboards specially control, protect and record all the happenings within
the substation facility.

Measuring Instruments

Substation measuring equipment consists of various devices found on the


switchboard of different equipment in the facility. The devices indicate
incoming and outgoing voltages, the current and power through equipment.
The three instruments located to the left, (left to right respectively) are the
ammeter (measures current), wattmeter (measures power), and the
voltmeter
(measures voltage).

Relays
Substation relays are low powered devicesused to activate high power
devices. (Pansini, 174)
In knowing, the usage of the substation, it is easy to now traverse to the final
phase in PSA which is distribution.

Distribution
Distribution in its finality, can be described as that part of the power system
that Connects the distribution substations to the consumers serviceentrance equipment (Saadat,6). In this phase the use of the stepdown
transformers are required, so that the voltages are lowered to local area
standards. This in turn, will be executed before distributing to industrial
and/or residential customers. Primary distribution is the first area that we
encounter within the power system distribution. In this locale, we are
introduced to primary feeders or supplies that operate at 2400V (V:volts) to
13,800V and higher. These primary feeders range in length from 1-5 miles
ordinarily and 10-12 miles when carrying voltage directly to rural areas. In
addition to its feeders, the primary distribution has two identifiable designs
in which power can flow. The first is the Radial design, which allows the
power to flow in the only one direction in a given circuit form the source (the
substation) to the load (the consumer). The second design is
the loop. In the loop sequence, the primary distribution is the actual network,
and the customer receives power from more than one direction. In the loop
design it is more likely to find that the secondary distribution be that other
direction to take before the customer receives the distributed power.
Secondary distribution is the next avenue within the distribution system. In
secondary distribution, it involves the network reducing the voltage
transmitted from the primary distribution for utilization by commercial and
residential consumers. Once power has been carried in the secondary
distribution frame, it is convenient to have power distributed to individual
consumers. There is a case that is found when secondary distribution is not

required. That case is discovered only when the transformers supply large
amounts of power from the primary distribution to the consumers. Regularly
noted, secondary distribution is the direct supply of electricity the individual.

Problems in the Power System


Outages
Outages are defined as The loss of electricity supply to an area
(Wikipedia). There are three main types of outages which are blackouts,
brownouts, and dropouts. The outages that are
most common in United States are the blackouts. There have been
consecutive events of blackouts around the United States and moreover
around the world. Our nation has had the unwanted opportunity to
experience a blackout. This blackout was known as the Great Northeast
Blackout of 2003. The Great Northeast Blackout left 50 million people in the
Northeast United States and Southeast Canada in the dark. It has been noted
that this particular blackout came from an Outdated interconnected grid
system (Global Security.org). This concerns many experts, so such as
researchers from the Department of Energy (DOE) and others, that deal with
the power grid that is maintained in our nation. They fear that if these
outages remain consistent in their happenings, it will eventually affect our
source of energy and our environment drastically. One of the main causes of
outages that experts realize is the fact that there is heavy congestion within
our nations power grid. Congestion occurs when actual or scheduled flows
of electricity across a line or piece of equipment are restricted below desired
levelseither by the physical or electrical capacity of the line, or by
operational restrictions created and enforced to protect the security and
reliability of the grid (National Congestion Study). Congestion within the
power grid has been initiated by Increased long distance trading of electric
poweron transmission lines where controllers did not expect them and
could not deal with them (The
Industrial Physicist). Experts have concluded a few ways to handle this
problem so that major outages will not transpire within our system. One way
is to restructure the whole power grid. This idea has its pros and cons. The
pro is that it will accommodate new trading patterns by expanding
transmission capacity (allow more power to be transmitted across lines). The
con to this is that it physically cannot be done due to its concrete structure.
Another idea that comes to mind that is more attainable is to simply create
new rules that correspond to the power grid physics. This particular proposal
can help the system as well as the buyers of energy. If the grid is dealt with
in a safe-environmental manner, buyers can possibly get more productivity
in energy and money.

Reliability
Reliability in our power grid system has had a negative impact on your
economy as a whole. The issue that has come to the forefront as it pertains
to reliability is the misuse of the power grid in its physics to overexert power
usage for money increase purposes. Experts on the power grid realize that
overexertion on the grid causes the massive power outages which effect the
economy and more so the environment as a whole. Experts believe that
creating different types of software for monitoring of the grid would help to
Fend off potential power failures (Sandia National Laboratories). Of the new
software presented, the Probabilistic risk assessment software is a key
proposal in the monitoring of the structure. Probabilistic risk assessment
software includes: A variety of mathematical models, including those that
simulate load flow, dispatch options, weather factors, contingencies, and
more, according to the report. Probabilistic risk assessment software and
models could help plant operators better understand where to dispatch
power, how much reserve is appropriate given the weather and other factors,
how dispatches are going to affect other parts of the grid, what the
contingencies are for potential failure scenarios, what the economic impacts
are of dispatching, what the effects of new power plants coming on line
would be, and more. It would, in a sense, help plant operators predict the
future or at least quantify the likelihood of something happening and test the
effects of responses hours or days in advance. "In today's environment, we
need faster tools to evaluate the grid and plan for contingencies based on
probabilistic methods," says Abbas. (Sandia National Laboratories) This
particular solution amongst the others can only take flight if government
begins to view the power grid as not only a source of economic stability but a
source of energy. When this view is set in motion by authorities, the power
grid can eventually be stated as being a power system that is a reliable
source.

Conclusion
The power system as a whole contributes to the livelihood of family and
government. In doing this research of PSA, the eye opener of how power is
calculated through the help of the power factor, how the power system is
regulated by the assistance of power factor corrections, how local power
companies supervise the power in a region to how the nation oversees power
from the grid, shows that PSA should be reviewed so that no one would take
the energy source of electricity for granted. Also covering the fundamental

outline of PSA and receiving the problems such as outages and reliability of
the power system, has brought an awareness of how a difference one can
make in either learning how to use the knowledge given to create or design
software to help the system or by simply doing your part in conserving
energy. PSA is an important subject to cover but more important it is a
process that one should understand so that they can promote to others the
awareness of conserving energy and using their knowledge to make our
power system more reliable for the economy and moreover the environment.

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