Appendix 11

Some of the More Important

Annual Meteor Showers

his list includes only a few of the many annual showers. The dates given for the
beginnings and ends of the showers are only approximate.

Name

Beginning

End

Naked-eye star
near radiant

QUADRANTIDS

Jan. 3

Jan. 5

Beta Botis

LYRIDS

Apr. 19

Apr. 22

Nu Herculis

ETA AQUARIDS

April 21
July 15

May 12
Aug. 10

Eta Aquarii
Delta Aquarii

PERSEIDS

July 27

Aug. 17

Eta Persei

ORIONIDS

Oct. 15

Oct. 25

Nu Orionis

LEONIDS

Nov. 14

Nov. 20

Zeta Leonis

ANDROMEDIDS

Nov. 26

Dec. 4

Gamma
Andromedae

GEMINIDS

Dec. 6
Dec. 20

Dec. 19
Dec. 22

Castor
Kocab

DELTA

Remarks
Usually a sharp
maximum, Jan. 4.
Moderate shower.
Swift meteors.
Long paths; very swift.
Moderate shower.

AQUARIDS

URSIDS

193

A rich shower.
Meteors very
swift.
Moderate shower.
Swift meteors.
Not usually a rich
shower. Very
swift meteors.
Very slow meteors.
Very weak
shower.
Very rich shower.
Rather weak.

Appendix 1
Mathematical Equations Used in Astronomy
(Freedman and Kaufmann, 2002; Hartmann, 2005)

A1.1 Astronomical Constants

Astronomical unit AU
Light year

ly

12

= 9!4605 10 km
= 9!4605 1015 m
= 63,240 AU
= 365!2564 d
= 3!156 107 s

Year

Solar mass

M" = 1989 1030 kg

Solar radius

Mass of a
neutron
Mass of a
hydrogen
atom
Rydberg
constant
Electron volt

= 149!60 106 km
= 1!4960 1011 m

R"

Solar luminosity

L"

Speed of light

= 2!9979 108 m/s

= 2!9979 1010 cm/s
= 2!9979 105 km/s

= 6!6726 1011 Nm2 /kg2

= 6!6261 1034 Js
= 4!1357 1015 eVs
= 1!3807 1023 J/K
= 8!6174 105 eV/K
= 5!6705 108 Wm2 k 4

k
"

mH

= 1!6735 1027 kg

= 1!0968 107 m1

1 eV = 1!6022 1019 J

Area of a rectangle
Volume of rectangular solid
Hypotenuse of a right triangle
Circumference of a circle
Area of a circle
Surface of a sphere
Volume of a sphere

= 3!90 1026 W

= 1!6749 1027 kg

A1.3 Geometrical Relations

= 6!9599 108 m
= 6!9599 105 km

A1.2 Physical Constants

Gravitational
constant
Plancks
constant
Boltzmann
constant
StefanBoltzmann
constant
Mass of an
electron
Mass of a
proton

mn

%=

A = ab
V = abc
c = #a2 + b2 $1/2
C = 2r%
A = r2 %
A = 4%r 2
4
V = %r 3
3

C
= 3!1415926536&
2r
r = radius of a circle

A1.4 Units of Distance, Time,

and Mass

me = 9!1094 1031 kg

In Science the unit of length or distance is the

meter (m), the unit of time is the second (s), and
the unit of mass is the kilogram (kg).

mp = 1!6726 1027 kg

469

216

The Amateur Astronomer

Number

Constellation

Type

24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
41
42
43
44
45
46
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69

Sagittarius
Sagittarius
Scutum
Vulpecula
Sagittarius
Cygnus
Capricornus
Andromeda
Andromeda
Triangulum
Perseus
Gemini
Auriga
Auriga
Auriga
Cygnus
Canis Major
Orion
Orion
Cancer
Taurus
Puppis
Virgo
Monoceros
Canes Venatici
Cassiopeia
Coma Berenices
Sagittarius
Sagittarius
Lyra
Lyra
Virgo
Virgo
Virgo
Virgo
Ophiuchus
Canes Venatici
Coma Berenices
Leo
Leo
Cancer
Hydra
Sagittarius

Open cluster
Open cluster
Open cluster
Planetary
Globular
Open cluster
Globular
Spiral galaxy
Elliptical galaxy
Spiral galaxy
Open cluster
Open cluster
Open cluster
Open cluster
Open cluster
Open cluster
Open cluster
Nebula
Nebula
Open cluster
Open cluster
Open cluster
Elliptical galaxy
Open cluster
Spiral galaxy
Open cluster
Globular
Globular
Globular
Globular
Planetary
Spiral galaxy
Elliptical galaxy
Elliptical galaxy
Spiral galaxy
Globular
Spiral galaxy
Spiral galaxy
Spiral galaxy
Spiral galaxy
Open cluster
Globular
Globular

Magnitude
4.6
6.5
9.3
7.6
7.3
7.1
8.4
4.8
8.7
6.7
5.5
5.3
6.3
6.2
7.4
5.2
4.6
4+
9+
3.7

6.0
8.6
6.3
8.1
7.3
7.6
7.3
7.6
8.2
9.3
8.2
9.3
9.2
9.6
8.9
10.1
6.6
9.5
8.8
6.1
9.0
8.9

Remarks

Dumbbell Nebula

Great Galaxy
Satellite of M.31
Triangulum Spiral

Great Nebula in Orion

Part of Orion Nebula
Praesepe
Pleiades

Whirlpool Galaxy

Ring Nebula

Famous old cluster

471

mathematical equations used in astronomy

P = sidereal period of an inferior planet (i.e.,
the radius of its orbit is smaller than that
of the Earth),
E = sidereal period of the Earth (1 year),
S = synodic period of an inferior planet.

p=
a=
m1 =
m2 =
G=

sidereal period in seconds,

semi-major axis of the orbit in meters,
mass of the first object in kilograms,
mass of the second object in kilograms,
universal constant of gravitation (See
above).

A1.8b Superior Planet

1 1
1
=
P E S

(A1.2)

P = sidereal period of a superior planet

E = sidereal period of the Earth (1 year)
S = synodic period of a superior planet
Note that all periods are expressed in multiples
of sidereal Earth years.
A1.9 Keplers Third Law
p2 = a 3
p = period expressed in sidereal Earth years,
a = semi-major axis of the orbit of a planet in
the solar system expressed in astronomical
units (AU)
This form of Keplers third law applies only to
objects that orbit the Sun. It does not apply to
satellites that orbit planets in the solar system or
planets that orbit a star other than the Sun.
A1.10 Newtons Law of Universal
Gravitation
!m m "
1 2
F=G
r2
F = gravitational force between two objects in
newtons,
m1 = the mass of the first object in kilograms,
m2 = the mass of the second object in kilograms,
r = distance between the centers of the objects
in meters,
G = universal constant of gravitation = 6!67
1011 newton m2 /kg2 .
A1.11 Newtons Form of Keplers
Third Law
p2 =

4" 2
a3
G#m1 + m2 $

A1.12 Tidal Force Exerted by the Earth

on the Moon
Ftidal =

2GM md
r3

Ftidal =
G=
M=
m=
d=
=
r=

tidal force in newtons (N)

6!67 1011 Nm2 /kg2
mass of the Earth = 5!974 1024 kg
small mass of 1 kg
diameter of the Moon in meters
3!476 106 m
distance between the center of the Earth
and the center of the Moon in meters
= 3!844 108 m

Ftidal =

2#6!67 1011 $#5!974 1024 $#1$#3!476 106 $

#3!844 108 $3

= 4!88105 N#Freedman and Kaufmann%

2002% p!215$!

A1.13 Tidal Bulge

The mass of the tidal bulge #mb $ is:
mb =

A
r3

where A depends on the mechanical properties

of the body that is being deformed.
By substituting mb = A/r 3 into the formula for
the tidal force, we obtain the net tidal force that
acts on the Moon:
Ftidalnet =

2GMd A 2GMdA
3=
r3
r
r6

The ratio of the net tidal forces acting on the

Moon at perigee and apogee is:
#
$
2GMAd #rapo $6
rapo 6
Fper
=
=
rperi
Fapo #rperi $6 2GMAd
#
$6
405% 500
=
= 1!93 #Freedman and
363% 300
Kaufmann% 2002% p! 216$!

470

appendix 1

A1.4.1 Distance (m)

102 m
103 m
106 m
109 m
103 m
149!6 106 km
9!46 1012 km

= 1 centimeter (cm)
= 1 millimeter (mm)
= 1 micrometer #'m$
= nanometer (nm)
= 1 kilometer (km)
= 1 astronomical unit (AU)
= 1 lightyear #ly$ = 63,240 (AU)

A1.4.2 Time (s)

60 s
3600 s
86&400 s
3!156 107 s

=
=
=
=

1
1
1
1

minute (min)
hour #h$ = 60 min
day #d$ = 24 h
year#y$ = 365!256 d

A1.4.3 Mass (kg)

A planet on a circular orbit around the Sun has

a constant speed but it is continually accelerated
because of the change in direction.
A1.6 Newtons Laws of Motion
1. A body at rest remains at rest, a body in
motion continues to move in a straight line at
a constant speed unless it is acted upon by a
net outside force.
2. The acceleration of an object is proportional
to the net outside force that is acting on it.
If a net force (F) acts on body of mass of mass
(m), the body will experience an acceleration (a)
such that:
F = ma

A1.5 Speed, Velocity, and Acceleration

F = net outside force acting on the body

(newtons),
m = mass of the object (kg),
a = acceleration#m/s2 $.
3. Whenever one body exerts a force on a second
body, the second body exerts an equal and
opposite force on the first body.z

Speed is a measure of how fast a body is moving

expressed in terms of the ratio:

A1.7 Mass and Weight

1 kg = 10 gram#g$
1000 kg = 1 metric tonne (t)
1!99 1030 kg = solar mass (M")

speed =

distance
time

103 m/s = 1 km/s

1!609 103 m/s = 1 mi/s

Velocity differs from speed because it includes

the direction in which a body is moving. For
example, a car moving north at 100 km/h and
a car moving south at 100 km/h have the same
speed but different velocities.
Acceleration is the rate at which the velocity
of a body in motion is changing either because of
a change in its speed or because of a change in its
direction. Acceleration occurs when the speed of
a body in motion increases or decreases, or when
the direction of motion is changing. When an
apple falls out of a tree, its speed increase from
zero to 9.8 m/s during the first second, to 19.6 m/s
during the next second, and to 29.4 m/s during
the third second. In other words, the speed of the
apple in free fall on the Earth increases by 9.8 m/s
for each second that elapses. Therefore, the acceleration of the apple is 9.8 m/s/s or 9!8 m/s2 .

The mass of a body depends on the amount of

material it contains and is expressed in grams or
kilograms. The mass of a body does not depend
on its location in the Universe.
The weight of a body is the magnitude of the
gravitational force that acts on it. Since weight
is a force, it is expressed in newtons or pounds
where:
1 newton = 0!225 pounds
A1.8 Sidereal and Synodic Periods
The sidereal period of a planet is the time
required for the planet to complete one orbit. The
synodic period of a planet is the time between
two successive identical configurations.
A1.8a Inferior Planet
1 1
1
= +
P E S

(A1.1)

217

Messiers Catalogue
Number

Constellation

Type

70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
103
104

Sagittarius
Sagitta
Aquarius
Aquarius
Pisces
Sagittarius
Perseus
Cetus
Orion
Lepus
Scorpio
Ursa Major
Ursa Major
Hydra
Virgo
Coma Berenices
Virgo
Virgo
Coma Berenices
Virgo
Virgo
Hercules
Puppis
Canes Venatici
Leo
Leo
Ursa Major
Coma Berenices
Coma Berenices
Coma Berenices
Ursa Major
Cassiopeia
Virgo

Globular
Globular
Globular
Four faint stars
Spiral galaxy
Globular
Planetary
Spiral galaxy
Nebula
Globular
Globular
Spiral galaxy
Irregular galaxy
Spiral galaxy
Spiral galaxy
Spiral galaxy
Elliptical galaxy
Elliptical galaxy
Spiral galaxy
Elliptical galaxy
Spiral galaxy
Globular
Open cluster
Spiral galaxy
Barred spiral galaxy
Spiral galaxy
Planetary
Spiral galaxy
Spiral galaxy
Spiral galaxy
Spiral galaxy
Open cluster
Spiral galaxy

Magnitude
9.6
9.0
9.8

10.2
8.0
12.2
8.9
8.3
7.9
7.7
7.9
8.8
10.1
9.3
9.3
9.7
9.2
10.2
9.5
10.0
6.1
6.0
7.9
10.4
9.1
12.6
10.7
10.1
10.6
9.6
7.4
8.4

Remarks

Not a cluster

Radio source

Owl Nebula

Sombrero Hat Galaxy

Various forms of the Messier catalogue have been given, notably by Owen Gingerich
(Sky and Telescope, Vol. XIII, p. 158 [1954]) and R.H. Garstang (BAA Handbook, p. 63
[1964]). Five additions were made, all objects observed by the French astronomer
Mchain, and these are often included in the catalogue: M.105 (elliptical galaxy in Leo),
M.106 (spiral galaxy in Canes Venatici), M.107 (globular in Ophiuchus), and M.108 and
109 (spiral galaxies in Ursa Major).
M.40 is not identifiable; it may simply be a couple of faint stars, or it may have been a
comet. M.91 is also an absentee, and this too may have been a comet, though Gingerich
suggests that it may be identical with M.58. There is grave doubt about the identities of
M.47 and M.48; it has been suggested that M.47 is an open cluster in Argo Navis (Puppis)
and M.48 an open cluster in Hydra. M.102 may have been identical with M.101, or it
may possibly have been a faint spiral galaxy in Draco. Finally, M.73 consists of four faint,
unconnected stars and is not a true cluster or nebular object.

472

appendix 1

A1.14 Roche Limits

Two touching particles:
!

(
rR = 2!5 M
(m

"1/3

(A1.3)

Liquid (or zero-strength) spherical body:

!

(
rR = 2!44 M
(m
rR =
)m =
)m =
R=

"1/3

(A1.4)

Roche limit
density of a body of mass M
density of body of mass m
radius of the body of mass M (km)
(Hartmann, 2005, p.60)

c
+

(A1.5)

, = frequency of an electromagnetic wave in

hertz (Hz)
c = speed of light in meters per second
- = wavelength of the wave in meters
The frequency of a wave of any kind is the
number of wave crests that pass a given point in
one second.
1
*=
p

+
p

(A1.7)

K = C + 273!15

F=

9C
+ 32
5

(A1.11)

F=

#K 273!15$ 9
+ 32
5

(A1.12)

K=

#F 32$ 5
+ 273!15
9

(A1.13)

C = temperature on the Celsius scale,

K = temperature on the Kelvin scale,
f = temperature on the Fahrenheit scale.
A1.17 Wiens Law for Blackbody
Radiation

0!0029
T
+max = wavelength of the most intense radiation
in meters,
T = temperature of the object in kelvins.
+max =

A1.18 Stefan-Boltzmann Law

for Blackbody Radiation
F = .T4
F = flux of energy in units of J/m2 /s at the
surface of the radiating body,
. = 5!67 108 W/m2 /T4 (or W m2 T4 ),
T = temperature of the object in kelvins.
A1.19 Surface Temperature of the Sun
The wavelength of the most intense radiation
emitted by the Sun is 500 nm (Freedman and
Kaufmann, 2002, p. 103). Therefore, Wiens
Law yields a temperature of:

A1.16 Temperature Scales

C = K 273!15

(A1.10)

(A1.6)

where p = the time between successive wave

crests that pass a given point. The speed of
light, or the speed of any wave, is equal to the
wavelength divided by the period.
c=

#F 32$ 5
9

The relation between the temperature of a

radiating body and the wavelength of the most
intense radiation it emits is:

A1.15 Frequency and Wavelength

of Electromagnetic Radiation
*=

C=

(A1.8)
(A1.9)

T=

0!0029
0!0029
=
= 5800 K
+max
500 109

Appendix 23

Messiers Catalogue

essiers famous catalogue of nebular objects includes most of the brightest

nebulae and clusters visible in England. It is therefore useful to give his list,
as most of the objects can be found by means of the star maps in Appendix 25 and
can be picked up by means of small telescopes.
Number

Constellation

Type

Magnitude

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

Taurus
Aquarius
Canes Venatici
Scorpius
Serpens
Scorpio
Scorpius
Sagittarius
Ophiuchus
Ophiuchus
Scutum
Ophiuchus
Hercules
Ophiuchus
Pegasus
Serpens

8.4
6.3
6.4
6.4
6.2
5.3
4.0
6.0
7.3
6.7
6.3
6.6
5.7
7.7
6.0

17

Sagittarius

Wreck of supernova
Globular
Globular
Globular
Globular
Open cluster
Open cluster
Nebula
Globular
Globular
Open cluster
Globular
Globular
Globular
Globular
Nebula and embedded
cluster
Nebula

18
19
20
21
22
23

Sagittarius
Ophiuchius
Sagittarius
Sagittarius
Sagittarius
Sagittarius

Open cluster
Globular
Nebula
Open cluster
Globular
Open cluster

7.5
6.6
9.0
6.5
5.9
6.9

215

6.4
7.0

Remarks
Crab Nebula (radio source)

Lagoon Nebula

Wild Duck Cluster

Great globular cluster

Omega or Horseshoe
Nebula

Trifid Nebula

474

appendix 1

k = 1!38 1023 J/K,

T = temperature of the gas in kelvins,
m = mass of the atom or molecule in kilograms.
A1.23 Escape Speed from Planetary
Surfaces
The escape speed is the minimum speed an object
at the surface of a planet must have in order to
permanently leave the planet:
"e =

2GM
r

"1/2

The escape speed of planets in km/s is:

Mercury
Venus
Earth
Moon
Mars
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
Pluto

4!3
10!4
11!2
2!4
5!0
59!5
35!5
21!5
23!4
1!3

A1.24 Retention of Molecular Oxygen

in the Atmosphere of the Earth
The mass of a molecule of oxygen #O2 $ is 5!32
1026 kg. Therefore the average speed of oxygen
molecules at 20 # C (293 K) is (Freedman and
Kaufmann, 2002, p. 160):
# $
&1/2
%
3 1!38 1023 #293$
"=
= 478 m/s
5!32 1026
= 0!478 km/s

Since the escape speed from the Earth is

11.2 km/s, oxygen cannot escape from the
atmosphere of the Earth. In general, atoms and
molecules cannot escape in cases where the
escape speed from the surface of the planet is
more than six times higher than the average speed
of the atom or molecule under consideration.
A1.25 References
Freedman RA, Kaufmann III WJ (2002) Universe: The solar
system. Freeman, New York
Hartman WK (2005) Moons and planets, 5th edn.
Brooks/Cole, Belmont, CA

Appendix 14

Stars of the First Magnitude

he 21 brightest stars are recognized as being of the first magnitude. The values
given here are the latest determinations and differ somewhat from earlier
values.
Star
Alpha Canis Majoris
Alpha Carinae
Alpha Centauri
Alpha Botis
Alpha Lyrae
Alpha Aurigae
Beta Orionis
Alpha Canis Minoris
Alpha Eridani
Alpha Orionis
Beta Centauri
Alpha Aquilae
Alpha Crucis
Alpha Tauri
Alpha Virginis
Alpha Scorpii
Beta Geminorum
Alpha Piscis Australis
Alpha Cygni
Beta Crucis
Alpha Leonis

Name
Sirius
Canopus
Arcturus
Vega
Capella
Rigel
Procyon
Achernar
Betalgeux
Agena
Altair
Acrux
Aldebaran
Spica
Antares
Pollux
Fomalhaut
Deneb
Mimosa
Regulus

Mag.

Spectrum

1.44
0.62
0.27
0.05
0.03
0.08
0.18
0.40
0.45
0.45
0.61
0.76
0.77
0.87
0.98
1.08
1.16
1.17
1.25
1.25
1.36

A1
F0
G2+K1
K2
A0
G8+G0
B8
F5
B5
M2
B1
A7
B0+B1
K5
B1+B2
M1
K0
A3
A2
B0
B7

Distance,
lt-yrs

Luminosity,
Sun 1

8.6
310
4.4
37
25
42
770
11
144
430
530
16.8
320
65
260
600
35
25
1800
300
78

26
15,000
1.7 + 0.45
115
52
90 + 70
40,000
8
1000
11,000
10,000
10
3200 = 2000
140
2200
9000
33
14
60,000
260,000
125

Next in order of brightness come Epsilon Canis Majoris (Adhara) 1.50, Alpha
Geminorum (Castor) 1.58, Gamma Orionis 1.59 and Lambda Scorpii (Shaula) 1.62.
204

Appendix 17

Stellar Spectra

Type

Surface temp.
(degrees C)

Colour

Typical star

36,000+

Greenish white

Gamma Velorum,
WC7

36,000+

Greenish white

B
A

28,600
10,700

Bluish
White

Zeta Puppis,
O5
Spica, B1
Sirius, A1

7,500

Yellowish

G (giant)

5,200

Yellow

Beta Cassiopeiae,
F2
Epsilon Leonis,
G0

G (dwarf)
K (giant)

6,000
4,230

Yellow
Orange

Sun, G2
Arcturus, K2

K (dwarf)

4,910

Orange

M (giant)
M (dwarf)

3,400
3,400

Orange-red
Orange-red

Epsilon Eridani,
K2
Betelgeux, M2
Wolf 359, M6

R
N

2,300
2,600

Orange-red
Red

U Cygni
S Cephei, Ne

2,600

Red

R Andromedae

Remarks
Wolf-Rayet. Many
bright lines; helium
prominent
Wolf-Rayet. Helium
prominent
Helium prominent
Hydrogen lines
prominent
Calcium lines
prominent
{Metallic lines very
numerous

{Hydrocarbon bands
appear
{Broad titanium
oxide and calcium
bands or flutings
Carbon bands
Carbon bands. Reddest
of all stars
Some zirconium
oxide bands. Mostly
long-period
variables

Types R and N are often combined as Type C. The coolest stars are now given as Types L
and T. A separate class, Q, has been reserved for novae.
208

473

mathematical equations used in astronomy

The luminosity (L) of the Sun is L = 3!90
1026 W. Given that 1 Watt = 1 J/s, the Sun
radiates 3!90 1026 J every second. The energy
flux (F) is obtained by dividing the total
luminosity by surface area (A) of the Sun where
A = 4%R2 and R is the radius of the Sun
(Freedman and Kaufmann, 2002, p. 103):
F=

L
3!90 1026
=
4/R2 4 3!14#6!96 108 $2
= 6!41 107 W/m2

We can also calculate the surface temperature of

the Sun from the Stefan-Boltzmann Law:
T4 =

F
6!41 107
=
= 1!13 1015
.
5!67 108

log 1!13 10
4
T = 5797 K

15

log T =

15!0530
= 3!7632
4

A1.20 Energy of Photons

hc
+

(A1.14)

E = energy in electron volt (eV) where 1 eV

= 1!6021019 J,
h = Plancks constant = 6!625 1034 Js,
c = speed of light,
+ = wavelength of light.
One photon of red light having a wavelength
+ = 633 nm carries an energy of:
E=

6!625 1034 3!00 108

= 3!14 1019 J
633 109

The energy of a photon can also be expressed in

terms of the frequency #*$ where
c
+
E = h*
*=

0+ *
=
+o
c
0+ = measured change in wavelength in
nanometers,
+ = wavelength in nanometers when the
source is not moving,
* = velocity of the source measured along the
line of sight (i.e., the radial velocity) in
km/s,
c = speed of light #3!0 105 km/s$.
If 0- is negative, the source is approaching the
Earth (i.e., blue shift). If 0- is positive, the
source is receding from the Earth (i.e., red shift).
A1.22 Kinetic Energy and Speed
of Atoms and Molecules in a Gas
The kinetic energy of an object is:
KE =

which rounds to 5800 K.

E=

A1.21 Doppler Effect

(A1.15)
(A1.16)

1
m *2
2

(A1.17)

m = mass of the object in kilograms,

* = speed in meters per second,
KE = kinetic energy in Joules (J).
The average kinetic energy of an atom or
molecule in a gas is:
KE =

3
kT
2

(A1.18)

k = Boltzmann constant = 1!38 1023 J/K,

T = temperature in kelvins,
KE = average kinetic energy of a single atom or
molecule in Joules.
The average speed of an atom or molecule in a
gas depends on its mass.
3
1
m* 2 = kT
2
2
"1/2
!
3kT
*=
m

(A1.19)

* = average speed of an atom or molecule in a

gas in m/s,