ECOFEMINIST STRATEGIES FOR CHANGE:

A CASE STUDY IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA

KRISTINA SCHMAH (BSc, Bach Lett, Hons)

1998
(Jarrah, jarrahhuman@yahoo.com)

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank the women I interviewed in this project for their willingness to talk with
me about their lives and work - and for the incredible inspiration and strength they continue to give
me.
I would like also to thank Renate Klein whose criticisms and help as supervisor guided my
work through its stages of development.
Thank you to the many who have helped in reading and making this a physical reality,
especially so to the clear thinking and wonderful Cecily Scutt.
Also deep gratutude To our passionate, serene,
precious mysterious, fertile planet home.

SUMMARY

In this thesis I present a regional study of ecofeminist activism in Western Australia. The
aim is to examine the practical strategies of a cross-section of women in Western Australia who
embrace ecofeminist philosophies and ideals. Findings from this research are discussed in relation
to ecofeminist theory and contextualised within a global picture of the current form of worldwide
ecofeminist activism. My thesis clarifies the agenda for ecofeminist activism and shows how
ecofeminist visions are being actualised in the 90s. To my knowledge this is unprecedented in the
existing literature and represents new ground in ecofeminist self-reflection.
I present a model of the common ecofeminist strategies revealed in the regional study,
and illustrate how the practical approach, activities, and strategies of the women interviewed
merge with ecofeminist theory as expressed in the international literature. The model for
ecofeminist strategy can be summarised as a conscious commitment to feminist analysis,
participatory and non-hierarchical group process, awareness and action on the ecological and
social interconnectedness of all things, an attention to diverse issues and networking, and a
balancing of the personal-political equilibrium.
As is my thesis, these commitments and principles can be seen as the distinguishing
features of ecofeminist practice, despite the diverse contexts in which they are enacted. The
findings from my regional study and the overview of the literature indicate that ecofeminist
strategy relies on the ecology-based notion of diversity as strength. I conclude that ecofeminism is
at once both simple and complex - within the simple call for awareness and action on the
connectedness of all issues lie the complexity of diverse details which demand attention to form a
holistic and clear understanding on which to base action.

CONTENTS

Acknowledgments

Summary

Contents

Chapter 1 - Introduction

Chapter 2 - Ecofeminist Insights: the Meaning, the Mix, the Flavour

2.1 Ecofeminist Philosophical Understandings

2.1.1 Reform Will Not Work - Rotten to the Core

2.1.2 Hierarchical Dualisms and the Legacy of Domination

10

2.2 Critiques of Science

12

2.2.1 Sexist Science

13

2.2.2 Nature is Dead

13

2.2.3 New Directions - "Careful" Science, Care-full Science

14

2.3 Interconnectedness

15

2.3.1 Broadening Our Accountability

15

2.3.2 Allied With the Earth

17

2.3.3 The Deep Ecology Connection and Debate

17

2.4 But Why Eco-feminism, Why Not Eco-humanism?

18

2.4.1 Why We Need a Feminist Analysis

18

2.4.2 Hyperseperation: Why Ecology Needs Feminism

21

2.4.3 The Sexual Division of Labour

22

2.4.4 "Feminism or Death"

23

2.5 Women, Environment and Development - Women Suffer First and Worst
2.5.1 Maldevelopment
Chapter 3 - Integrating Critical Feedback

25
27
29

3.1 Beware of Assumptions

29

3.2 Remember the Overwhelming Power of Capitalism

30

3.3 Women and the Environment Aren't Necessarily Harmonious

30

3.4 Biological Determinism and 'Reverse Sexism'

31

3.5 It's Not Feminist Enough

32

3.6 Where Do These Criticisms Leave 90s Ecofeminism?

33

Chapter 4 - Strategies For Change

34

4.1 The Vision

34

4.2 The Reality

35

4.3 Hallmarks of Ecofeminist Strategy

36

4.3.1 Where We're Coming From - Diversity

36

4.3.2 Making the Links

38

4.3.3 Community-building and Grassroots Strategies

39

4.3.4 An Economic System Benign to People and Life

40

4.3.5 Live Simply So That Others Can Simply Live

43

4.3.6 Support for Women

44

4.3.7 Direct Action

45

4.3.8 Nonviolence

45

4.3.9 Allowing Emotional Expression

48

4.3.10 The Personal is Political

50

4.3.11 Internal Violence

52

Chapter 5 - Why Should There Be Hope in These Strategies?

55

5.1 World-wide Ecofeminist Actions and Projects

58

5.2 Australian Projects

59

Chapter 6 - Hearing Ecofeminist Activists in Western Australia

61

6.1 Initial Considerations

62

6.2 The Pros and Cons of the Method

63

6.3 The Questions

64

6.4 Future Considerations

66

6.5 Reciprocal Needs Met

67

6.6 Personal Transformation

68

Chapter 7 - Findings From the Women Interviewed

7 The Emerging Patterns

69

69

7.1 Stability in Diversity

69

7.2 Living Out the Ideals

71

7.3 Empowering Education

67

7.4 The Difference and Value of Women

75

7.5 Leading in a Different Way

76

7.6 The Need for Gender Analysis

77

7.7 Green and Social Change Movements Are Still Not Free of Sexism 78
7.8 The Men Question

81

7.9 The Sisterhood of Women

83

7.10 The Personal-Political Equilibrium

85

Chapter 8 - Reflecting and Piecing Together Dreams

90

8.1 Full Circle

90

8.2 Fitting Into a Global Perspective

90

8.3 The Findings and Simple Ecofeminist Principles Illustrated - A Summary

91

8.3.1 Gender Awareness

91

8.3.2 Explicit Feminist Commitment

92

8.3.3 Expand the Role of Men

92

8.3.4 Ecological Consciousness

93

8.3.5 Fundamental Change

94

8.3.6 Create What You Dream

94

8.3.7 The World is My Loungeroom - Crossing the Personal/Political Divide

8.3.8 Dancing Across Bridges

95

8.3.9 Activism is Essential

95

8.3.10 Get Involved: the Political is Personal

96

Chapter 9 - Final Reflections

99

9.1 Simple Complexity

99

9.2 Boundaries and Beyond

102

9.3 The Juggler, The Poet

102

References

105

Appendix 1 - Prepared Interview Questions

115

Appendix 2 - Case Biographies - the Practical Strategies

116

1. INTRODUCTION
Humans now have the technological capacity to destroy life on Earth as we have known it.
We are constantly bombarded with distress signals indicating mounting regional and global crisis.
The daunting problems of nuclear arsenals, nuclear power and radioactive waste continues to

threaten all life 1, and we risk the catastrophic failure of vital life-support systems from ozone
depletion, climatic change from 'greenhouse' gases, and widespread environmental degradation
and species extinction2. There is also escalating poverty and injustice on an immense scale human suffering from famine, drought, chemical poisoning and the desertification of once fertile
lands is rapidly increasing (Barnaby 1988). In the words of the former Norwegian Prime Minister
Mrs. Gro Harlem Brundtland (1988, p94): "Present trends and policies cannot continue. They will
destroy the resource base on which we all depend ... Threats to the environment are becoming
global in scope and devastating in scale. The grim statistics are now all too familiar".
Despite growing awareness and concern, global human society is still hurtling in the same
direction, 'business as usual' (LaChance 1991). There is a lack of a sense of urgency amongst
decision makers to right inequity, change unsustainable practices and control malign technology often to the point of suppressing or playing down information that is vital to our survival (Shields
1991).
Prior to the present millennia, human capacity for destruction was comparatively minimal.
Humanity has never before been confronted with the magnitude of tasks we face to create the
possibility of survival (LaChance 1991). What is required for humanity to find the means to
respond to this situation is nothing less than a cultural evolution/revolution - a change in ways of
understanding, acting and being (Eisler 1987).
I chose the topic of this thesis because I work as an environmental activist and feminist
and I am constantly reminded of the severity of the numerous problems threatening the integrity of
all planetary life.
Years spent in study would inevitably lead me deep within my own areas of interest and
dilemmas, and it is within international ecofeminist theory that I found clarification about this world
in crisis. Ecofeminism provides a broad analysis of the root causes of social and environmental
problems as well as knowledge about the tools to divert our current path to annihilation. It is a call
to inclusive and interdisciplinary thinking that seeks to examine and confront multiple aspects of
the planetary crisis. This holistic sensibility gives me intellectual relief, and a solid base to act
from. As Elizabeth Bragg (1996, p3) put it: "Finding a cultural framework for my personal
experience was profoundly affirming. I discovered I was not alone in the ways I understood the
world. "
1There

are enough nuclear bombs to destroy many times over the entire land, atmosphere, water, air, and
ocean systems of this planet (Birkeland 1993).
2For example, Australia's environmental problems include soil erosion, salinity buildup, deforestation,
pesticide and toxic waste, water, soil and air pollution, and declining biological habitat and diversity
(Merchant 1995 p190).

When ecofeminists say we need strategies that join feminism and ecology, this resonates
with my gut feelings and experience. I've worked in areas of the environment movement and felt
the stark absence of feminist insight and the gaping lack of environmental awareness and
principles in circles of the women's movement.
From my reading of international ecofeminist literature it still wasn't clear to me what the
explicit agenda for ecofeminist action was. What did it mean in practical terms? Was it unified or
piecemeal? A philosophy, or a movement? Or combinations of both...? I found a few enticing
sentences at the end of an article here or there, and scattered references to actions and projects.
There was much lauded attention to a few protest movements that had become ecofeminist
cliches proving the global reach of the movement. And I had found excellent books on women and
development in Majority World 3 countries detailing many actions that embodied ecofeminist
principles.
But still I felt something lacking. The dreams I harboured of a global network that would
expand connections and relay inspirational ideas and success stories, was perhaps a bit 'pie in the
sky'. This is especially so when considering the difficulties of making a worldwide network
accessible to everyone. Or perhaps these networks already existed and I just wasn't aware of them
yet? (This proved to be the case. I soon found some extensive networks). From the onset I wanted
my research to be useful in some way, perhaps in expanding the influence of ecofeminist projects
and ideas through such networks.
The research I decided to embark on was a regional study of ecofeminist activism. I see
this research as forging links between the practical and the theoretical, grounding ecofeminist
theory in relevance and reality. As activists we need information on how we are already organising,
so as to aid ongoing critical examination and reconstruction. This facilitates ecofeminism as an
accessible self-reflexive discipline (Bragg 1997). Research is an opportunity to demystify the
actual experiences of real women currently practicing ecofeminism. The listening to and giving
voice to activists in my community put me in touch with ways people are practically perceiving and
using ecofeminist philosophy in the 90s. This thesis clarifies the agenda for ecofeminist activism
and presents an explicit analysis of ecofeminist strategy in the 90s. To my knowledge this is
unprecedented in the existing literature and represents new ground in ecofeminist self-reflection.

The terms 'developing', Third World' or 'non-industrialised' to describe a country are contentious and
surrounded by much debate. I hold the critiques of the validity of these terms as important. The term
Majority World is not based in negative association as the other terms are, and aptly points to where and
how the majority of the worlds population live.

In this thesis I aim to examine the practices and ideas of a cross-section of women in
Western Australia who embrace ecofeminist principles. I intend to explore the strategies these
women envision and enact towards actualising ecofeminist philosophy. These will be considered in
relation to ecofeminist themes and notions, and contextualised within ecofeminist visions of a
global decentralised social movement.
There are two main parts to this discussion - a literature review in which I examine
ecofeminist theory, and a case study of Western Australian ecofeminist activists. The literature
review begins with an overview of ecofeminist principles and thought, and includes a discussion of
major criticisms of ecofeminist philosophy. This is followed by a specific focus on the practices and
strategies endorsed by ecofeminists working towards actualising egalitarian ecological societies.
The literature review concludes by questioning if ecofeminist practice and visions for social
change can be realistically achieved. To this end I include examples of current world-wide
ecofeminist practice to present a picture of the form of global ecofeminist activities in the 90s.
These, I believe, indicate that strategies which reflect ecofeminist philosophies, if expanded and
extended in reach, can successfully transform the current global system into the decentralised
equitable and ecological societies ecofeminists envision. I have chosen to use this approach
because it gives a clear background in which to place the practices and ideas of the women
interviewed in the regional study.
Following the literature review is an explanation of the methodology I used in my field
research. I then present an exploration of the findings to show the forms of ecofeminist practice
and approach that emerged from this study. I conclude by relating the meaning and interpretation
of these research findings to the ecofeminist theory discussed, with the aim to build a picture of
how ecofeminist philosophy is being actualised in the 90s.
As I will show there are common perceptions in strategic approaches that emerged from
the research interviews. These, in turn, are reflected in ecofeminist theory. The distinguishing
features of ecofeminist strategy and action can be summarised as a conscious commitment to
feminist analysis, participatory and non-hierarchical group process, awareness and action on the
ecological and social interconnectedness of all things, an attention to diverse issues and
networking, and a balancing of the personal-political equilibrium.
As is my thesis, these commitments and principles can be seen as the distinguishing
features of ecofeminist practice, despite the diverse contexts in which they are enacted. The
findings from my regional study and the overview of the literature indicate that ecofeminist theory,
strategy and practice rely on this ecology-based notion of diversity as strength. I conclude that
ecofeminism is at once both simple and complex - within the simple call for awareness and action

on the connectedness of all issues lie the complexity of diverse details which demand attention to
form a holistic and clear understanding on which to base action.
2. ECOFEMINIST INSIGHTS: T HE MEANING, THE MIX,

THE

FLAVOUR

The body of ecofeminist literature is large and continues to expand rapidly. Emerging from
radical feminism of the 1970s, the works include a mix of theory, poetic expression and actionorientated writing. Twenty years on, in the 1990s, ecofeminist literature shows a wide array of
theory indicating philosophical thought that has diversified and been refined. I intend here to
review fundamental ecofeminist insights of the international literature. This review builds a basis
for understanding the ecofeminist practices and strategies discussed in Chapter 4: Strategies for
Change, and provides a context in which to place the findings from the research interviews.
2.1
2.1.1

ECOFEMINIST PHILOSOPHICAL UNDERSTANDINGS

REFORM WILL NOT WORK

- ROTTEN TO THE CORE

Ecofeminism goes to the core. With its origins in radical feminism - the word "radical"
meaning "going to the root" (Morgan 1996), ecofeminists are looking for the underlying causes of
humanity's current course towards severe ecological collapse.
Ecofeminists may differ in their approach and focus but all agree that reformist strategy
cannot work (D'Eaubonne 1974a p188). This is not to say that reforming efforts are not invaluable
steps on the road to recovery, but that they can at best only postpone full-scale catastrophe.
Ecofeminists proclaim that patchwork reforms of better policy and better technology cannot cure
the magnitude of poverty, gross injustices and immediate planetary environmental crisis currently
faced. This is argued, for instance, by Maria Mies and Vandana Shiva in their book Ecofeminism
(1993), and within the ecofeminist collections of Leonie Caldecott and Stephanie Leland (eds)
Reclaim the Earth: Women Speak Out for Life on Earth (1983), Irene Diamond and Gloria
Orenstein (eds) Reweaving the World: the Emergence of Ecofeminism (1990), Judith Plant (ed.)
Healing the Wounds: the Promise of Ecofeminism (1989), and Greta Gaard (ed.) Ecofeminism:
Women, Animals, Nature (1993).
As Francoise D'Eaubonne who coined the word "ecofeminism" emphasised, bandaid
strategies such as pollution control are useless as long-term solutions and are "derisory effort
given the catastrophic dimensions of the damage" (D'Eaubonne 1974a p179). The small measures
achieved for social justice and environmental protection within current systems will always be
particularly vulnerable when hardships or political power-swings prioritise other agendas. As Janis
Birkeland (1993, p47) points out:

Even if we had an ecologically sound environmental planning system, the pressures of our
... economy would nullify any structures, plans or programs designed to conserve natural
resources over the long-term.
Furthermore, Birkeland says, the problems of war and the military - probably the biggest threat to
the environment4 - is put in the "too hard" basket by most mainstream greens and treated as a
separate issue (Birkeland 1993 p47).
The inadequacies of strategies of reform to solve current social and environmental
problems can be explained by exploring the origins and multiple intersections of environmental
and social problems. Ecofeminists argue that all problems are interrelated, stemming from a basis
of faulty assumptions in the foundations of dominant western paradigms.
2.1.2

HIERARCHICAL DUALISMS AND THE LEGACY OF DOMINATION

Early ecofeminist books such as Susan Griffin's Woman and Nature: the Roaring Inside
Her (1978) and Carolyn Merchant's The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology and the Scientific
Revolution (1980) are notable for their in depth deconstruction of reality as seen within the worlddominant western cultural paradigm. What they revealed was a world hierarchically ordered into
the exclusive binary opposites of nature/culture, woman/man, feminine/masculine, body/mind,
black/white, matter/spirit, emotion/reason, homosexual/heterosexual and art/science etc. Drawing
on feminist critiques of linear reductionism, their analysis shatters the validity of these beliefs.
Dualistic categories are exposed as cultural constructs specific to patriarchal thinking - they are
not inherent categories, nor do they intrinsically implicate a hierarchical system of competing
values (Merchant 1980).
As ecofeminists like Merchant (1980) and Griffin (1978) explained, dualistic thinking
deems one side of a binary pair as superior to its supposed opposite, and this rationale is used to
justify domination and control. For instance, in patriarchal dualistic thinking, men are considered
superior to women, white is considered superior to black, culture is considered superior to nature and these beliefs fundamentally facilitate oppressive dynamics. Traits that are associated with the
conceived superior or inferior aspects of dichotomised pairs are also seen as linked with one
another. For example, Carolyn Merchant (1980) explains how the degraded characteristics
associated with women, nature, animals, and the body, are linguistically and conceptually
interrelated. The highly valued characteristics associated with men, culture, reason and spirit are
similarly seen as connected. Hence previously unassociated oppressive dynamics that originate
from binary frameworks - such as sexism, racism, homophobia and speciesism become
4Not

only is war a cause and effect of environmental degradation, but ongoing military spending and the
preparation for war in "peacetime" is enormously wasteful of resources and coexists with pressing and
unmet human needs (Brundtland 1988 p94).

understood as linked. They originate from the same core of flawed hierarchical dualistic concepts.
These flawed hierarchical and dualistic concepts, feminists emphasise, are pivotal in the
construction of patriarchal domination and interlock with and prop up other forms of oppression.
Janis Birkeland (1993) uses the term "Power Paradigm" to describe this mentality and
logic of violence and subordination. The 'power over' system where the supposed superior aspects
of dichotomised pairs thrive and progress at the expense of the devalued Other, or inferior aspect,
is so universally accepted that it is seen to be laws of nature, rather than the constructed ideology
that it is (Birkeland 1993). The dominant paradigm remains blind to its own assumptions. As Anne
Wilson Schaef (1981, p10-11) puts it,
I like to think of the White Male System as analogous to pollution. When you are in the
middle of pollution, you are usually unaware of it (unless it is especially bad). You eat in it,
sleep in it, work in it, and sooner or later start believing that that is just the way the air is.
You are unaware of the fact that pollution is not natural until you remove yourself from it
and experience non-pollution ... You can get away from pollution by leaving New York City
and going to the mountains, but you cannot get away from the White Male System as
easily as that. It is our culture. We all live in it. We have been educationally, politically,
economically, philosophically, and theologically trained in it, and our emotional,
psychological, physical, and spiritual survival have depended on our knowing and
supporting the system.
The logical consequences of a world dominated by hierarchical concepts which authorise
oppression is bleak. Under the rule of ruthless capitalist, racist and patriarchal exploitation it is
easy to predict dismal futures of dire poverty, ecological ruin and great suffering and injustice. As
Riane Eisler (1987) warns, there is also a strong likelihood of totalitarianism. Eisler argues that
patriarchal "dominator" societies in panic sooner or later turn to force and war - the worst scenario
being global nuclear war. The flourishing of humanity and the survival of life in its current forms is
absolutely threatened within this system.
From these insights follows the ecofeminist commitment to reciprocal freedom.
Ecofeminists conclude that liberation from any one form of oppression is impossible if it is in
isolation from equal attempts to dismantle the basic ideology sanctioning domination (Birkeland
1993, p1). Ynestra King (1983) in her article "The Eco-feminist Imperative" succinctly explains that
the mentality which denies us and others their basic rights is the same mentality that is destroying
the earth. Violence in all its forms - rape, economic exploitation, war, racism, and environmental
exploitation are part and parcel of a dominator model of social organisation. In seeing these links,
ecofeminists insist that thinking that authorises domination cannot be wiped out in one area while it

exists in another. This understanding forms the basis of ecofeminist analysis and practice - in the
words of American ecofeminist author and activist Starhawk (1989, p180):
Unless we understand the interrelationships of human systems of oppression, and the
oppression of the earth, we cannot develop a strategy and program of political action that
makes sense.
The power of ecofeminism lies in naming these conceptual traps. Exposure leads to the
confrontation of oppressive structures, and hence works towards dismantling them. As Adair and
Howell (1989, p222) put it, "Naming invisible realities cracks the silent conspiracy that upholds the
status quo, forcing us to shift our orientation."
The ubiquity of this oppressive dominant worldview in economic, political, social, and
cultural aspects of western society is a primary focus in ecofeminist analysis. Especially so is the
saturation of current science and technology policy with hierarchical dualistic thinking.
2.2

CRITIQUES OF SCIENCE

An important aspect of ecofeminist understanding revolves around critiques of science.

Maria Mies and Vandana Shiva (1993) make the feminist deconstruction of western scientific
epistemology an essential focus. What they reveal are the biases and strong social forces within
science that reflect the agenda of dominant class, gender and cultural interests. The questioning of
politics and power in science, writes Patsy Hallen in "Careful of Science: A Feminist Critique of
Science" (1989) leads to the crumbling of myths that science is pure, allegedly sexless, value-free,
and impartial.
Feminists are clear that this deconstruction of science remains important and radical even verging on the blasphemous for mainstream thinkers. Anne Wilson Schaef (1992) writes that
in this secular age science holds god-like credence, voicing little or no awareness of its own
ideological stances. Wilson Schaef uses the term "fundamentalist scientist" to describe the almost
religious fervour with which many people put their trust in science - righteously claiming that
access to truth can only come through traditional western scientific procedures and belief systems
(Wilson Schaef 1992 p92).
2.2.1 SEXIST

SCIENCE

Forerunners exploring the origins of western scientific thought from a feminist

perspective, such as Carolyn Merchant (1980) and Susan Griffin (1978), found fertile evidence of
a fundamentally patriarchal system. Susan Griffin's creative work that mixes poetry with historical
research gives a startling perspective on the founding fathers of modern science who are still

upheld and taught in schools today. Griffin cites writing by the renowned scientist Francis Bacon,
illustrating his views of human relation to nature. His writings reveal his outrage at the mockery
and inconvenience of human dependence on natural processes - which, he insisted must be
forcefully abolished by subordinating, suppressing and even torturing nature to succumb. His
works, written in the same centuries as the witch-burning holocaust against women, reveals a
plethora of aggressive sexist linguistic symbolism in which nature is portrayed as female,
dangerous and in need of domination by men.
These symbolic frameworks are embedded in the foundations of traditional science, and
have a significant effect on western science today. Numerous feminist works document that
modern science is still fundamentally loaded with sexist bias and practice (see for example
Harding 1986, Haraway 1989, Hallen 1996).
2.2.2

NATURE IS DEAD

Also called into question is the interpretation of nature and ecological systems in western
science. Ecofeminists criticise the dominant mechanistic outlook which reduces the complexities
of life to dead reductionist models. Patsy Hallen (1988) for instance, discusses the ways in which
scientific interpretations compartmentalise and order life into predictable functions. The outcome,
Hallen says, is a detached science and technology that is based on the illusion of unlimited
knowledge and control. This results in a false sense of security that continues to deny that science
cannot restore the life that it has the ability to destroy. Overconfident attitudes to technology and
science imply that we can limitlessly manipulate and degrade nature - of which we are an integral
living part - without causing ourselves suffering, death and possible extinction (Hallen 1988).
Mies and Shiva (1993) discuss those aspects of the scientific agenda which serve to justify
current human activity and western socialisation. They argue that old ways of thinking in science,
which focus on competitive and warlike facets of biological struggles and evolution, diminish the
importance of symbiotic balance, interconnectedness and co-operation in nature. This perception
of nature is then projected onto human society to 'prove' the rightness of 'survival of the fittest'
competitive social forms that pit the strong against the weak. This is an ethic which results in
practices that are distant from moral and political responsibilities. The violent and disastrous
effects of inventive science continues, while reactive ethics chases hopelessly behind seeking
regulation (Mies and Shiva 1993 p52).
Cecile Jackson (1993) argues that mainstream 'technocratic' environmentalism similarly
gives little attention to its own idea of science as value free and objective. This lack of awareness,
Jackson says, masks gender and class perspectives in the ideologies which prioritise problems,

diagnose causes and decide on actions to take. It also takes for granted its access to power,
bureaucracies, resources, and information.
2.2.3

NEW DIRECTIONS

- "CAREFUL" SCIENCE,

CARE-FULL SCIENCE

Ecofeminists support a science that is defined through attachment and subjectivity. Patsy
Hallen (1988) for example, proposes a feminist and ecological science that respects life and
acknowledges that the Earth's resources are limited. This new science rests on basic ethical and
methodological principles that view success not in terms of seizing power, but in the
transformation of understanding. As Hallen (1988, p105) puts it: "... the goal of science is not the
power of manipulation, but empowerment, the power to understand, the power to appreciate, the
power to be humble."
In what Hallen terms "careful" science, traits deemed 'feminine' such as sensitivity,
mutuality and contextuality are important concerns - both reason and intuition are combined, no
longer disregarding caring concerns as "unscientific". Unlike present approaches in science,
"careful" science does not create or ignore the life-threatening technological effects of nuclear
radiation, oil spills, dioxin pollution, and hazardous wastes. Instead, as Dankelman and Davidson
(1988) believe, this kind of scientific approach would facilitate the development of clean energy
provided by nature and appropriate technology that is simple and inexpensive.
Geneticist Barbara McClintock who in 1983 won a Nobel Prize, successfully uses this lifeaffirming intimate approach to, as she says "embrace the world" - replacing old paradigms of
conquest and rivalry with love and compassion (Hallen 1988 p101). As radical writing in science
has already shown, "... this new science is also an important step toward bridging the modern gap
between science and spirituality ..." (Eisler 1987 p191).
2.3

INTERCONNECTEDNESS

Another central ecofeminist insight is that of interconnectedness. It is the perspective of

interconnectedness which distinguishes ecofeminism from anthropocentric 5 feminisms. Much
feminist theory assumes a mechanistic worldview, with a utilitarian attitude toward the
environment that does not question nature being exploited by humans (Birkeland 1993).
Feminist thinking that accepts the dualistic hierarchical valuing of humans above nature,
considers environmental concerns and those of animals as secondary to social justice issues
(Gaard 1995), and seeks only to get an equal piece of the life-destroying pie of industrialisation. As
has been shown in the previous discussion, ecofeminists are primarily aware of and concerned
5The

word anthropocentric describes an attitude toward nature that is human-centred (from the Latin word
'anthropo' meaning human). Anthropocentric thinking values human needs and wants above the rest of
nature's needs, and hence justifies the domination and destruction of non-human nature.

with the exploitation and destruction of earths capacity to support life and look towards a total
transformation of society. In this way interconnectness of issues is the fundamental
ecofeminist standpoint - that social justice and environmental issues are inseparable.

2.3.1

BROADENING OUR ACCOUNTABILITY

Ecofeminists emphasise an ecological understanding of ecosystems as a web of life with

all parts equally essential to the healthy functioning of the whole - and of which humans are one
small part6. Tall trees may be glorious or useful to us but the entire organic and inorganic
ecosystem to which they belong air and water systems, the diverse range of plants, bacteria,
fungi, insects and animals are all essential components that if reduced will detrimentally effect the
larger system. Patsy Hallen (1988, p100) explains this new, yet very old perspective as
... a way of making peace with (rather than war on) the environment. Such a perspective is
holistic:

everything is connected to everything else and each aspect is defined by

and dependent upon the whole, the total context. Life is interconnected and
interdependent: we are not above nature, we are an intimate part of it.
Human illusions of control, perfectionism, and objectivity continues to threaten the
integrity of life, to the point of being at 'war with the earth' - the war of nuclear contamination, of
chemical contamination, and of the environmental bankruptcy of life cycles, soil and water
systems (Hallen 1988 p92). Ecologists state that at current estimates we are losing 10,000 species
a year (LaChance 1991). It is impossible to predict the extent of species extinction an ecological
system can endure before the fabric of life itself collapses. It might already be too late, but we do
not know that yet (LaChance 1991). As Frank Barnaby (1988, p12) states: "Only when war, famine
and environmental collapse strike, do we understand, too late, our dependence on nature and on
peace - the ecological imperative."
Ecofeminists clearly assert that no one has the authority to disrupt this fabric of life, or
humanity's precarious interdependence with planetary ecological systems. Caldecott and Leland
(1983) accentuate, it is the responsibility of environmentalists to understand ecological laws, apply
them personally and educate individuals and communities so that people begin to act to preserve
their habitat.

6It

could be argued that the word 'interconnectedness' itself does not go far enough toward explaining our
situation. It implies that we are separate parts to 'our environment' even if interactive parts. In reality we are
inseparable from 'our environment', every second in necessity taking in, interacting with and excreting 'our
environment'. Since we cannot exist without 'our environment' - we are not in fact separate parts, but 'one'.
The word 'oneness' then more aptly describes the relationship of nature to itself (human nature to nonhuman nature).

The necessary and basic recognition that human beings are but one species among
millions and cannot live without the rest of nature may seem obvious. This understanding however,
is in contradiction to dominant viewpoints that nature is primarily a commodity, and that human
beings are the pinnacle of all life and evolution. Despite extensive evidence to the contrary,
perceptions of humanity as separate or above nature persist, and we continue to act as if we are
"pure intellect hovering on the face of the planet" (Zimmerman 1994 p244).
Ecofeminists stress that to break free of the very durable delusion of separateness
requires ongoing maintenance of the understanding that humans are integral living parts of nature
(Starhawk 1988). This is a major change in the way that we see ourselves and the world, and
hence demands persistent attention and effort (Steinem 1992). John Seed (1988, p41) asserts that
we need to remind ourselves of this perspective: "Earth pours through us, replacing each cell in
the body every seven years ... we ingest, incorporate and excrete the earth, are made from the
earth". By experiencing the reality of our interconnectedness, we can develop empathy for the
Earth, so that we realise intellectually and emotionally that, "... its pain is our pain, that its fate is
our fate" (Seed 1988 p6). This remembering of interconnectedness is a political act - to be lifeloving or "biophilic" is contrary to mainstream attitudes. In the words of Greta Gaard (1995, p31):
"It also takes a lot of courage to claim the terms "ecocentric" and "biophilic" in a culture predicated
on the subordination of nature."
2.3.2

ALLIED WITH THE EARTH

Ecofeminist perspectives pragmatically demand precaution when dealing with nature.

Many ecofeminists express an approach to nature that concurs with Barry Commoner's 'nature
knows best' principle presented in The Closing Circle: Confronting the Environmental Crisis. As he
put it:
Whilst some people like to believe that humans can improve on the provisions made by
nature, history reveals many disasters created by an interfering human hand. The
knowledge and wisdom of nature stems from the 2 to 3 billion years research and
development that each living organism has behind it (Commoner 1972 p354).
Ecofeminism embraces this ecological perspective and espouses a resulting tenet of
ecocentrism. The principles of ecocentrism literally place ecology centrally. All life is considered to
have intrinsic worth aside from any instrumental value it has to humans - prioritising life on earth
above contemporary human economic systems (Naess 1989/90). This benevolent and reciprocal
relationship to nature is in no way 'extremist'. As Brian Easlea points out there is a clear distinction
between

... [the] attempt to free oneself - and humankind - from the many tyrannies of nature that
exist, so enabling all people to enjoy lives free from hunger, disease, brute labour and
exposure to the elements ... [and the] attempt to become tyrant over nature in turn,
recklessly appropriating the natural world in a continual demonstration of human - let us be
more precise - male ruling-class power. (Easlea 1980 p112)
2.3.3

THE DEEP ECOLOGY CONNECTION AND DEBATE

In this ecocentric perspective and in other commitments to radical social change,

ecofeminism is aligned with the fundamental principles of the environmental philosophy Deep
Ecology7. However, much academic ecofeminist writing, notably by Ariel Salleh and Freya
Matthews, is involved in ongoing critical debate with deep ecologists. Ariel Salleh in "Deeper than
Deep Ecology: the Ecofeminist Connection" (1984) names as the shortcomings of deep ecology,
its ignorance of gender politics and psycho-sexual motivations of the environmental crisis - as well
as a failure to see race, class and gender as interlocking causes of environmental and social
problems that must be tackled simultaneously. Analysis of the environmental crisis remains
incomplete if the interconnected roots of macho misogyny and the abuse of nature are not
recognised, as Ynestra King (1989, p24) states:
If male ecological scientists and social ecologists fail to deal with misogyny - the deepest
manifestations of nature-hating in their own lives - they are not living the ecological lives
or

creating the ecological society they claim.

The masculinist approach in deep ecology is evidenced, for instance, in the support of

contentious policies of 'population control' of which feminists have been highly critical. Greta
Gaard in a letter to deep ecologist George Sessions (Gaard 1996) explains that feminists are
opposed to coercive population control methods that are racist, sexist, imperialist, anti-poor and in
denial of basic rights. Typically, Gaard says, such policies blame women for overbreeding,
polluting and exhausting resources, while ignoring fundamental causes of these problems. The
local pressure of raw material extraction for debt servicing and other forces of economic
exploitation, are major causes of resource exhaustion and other social problems (Mies and Shiva
1993). The issues of power and control are inherent in debates such as 'the population problem'.
For example, the small fraction of world population in industrial countries consume 85% of the
world's resources and produce 80% of the world's wastes and pollutants (Sadik 1990). Hence
ecofeminists argue that it is these 'rich' countries that must be 'controlled' (Mies and Shiva 1993).
2.4

BUT WHY ECOFEMINISM, WHY NOT ECO-HUMANISM?

7Deep

Ecology explores human relationship to nature with a philosophical emphasis on interconnectedness

and the inherent value of all beings and environments (Seed 1988).

2.4.1

WHY WE NEED A FEMINIST ANALYSIS

If domination in general is the key problem, then why not call this analysis of oppressive
hierarchies and their part in causing environmental and social ruin Eco-humanism, or Ecoegalitarianism instead? This chapter explores the links between sexism and environmental crisis
that are key threads in ecofeminist theory, and why ecofeminists believe feminism should stay in
the word ecofeminism.
Ecofeminists such as Griffin (1978), Merchant (1995) and Morgan (1996) detailed how the
world dominant western worldview is saturated in gender stereotypes and sexist power relations
which are deeply implicated in the environmental crisis we see today. The mythology about gender
in our culture is one of the first and fundamental frameworks we learn to operate in as children and
they sit deeply in our psyches. Anthropological studies indicate that ideas about gender are
culturally constructed they are not universal truths for humanity, as each culture operates under
very different gender frameworks. Ecofeminists have explored how these frameworks have been
projected onto nature.
In western literature, science and religion, there are consistent symbolic links made
between nature and women. Women have been seen to be closer to nature than men, more
intuitive, more body orientated, more simple-minded and emotional. Nature has been seen as
feminine - mother earth mythology, and linguistic associations abound such as virgin forest that
is penetrated or raped by man (Hallen 1988).
All the cultural baggage associated with mothers, women or rape then is unconsciously
projected onto nature (Hallen 1988). For instance, do many people think of Mother Nature as a
single parent butch lesbian? Not likely. These assumptions about nature when associated with
cultural gender assumptions effects western cultures treatment of nature, implying an innate
relationship of domination, and an expectation that nature be endlessly providing and forgiving of
us, healing, and gentle - if not sexy, voluptuous and longhaired in flowing dresses!
This association goes both ways, as Ynestra King (1989, p18) explains:
... for the most part, ecologists ... do not understand that a central reason for woman's
oppression is her association with the despised nature they are so concerned about. The
hatred of women and the hatred of nature are intimately connected and mutually
reinforcing.

On the question of western women's 8culturally assumed links with nature, Carolyn
Merchant in Earthcare: Women and the Environment (1995) writes that
There is no simple relationship between the ways in which nature has been gendered both
positively and negatively as female over the past two and a half millennia, and the roles of
women in society. Nature has been revered as animate mother, feared and degraded as
unpredictable witch, and plowed as virgin land. Yet forces such as the socialization of
women as caretakers and nurturers, the degradation of women's livelihoods and bodies,
and the double burden borne by women as workers and homemakers in capitalist,
socialist, and colonized countries has often propelled them to act to preserve both
nonhuman nature and themselves. (Merchant 1995, p i)
Ecofeminists have sought to explore the multitude of these cultural assumptions that
project gendered characteristics and meanings onto the nonhuman world. They have also
questioned the outcome and environmental impact of the sexual division of labour and the sexual
divide of human capabilities.
Many feminists have highlighted the domination of so-called masculine qualities over the
so-called feminine qualities in patriarchy. This does not just point to vast structural inequalities
between men and women, but to every persons inner struggle to find enough space for the
degraded so-called feminine qualities like rest, softess, connection and reverence for life, time
for meditation, emotional expression, compassion, warmth, spontaneity and life nurturing.
In western societies that highly demand that we achieve, compete, work, and strive to
accumulate wealth and power these so-called masculine traits tend to be prioritised and
dominate in our lives. The greater mystery of Being, our infinite selves and the entire cosmos gets
reduced, rationalised, ordered, and objectified in a bid to control our existence and the life around
us. In this domination of the masculine over the feminine everyone loses.
Not only are we all hindered in embodying these so-called feminine principles, but very
importantly our society is starved of these principles as a result. Daily life maintenance and the
human abilities for sensitivity, communication and nurturing, are restricted largely to the limited
realms in which women operate.

8Attention

must be given to the context with which the word 'women' is used. To preface the category
'women with the term 'western' is still extremely broad - it ignores differences in class and race in particular.
It is important to always consider the divergent forms of oppression that differently situated women
experience. To use the word 'women' indiscriminately implies that women are a homogenous category who
exist outside of the context of socially and historically constructed identities (Jackson 1993, Kumar D'Souza
1992).

In dominant western societies, men 9 still hold the reins of power in public politics and
business10. The extremely important human qualities of life maintenance and nurturing is assigned
to women who are effectively excluded from power in the public realm (Mies and Shiva 1993
p147).
Men in power are not likely to hold life-sustaining activities as valuable priorities, but more
likely to trivialise and ignore environmental problems. Unacquainted with cleaning and nurturing
they are unlikely to design policies and products that dont pollute and are environmentally
responsible. Socially and environmentally sound practices are likely to be dismissed as a
hindrance to more highly valued priorities like the gathering of wealth and power.
2.4.2 HYPERSEPARATION WHY ECOLOGY NEEDS FEMINISM
It follows from the interconnections between sexism and the environmental crisis that it is
in the best interests of environmentalists to become aware of how sexism functions, and how to
dismantle it.
This includes understanding basic feminist analysis of how strict separation in dichotomies
and hierarchies are the foundations of sexism. The separation of human capabilities along gender
lines is not easily achieved and requires enforcing. Rigid gender roles and identity can only be
created and maintained by hyperseparating and clearly isolating opposites.
In order for sexism to function, each persons identification in either the masculine or
feminine gender category must be projected clearly and be easily understood otherwise social
roles become uncertain and sexism would have no basis on which to function. Disruptions of strict
gender roles and behaviour threatens the patriarchal social order. Supporting fluid and non binary
gender expression is therefore an important aspect of social change.
Riane Eisler argues that in egalitarian partnership societies gender roles are generally
similar. In contrast, in heightened patriarchal societies with what she terms macho dominator
scripts, gender identities are defined as fundamentally opposite to each other. eg. Men are NOT
like women, are not feminine. There is a contempt of the feminine (effeminate), horror of being
controlled by women, and independence from anything feminine (eg. nature) at all costs.

Just as it is important to note that the term women is very broad and can dangerously imply a falsely
homogenous category, the term men obviously also contains within it different experiences and access to
power due to oppression based on systems of class, race, sexuality, ability etc.
10For example, in Australia, "men occupy 90% of parliamentary seats and 94% of Cabinet positions.
Salaried women earn on average 30-40% less than men." cited in XY:Men, Sex, Politics, vol.5 no.4
(Summer 95/96), p34.

While feminists generally maintain that all humans are essentially equal, the social
pressures treating women and men very differently, and often as fundamental opposites,
continues. These social pressures and concepts are also present within alternative and social
change subcultures.
Males and females are encouraged, humiliated and forced to comply with gender
categories from a very early age. Punishments for not taking on the required traits for your gender
are relentless and can be severe. Deviation from the norm is punished by humiliation and
ostracism enforced since childhood. To be deviant from your assigned gender role is to risk being
accused of being homosexual - regardless of your actual sexuality - and can result in threats, loss
of job, violence and death. In this way every single person is policed by homophobia, both external
and internal.
Feminists have explored this use of homophobia as a weapon of sexism (Rich 1981), and
long demanded an expanded commitment to coalition networking and cross-issue involvement
because of these connections. Ynestra King (1983, p12-13) here exemplifies feminist concerns for
the interlocking of oppressions in relation to homophobia:
In all of our workings, we believe in the philosophy of non-violence - that no person should
be made into an 'other' to despise, dehumanise and exploit. As women we have been
'other' but we are refusing to be the 'other' any longer and we will not make anyone else
into an 'other'. Sexism, racism, class divisions, homophobia and the rape of nature depend
on this process of objectification. Men's fear of female sexuality has led them to pile up
institutions which limit women's options. These keep us obliged to man and unaware of
alternatives to traditional women's roles and compulsory heterosexuality. It is in the
interests of all women to support lesbian women. We oppose anything which prevents
women from loving each other freely in whatever way we choose.
2.4.3 T HE SEXUAL DIVISION OF LABOUR
Caroline Merchant cites interesting figures from a survey in Queensland, Australia,
showing a significant gender gap in concerns for the environment. A greater number of women
were found to support environmental issues (Merchant 1995, p189 citing Daniels and Brown
1990), and studies show women's greater participation in community environment groups - eg.
women being 85-90% of the Australian Toxins Network (Merchant 1995 p193).
Some explanations for this lie in gender conditioning and the sexual division of labour,
which heavily concentrates women's work in care giving and volunteer activity. Riane Eisler (1987)
discusses this polarisation of human traits - in presently constituted society it is women who are

encouraged to develop caring qualities like affiliation and communication, even though this
dichotomization of human experience ... creates psychic distortions in both women and men.
(Eisler 1987 p189)
As Corinne Kumar D'Souza (1992, p42) sees it,
Women and men inhabit completely different "cultures" with the result that those who
occupy the positions of power - the military, industry, technology, universities, science,
political office and finance, in short every avenue of power within society including the
coercive force of the police is entirely in male hands, [and they] are not capable of
comprehending the realities of the world of those who are ruled and who must daily
contend with that power.
2.4.4 'FEMINISM

OR DEATH'

- (Francoise D'Eaubonne 1974b Le Feminism ou la Mort)

Speaking on the accumulative ecological effects of constructed gendered psychologies,

Brian Easlea (1980) argues that within this system powerful men "face the problem of convincing
themselves that they are in fact 'superior' ... " and try to demonstrate and reassure themselves of
their superior 'male virility' by "perpetual and increasingly catastrophic display[s] ... [of]
technological appropriation of the earth" (Easlea 1980 p254-255).
Exploration of the psycho-sexual roots of the environmental crisis is a strand of
ecofeminism. Riane Eisler's (1987) premise is that because men and traits deemed "masculine"
are in a dominant position in androcratic society, there is a strong tendency toward political
solutions based on force and authoritarian solutions. The basic repression and contempt for
"effeminate" or peaceful approaches and a conviction that obedience is a virtue, logically
culminates in war, environmental destruction and oppressive systems of social organisation (Eisler
1987 p180). Eisler's work asserts that sexually egalitarian societies tend to be much more
peaceful, less hierarchical and authoritarian (Eisler 1987 pixie). "To the extent that androcracy
remains in place ...", Eisler says "... a just political and economic system is impossible" (Eisler
1987 p196) - as is an ecologically sustainable society, due to the interplay of these aspects
previously discussed. The underlying problem, she reiterates, is not men as a sex, but a social
system in which domination and power are idealised.
Francoise D'Eaubonne expresses the urgency with which ecofeminists insist that an
understanding of the interlocking structures of domination and control is pivotal in understanding
the environmental crisis:

The point, quite simply, is that it is no longer a matter of well-being, but of necessity; not of
a better life, but of escaping death; and not of a "fairer life", but of the sole possibility for
the entire species to still have a future. (D'Eaubonne 1974a p177)
To steer away from the present course to destruction then requires the feminist revaluing
of traits deemed "feminine" - sensitivity, co-operation, communication etc. Val Plumwood (1993,
p204) for instance asserts that "Women's tasks, skills and knowledge cannot be dismissed as
powerless; they have real value and significance for an ecological way of life".
Ecofeminists are clear however to distinguish between revaluing traditionally assumed
'feminine' aspects and implying a role reversal where women are seen as essentially different or
better than men. For instance Patsy Hallen (1988, p95) writes that basic feminist tenets still apply:
"the qualities traditionally associated with women (nurturing, receptivity) are at least equal in value
to those traditionally associated with men (self-assertion, power-seeking) and that this equality
must be publicly recognised ..." (my italics). This point is further discussed in Chapter 3 and
Chapter 7.
Women's equal contribution remains a radical issue in social movements for change.
Without attention to egalitarian administration provided by a feminist perspective, ecological
movements conceived and directed by men will only reproduce old male supremacist patterns replacing one regime with another (Birkeland 1993). The majority of the environment movement
does not account for sex, race and class in a significant manner and is often blatantly blind to the
fundamental importance of patriarchy in maintaining the hierarchies of dominance and ways of
thinking that are responsible for the current global crisis. This oversight or ignorance drastically
undermines the effectiveness of strategic thinking and planning. Virginia Westbury asks - how can
"macho eco-cowboys" talk about the violence of war or the woodchip machine when they still
dominate or beat up their girl friends? (Westbury 1991 p42) As Janis Birkeland (1993, p15) states
"to the extent that environmental academics ignore feminist theory, and activists ignore feminist
practice, they are supporting the status quo and impeding social transformation."
Feminist scholarship provides the missing data not found in conventional sources. It has
already established many of the grassroots mechanisms needed for an ecological society based
on non-hierarchical organising and the interlocking analyses of sex, class, race, and ecological
concerns (Eisler 1987, p xxiii).
To prematurely jump from the status quo to the egalitarian goal by calling this kind of
enquiry ecohumanist for example, denies and glosses over the fact of ongoing imbalances in
power between men and women. The truth is we are entrenched in a sexist system, and to ignore

this only perpetuates the invisibility and strength of this oppressive system. Feminism provides the
analysis of gender imbalances and sexist practices, and the exploration of sexisms implications in
other forms of oppression. Feminists continue to be the only people putting forward critiques of
gender, sexist forms of oppression and their relation to world politics and environmental abuse.
Past feminist experience in social change movements has repeatedly shown that without
constant attention to gender and womens issues concerns about sexism get relegated to the
background due to other issues deemed more critical or immediate. The contentious word
feminism will put off those who would be put off by feminist ideas and practices under any other
name regardless, because it fundamentally challenges and threatens the status quo in patriarchal
society.
When the implications of these gender constructions remain invisible, action on social and
environmental issues can only address the most blatant of problems. Activism will be drastically
lacking in broad analysis and holistic strategy. An ecofeminist position addresses the feminist
issues vital to holistic analysis and insists they be taken into account.
In sum, because of the sexist power relations deeply implicated in the environmental
crisis, and because of the interlocking analyses of sex, class, race, and ecological concerns that
feminist scholarship provides, ecofeminists insist that a feminist analysis of all situations is pivotal:
... there is no issue - from the international debt to military budgets, from the famines in
Africa to the industrial disaster at Bhopal - which could not be illuminated by a feminist
perspective.

(Wallace and March 1991 p315)

Feminist perspectives remain radical and threatening. Addressing sexist power

imbalances is unpopular - as Greta Gaard (1996, p31) puts it "... [it] takes a lot to claim the term
"feminist" in a culture which continues to hate women.
2.5

WOMEN, ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT

- Women Suffer First and Worst

The last area of ecofeminist understanding I discuss here, is the interlocking aspects of women,
environment and development in Majority World countries, of which there is a large body of
literature. Ynestra King explains her definition of ecofeminism:
Although the term is Northern, its principles are often worked out in the survival based
feminism of women of colour, emerging from their experience at the crucible of multiple
oppressions. (King 1983 p51)

Heleen van den Hombergh's book Gender, Environment and Development: A Guide to
The Literature (1993) succinctly analyses the links between women and the environment in
Majority World countries. She explains that the links are due to the sexual division of labour and
the feminisation of poverty which spring from severely oppressive gender ideologies. In the same
vein the internationally based ecofeminist organisation W.E.D.O. (Women Environment and
Development Organisation) in a W.E.D.O. Primer published at the Fourth World Conference on
Women in Beijing, China 1995, meticulously illustrates that macro-economic policies are not
gender neutral. World-wide data indicate that women suffer the heaviest from poverty: as the 1995
Human Development Report of the United Nations revealed, of the world's 3 billion people living
on or below the threshold of absolute poverty, 70% are women. Dankelman and Davidson (1988)
and Rodda (1991) among others also emphasise that the burden of ecological crises falls hardest
on women. Women's workloads are disproportionately increased as they struggle to cater for their
families' survival and health (Dankelman and Davidson 1988, p163).
The cause of this imbalance is highlighted as the sexual division of labour which positions
the majority of the world's women in everyday subsistence production and life maintenance tasks.
Women are the majority of the world's farmers - eighty percent of farmers on the African continent
alone are women (Morgan 1996 p7).
The daily work of the majority of the world's women gathering water, fuel, food and fodder,
creating and sustaining life gives them intimate contact with, and knowledge about, their specific
environment (Mies and Shiva 1993 p19). Women gain valuable and practical environmental
knowledge through their labour and hence are crucial links in environmental management.
However, patriarchal imbalances of power mean that women are consulted last and have very little
decision-making power in these areas (Mies and Shiva 1993:p19). Voices such as those in
Annabel Rodda's Women and the Environment (1991) advocate that environmental safety hinges
on gaining equal rights for women. Dankelman and Davidson (1988) summarise the vast
improvements in women's political, economic and educational status that are required - rights
must be gained to own land and property, access credit, access technology, and gain employment
and decision-making power.
From lobbying in the international arena there has been a spreading recognition that
women are often culturally well-placed to make environmental decisions and implement
conservation projects. With this however, comes the danger that stereotypes of 'woman-as-nature'
will be reinforced, and that women will be considered a valuable but neglected 'human resource'
for environmental rehabilitation that should be better utilised. Cecile Jackson (1993, p650)
explains:

For the World Bank women have become the means by which environmental ends are
achieved and part of this process has involved the manipulation of meaning in the vocabularies of
gender and development analysis.
Braidotti et al (1994) for instance, stress that women are neither responsible for the environmental
crisis, nor can they be expected to shoulder the burden for resolving it - although
despite oppressive limitations women are already important agents for change. The point
ecofeminists make is that effective strategies must ensure simultaneous benefit both to women
and to the environment (Braidotti et al 1994).
2.5.1

MALDEVELOPMENT

What Vandana Shiva (1993) terms "maldevelopment" is the focus of much women and
development literature. The message is that "catching up" models of development haven't worked
and cannot work, and have caused great ecological destruction. Many writers, like Shiva (1993),
document the inescapable effects of debt-draining; worsening poverty and inequity despite
increased economic productivity (Mies and Shiva 1993 p252). What women like those writing in
The Power to Change: Women in the Third World Redefine their Environment (1992) produced by
the Indian Feminist Press Kali for Women reiterate, is that the material conditions achieved by
many in the west are only the result of ongoing colonial exploitation of poorer countries. Still
under-acknowledged are the power inequities globally facilitating wealth extraction from Majority
World countries to the west. People in Majority World countries are not poor because they lack
potentially valuable resources, but because the global economic system deprives them of the
income of that wealth. It is impossible under these conditions and within the scope of limited
resources on a finite planet for non-industrialised countries to "catch up" to the material levels of
the west11 (Mies and Shiva 1993).
The failure of these old development models indicate the need for radical changes to
strategy (Kali for Women 1992, p20). Women's groups based mainly in Majority World countries
have formed networks to promote equitable development, and produce literature persistently
promoting grassroots strategies as answers to worldwide ecological and social problems. They call
for developments based on subsistence or "basic needs" perspectives that sustain clean air,
drinkable water, and fertile land - and work in ways that prioritise justice, co-operation, and basic
human rights (Mies and Shiva 1993, p297).

11Mies

and Shiva (1993 p252) state that to extend the living standard and consumptive patterns of rich
countries to the rest of the world would require two extra planets, one as a dumping ground and one for raw
material extraction.

The ecofeminist insights I have discussed here explain the basis of global ecofeminism.
The points raised can be summarised as the interlocking aspects of oppression and environmental
destruction - due to the hierarchical and dualistic foundations of western paradigms, ecofeminist
critiques of western science, the need for a feminist analysis of environmental and social
problems, the interconnectedness of all life, and the situation of women and the environment in
Majority World countries. This overview builds a basis for understanding the ecofeminist practices
and strategies discussed in Chapter 4: Strategies for Change, and creates a context in which to
place the findings from the research interviews.

3. INTEGRATING CRITICAL FEEDBACK

I will now discuss the problems and criticisms ecofeminism has encountered, in order to
assess the response ecofeminist philosophy has received in wider philosophical, political and
feminist debate. As in all movements, ecofeminists diversify and refine their arguments in
response to criticisms, and in so doing develop new theory and thinking. In the words of
ecofeminist Ynestra King (1983, p14): "Our movement is a process without end, much as life itself
is a process without end ... constantly attended to, expanded and criticised". Criticisms and
warnings about the pitfalls of ecofeminism pinpoint areas within ecofeminist thinking that need
greater awareness and attention. Here follows a brief summary of the points I found most
pertinent.
3.1

BEWARE OF ASSUMPTIONS

Stephanie Lahar, in her paper "Ecofeminist Theory and Grassroots Politics" (1991),
provides a concise look at the criticisms of ecofeminism and their implications for the
development of ecofeminist thinking. In essence, she expresses the tensions and balances
needed when thinking globally about the environmental crisis and strategies for change. Careful
edge-walking is required, she argues, so as not to slip into:
... on the one hand a prematurely unified theory and political praxis that obscures and
suppresses differences, and on the other an indiscriminate pluralism that results in vague
thinking, passivity, and political inertia. (Lahar 1991 p31)
Similarly Huey-li Li's article "A Cross-Cultural Critique of Ecofeminism" (1993) and
Haunani-Kay Trask (1986), warn against assuming universality in ecofeminist analysis and vision
for change. Current ecofeminist theory, they assert, is in danger of glossing over pluralities in
ideology and interests. Huey-li Li (1993) insists that contact must be broadened and boundaries
crossed if ecofeminists are to become reliable allies for the anti-racism movement. Otherwise
'cross-issue involvement' becomes the mere paying of lip service to ideals whilst maintaining a
practical ignorance and aversion to real involvement in struggles against racism with women from
different communities.
Michael Zimmerman in Contesting Earth's Future: Radical Ecology and Postmodernity
(1994), warns that large scale accounts of social phenomena are neither timelessly true nor
universally valid: "Like any effective social analysis, however, ecofeminism does not provide the
truth, but is one powerful way of disclosing oppressive social structures and relations"
(Zimmerman 1994, p298). He cautions awareness of western culture's intellectual yearning for the

'One True Story' and calls for vigilant attention to the context of all concrete situations and
interests (Zimmerman 1994, p240).
This critique does not necessarily lead to an apolitical nihilism, but can be a call for
attention to questioning and self-awareness of the political analysis and stance taken. Action must
be taken12 within the context of political human societies plagued with the suffering from
oppressive power imbalances. For example, men as a social class have power over women (as a
social class), and elites control working classes worldwide. The urgency of power struggles with
dominant groups not wishing to lose their power and privilege demands social analyses that are
"true enough" to act on.
3.2

REMEMBER THE OVERWHELMING POWER OF CAPITALISM

Susan Prentice in "Taking Sides: What's Wrong with Ecofeminism?" (1988) asserts that
ecofeminist writings trivialise socio-political factors and tend to downplay capitalism. Ecofeminist
focus on 'overconsumption' and individual consciousness, she argues, pays little attention to
Marxist perspectives on class conflicts over resources. Similarly Carolyn Merchant states that "...to
place the environmental crisis on the evolution of domination and Western dualism (as do some
social ecologists and social ecofeminists) or on anthropocentrism (as do deep ecologists) or on the
primacy of power relations and enlightenment rationality (as do some postmodernists) is
insufficient" (Merchant 1995: p223-4). She stresses the intimate connection of ecological and
social problems with what she terms 'multinational capitalism'.
It is a valid criticism that the power relations inherent in global capitalism require
consistent attention. Ecofeminist analysis must illuminate multinational capitalism as a
fundamental structure of domination. In Chapter 4 - Strategies for Change, I discuss ecofeminist
thinking that does acknowledge vital criticisms of global capitalism and works towards creating
alternative, sustainable and fair economic systems. At the same time however, focusing on
capitalism alone and to the exclusion of other oppressive structures is inadequate - as Riane Eisler
(1980, p255) concludes: "The transcendence of capitalist society is a necessary but not a sufficient
condition for the realization of a just and humanly desirable world."
3.3

WOMEN AND THE ENVIRONMENT AREN'T NECESSARILY HARMONIOUS

Cecile Jackson (1993) argues that ecofeminists imply that the interests of women and the
environment are aligned. However, as she asserts, there are no grounds for assuming an affinity
between women's interests as a social group and those of the environment, stating that:

12There

is no escape from responding to the world situation. To not act upon, or to ignore destruction,
injustices and suffering is a choice and action in itself.

Gender struggles and struggles to conserve environments are as likely to clash as

coincide. Just as the numerical domination of men in, for example, logging rain forest or
mining does not mean that women are more environment-friendly, we cannot use the
involvement of women in 'environmental' protests as green credentials. (Jackson 1993,
p671)
In addition, she says it is wrong to think women automatically benefit from
environmentalism. For example, Jackson cites legislation in India which controls tree cutting - with
laws enforced to stop local and traditional use, but allow large mining companies access to the
forests. These kinds of resource security deals, Jackson says, reflect dominant political interests
and are usually very unfavourable to women. Environmental conservation, Jackson writes, is
typically premised on social inequality along class lines and is frequently based on coercive social
relations with government-forced conservation edicts exploiting public time, money and labour.
Jackson discusses contour ridge building projects in Nyasaland aimed at stopping erosion, which
relied heavily on substantial unpaid peasant labour. Given oppressive gender relations this work
fell particularly hard on women (Jackson 1993 p655).
3.4

BIOLOGICAL DETERMINISM AND 'REVERSE SEXISM '

The main criticism and what I would call favourite misinterpretation of ecofeminism is that
it contributes to, even if unintentionally, the justification of essentialist claims about gender
differences.
For instance, radical feminist Andrea Dworkin considers that ecofeminist philosophy
reinforces rather than transforms patriarchal beliefs about biological determination in the
behaviour of the sexes. Dworkin's criticism is that ecofeminist thinking casts women as upholders
of moral goodness with an "inborn commitment to both clean air and peace, a moral nature that
abhors pollution and murder" (Dworkin 1983, p5-6).
Carolyn Merchant (1995) is one who states that ecofeminist standpoints have always
confronted the fallacies of biologically inevitable gender roles. As with feminism generally,
ecofeminism's deepest wish is to transcend biological determinism and the patriarchal myths of
the masculine/feminine power differences. Anyone, Merchant says, can challenge and disobey the
patriarchal system of beliefs if they see beyond false dualistic constructions. Many men long to be
caring and expressive, and reject the system of domination, while many women still internalise
and emulate patriarchal strategies of domination, struggling for success in an androcentric world in
conflict with nature. Riane Eisler (1987, p185) echoes her concerns:

... even in our male-dominated world not all women are peaceful and gentle, and many
men are. Clearly both men and women have the biological potential for many different
kinds of behaviours.
Ecofeminists do run into sticky ground and risk supporting biological determinism in three
problematic areas. Firstly by revaluing and affirming the so-called 'feminine' human characteristics
that systematically have been devalued under patriarchy. Secondly, by delving into the contentious
study of western women's cultural association with the natural realm. Thirdly, they explore the
environmental impact of the sexual division of labour and women's greater involvement in life
nurturing and maintenance processes. In all three areas ecofeminists risk being misunderstood as
supporting the patriarchal meaning of these culturally assigned associations.
However, as Stephanie Lahar (1991) summarises, contemporary ecofeminist theories are
in the vast majority careful to repeat clearly that gender interests or identities are socially and
historically constructed. She stresses that there is no homogenous category of women that exists
outside of the context of time, place, and culture. Nevertheless, leaping prematurely into a post- or
non-gender outlook would ignore the reality of sex-segregated societies and the interdependent
constructions of woman and nature. Ecofeminists, Lahar emphasises, seek to explore these
aspects of the status quo while simultaneously rejecting them as historically constructed
fabrications.
This is a tension in ecofeminist philosophy that can give way to distorted understandings,
or may be glossed over and misrepresented in popular discourse.
3.5

IT'S NOT FEMINIST ENOUGH

A criticism I have heard voiced by feminists about ecofeminism is that it does not have a
strong enough feminist emphasis or provide any new analysis or solutions to the patriarchal power
men have over women.
Ecofeminism has provided insights imperative to understanding the workings and
injustices of patriarchy in connection with social and environmental issues. These have been
important to women worldwide, and cannot be ignored or diminished.
Ecofeminists draw their understanding and analysis of patriarchal power imbalances
between men and women, I believe, from radical feminism from which ecofeminism grew.
Ecofeminism branches into the realm of feminist analysis of the environmental crisis which radical
feminism and other feminisms leave relatively unexplored. Many feminists are not speaking loudly
enough or with enough feminist analysis on the global environmental crisis, war and poverty - the

connections between patriarchy and these global problems must be a point that is emphasised. In
this respect as Janis Birkeland (1993, p18) explains, ecofeminism can be seen as "feminism taken
to its logical conclusion, because it theorizes the interrelations among self, societies, and nature."
There are different definitions of ecofeminism that encompass the visions and individual
interpretations of the activists and theorists who espouse it ( Lahar 1991 p36). My experience with
ecofeminists is that some do not come from a strong feminist background - hence it may be a
warranted criticism that ecofeminists need to return more often to feminist analysis and insights.
Because ecofeminist understanding connects all issues, it is a challenge to stay focused on
women's liberation as a priority, not to backstage feminist issues in supposedly "crisis" situations,
and not be scared to use the language and analysis of feminism in anti-feminist contexts.

These criticisms can be summed up as: assuming universality and glossing over pluralities
in ecofeminist analysis, the tendency to downplay the connection of ecological and social
problems with 'multinational capitalism', the implication of an affinity between women's interests as
a social group and those of the environment, contributing to biological determinism and 'reverse
sexism', and not having a strong enough feminist analysis of the patriarchal power men have over
women.
3.6

WHERE DO THESE CRITICISMS LEAVE

90S ECOFEMINISM?

As stated previously, ecofeminism is an ongoing and refining social analysis and

movement. As with feminism at large, ecofeminism contains problematic issues and tensions
between different approaches and outlooks. There remain, however, common ecofeminist aims
and goals. Karen Warren (1990) considers that such varied foci can co-exist and be
complementary. The point, Warren writes, is not to have one picture based on a unity of voices but
a pattern which emerges from the voices of people located in different perspectives (Warren 1990,
p139). This exemplifies ecofeminist standpoint based on the ecological insights that there is
strength and enrichment in diversity.
This discussion of the criticisms of ecofeminist philosophy, in conjunction with the
ecofeminist insights raised in Chapter 2, provides a clear background in which the following
ecofeminist strategies and practices can be explored.

4. STRATEGIES FOR CHANGE

"Maintaining a balance of critical and creative
directions is crucial to the continued potency of
ecofeminism" (Lahar 1991 p35)
Ecofeminist critique and deconstruction is coupled with reconstructive strategies for
change. The previous chapters of the literature review outlined the basis of ecofeminist thinking this chapter explores the kind of social change ecofeminists envision and practise to actualise
ecofeminist philosophies.
Discussion and sharing of ecofeminist strategies and visions are found within the wide
scope of ecofeminist books and writings, utopian novels, various activist and support networks,
Internet news groups, and in works dedicated to ecofeminist issues in student, women's and
environmental literature and at relevant conferences. The following discussion firstly explains the
vision ecofeminists hold for social change, and then goes on to address the hallmarks of
ecofeminist strategy - which can be summarised as grassroots environmental and social projects,
economic alternatives, nonviolent direct action, explicit support for women, participatory decisionmaking processes, voluntary simplicity and ethical consumption, and aspects of personal change
work. These ecofeminist strategies enact the philosophies and insights discussed in Chapter 2 of
the literature review, and as will be shown, reflect the model for ecofeminist strategy revealed in
the research interviews.
4.1

THE VISION

Ecofeminism proposes transformative strategies toward a new reality - with new politics
and economics, a new science and new consciousness. It promotes a decentralised and global
grassroots movement that works with multi-directional political agendas and action. The myriad of
projects and campaign strategies are contextualised to suit the needs of local communities, and
are envisioned as being embedded within the wider national and global context of countries and
economies interacting and negotiating with commonly held aims and a spirit of co-operation. In
contrast to the status quo these solutions "... do not see technology or economics as the main
determinants of our future. They recognise instead that our roads to the future will be shaped by
human values and social arrangement ..." (Eisler 1987 p195) - and by a recognition of human
interrelationship with nature.
The vitality of this vision is exemplified in Riane Eisler's (1987) 'partnership' society which
she develops in her book The Chalice and the Blade. Her vision is of society based on equal

relations and respect rather than domination and hierarchical ranking. In such societies nature is
revered, humans and the biotic community are seen as intertwined, and the well-being and
biodiversity of nonhuman nature is a moral consideration. Eisler speaks of societies with equitable
wealth distribution that meet the basic requirements of all people, where women and men are
equal, and where cultural diversity is valued. Every human being has equal social rights and
responsibilities regardless of sex, race, class, sexuality, age or disability. In such society Eisler
says, the physical, mental, and spiritual development of children - with goals of fully actualising
human potential - would be a top priority and the most valued and rewarded work.
Also included within this broad vision of what a better society would look like, is for
instance, the social support for freedom in intellectual, emotional and spiritual expression, and in
creativity and artistic endeavour. Similarly valued would be the honouring of sex and sexuality
unhindered by the stereotypes of patriarchal thinking and beyond the limitations of compulsory
heterosexuality (Rich 1981).
4.2

THE REALITY

Obviously, a global conglomeration of communities like the one invoked by Eisler appear
totally utopian, over-idealistic and inappropriate within the context of our current societies and
world order. However, as ecofeminists make clear, the structure of current hierarchical societies
prevents any deep or long-lasting transformation that can halt the onslaught of collective
ecological suicide: "Idealism may be the only true realism for humanity now. We must put an end
to war, beat our swords into ploughshares, and seek a balance with nature and a lasting peace - or
simply not survive" (Barnaby 1988 p161)
Clarifying and reflecting on values for a peaceful society in which every person has
intrinsic value, and experiences connectedness and community, begins to build a response that
goes beyond opposition to right wing values. The ecofeminist vision outlined above is not a sleepy
utopian dream but practice that requires work and organising in the present.
Short of a seemingly impossible revolution, to work towards the ideal of a partnership
society from the current situation calls for a diverse range of immediate actions both political and
personal - actions such as organised public protest and civil disobedience, public and media
awareness campaigns, 'green', feminist, and Indigenous politics, trade union activism and
international alliances against manipulation by transnational corporations, viable organic
agriculture, alternative community initiatives, individual lifestyle changes and effective
communication with others.
4.3 HALLMARKS

OF

ECOFEMINIST STRATEGIES

4.3.1

WHERE WE'RE COMING FROM

- DIVERSITY

The question of defining 'ecofeminist strategies' is at once daunting and many-faceted.

Much of the literature reviewed considers ecofeminism to involve the progressive critical social
theory previously discussed that is influential but restricted to realms of certain intellectual,
feminist and environmental circles - usually to people with links to all three. On the other hand
ecofeminism is describing and encapsulating the most significant movement and radical feeling of
the 90s - namely that of an emphasis and attention to the interconnectedness of social problems
and solutions previously perceived as separate. Generally it can be stated that there is already a
growing and well-respected awareness within social movements of aspects such as coalition
networking, information sharing, and other forms of cross-issue support.
It is difficult then to pinpoint exactly what can be termed ecofeminist practice. Elizabeth
Carlassare in her Master's Thesis 'An Exploration of Ecofeminism' (1992) situates ecofeminism as
an influential belief system rather than as an organised movement, pointing out the tendency for
transient and isolated ecofeminist organising by people that work with an ecofeminist philosophy.
In other words, ecofeminist practice can be understood as practice that is guided by ecofeminist
perspectives.
The content and form of ecofeminist practice varies widely. Maria Mies and Vandana
Shiva (1993) and Karen Warren (1995) agree that ecofeminist activism is not monolithic in its
approach and spans diverse areas. This may be partially due to the diverse paths and disciplines
ecofeminists come from. Carolyn Merchant (1995), Patsy Hallen (1994) and Stephanie Lahar
(1991) amongst others, explain the divergent interests of ecofeminists as originating in labour
movements, women's health movements, anti-nuclear, anarchist, environmental, and animal
liberation movements, as well as from different approaches within Marxist, socialist, liberal and
radical feminisms.
Meshed in with ecofeminist strategy is the work of many community groups that recognise
human and non-human rights, and which support feminist insights that challenge the roles, rules,
practices, and institutions which characterise patriarchy. For instance, Australian environmental
and political organisations such as Rainforest Action Groups, peace groups and the Greens
political party, have some policy and practice that parallels ecofeminist sentiment. This can be
seen in groups that move beyond reformism and tokenism through explicit efforts to seriously
address speciesism, gender, class, race and heterosexist dynamics - and also by abandoning
tactics of domination for consensual nonviolent 13 organisation in approach and actions.

13Nonviolent

philosophy, later discussed, is not an opposite to "violence" but something altogether different,
hence the spelling is purposely unhyphenated.

The divergent strategies towards creating the societies ecofeminists envision span
initiatives such as health alternatives that undermine multinational drug businesses, landcare and
environmental restoration, initiatives by artists, musicians and writers who articulate political
feeling and visions, and work against forms of sexism such as rape and violence against women.
Barbara Holland-Cunz (in Valerie 1992) raises the issue of alternative forms of education
that combine diverse areas of knowledge and give vital new perspectives. For instance, she
stresses the importance of understanding history beyond the narrow accounts and views taught in
the mainstream arena, originating in the powerful or dominant elite. An inclusive education,
Holland-Cunz says, must also explore the points of view of women, people of colour, poor people,
gay and lesbian people, non-western people, and dissenting or radical people - information that is
particularly absent from mainstream education (Valerie 1992 ).
Some other innovations also include educational nature excursions that aim to connect
people with ecology and environmental issues, childrearing that integrates non-dominating
dialogue and discussion with children in response-able parenting, and men's movement activism
that publicly challenges and disassociates masculinity from images of heroism, aggressive
competition and control, and which promotes better parenting and communicating in men (Schur
1995).
These initiatives and others are efforts to create the multiple foundations that piece
together a jigsaw vision of a better world. Patsy Hallen (1988) describes this diversity of approach
as a spiral process that draws on philosophical, historical, sociological, and psychological sources,
and as "a deliberate strategy designed to stand testimony to the complexity and the vitality of the
deceptively simple claim: ecology needs feminism" (Hallen 1988 p93). This diversity in approach
is illustrative of a fundamental ecofeminist standpoint, that of the ecology-based notion of diversity
as strength.
Ecofeminist belief is that although the status quo still discourages broad holistic and
inclusive thinking, this is precisely what is needed in the present situation - simple solutions don't
exist. The extent of the problem is so complex in its entirety, that it follows that multidirectional
political agendas and action are essential. Synergistic problem-solving approaches with attention
to multiple initiatives are the only option for effective strategy (Mies and Shiva 1993). Ecofeminist
epistemology emphasises the importance of multiple perspectives that inform and move beyond
seeing the world in dualistic terms (Griffin 1989). Research and communication that blur
boundaries and constructs coalitions across false ideological and institutional barriers is crucial.
4.3.2

MAKING THE LINKS

What this means for ecofeminists is that into each project or political action effort is made
to integrate "missing" analyses. For instance, an environmental or animal rights campaign may be
lacking in feminist, Indigenous or class analysis; a campaign for specific women's rights may be
lacking in awareness about homophobia, racism or ecological perspectives etc. Promoting multifaceted awareness and cross-issue thinking, is the basic characteristic of ecofeminist strategy bringing to each field and issue the missing aspects of holistic political perspectives.
Cross-issue networking also involves finding allies that will be co-supportive of each
others' causes. Regional and international alliances are important to hold out against intimidation
and manipulation, and are facilitated by conferences and events such as the recent Fourth UN
Conference on Women held in Beijing 1996.
As Robin Morgan in Going Too Far: The Personal Chronicle of a Feminist (1978) indicates,
there is nothing profoundly new in this inclusive all-encompassing approach - feminism has always
been interdisciplinary, spanning the separate disciplines of philosophy, psychology, sociology,
political science, biology, anthropology etc. Radical feminists have continually insisted on
connections, demanding complexity and a synthesis or bridging of dichotomous thinking (Morgan
1978 p300).
Linda Vance (1993), in valuing movement between different disciplines, practice and
theory, sees no need for each group or individual activist to be involved on all fronts of social
change at once. The only need, she stresses, is for explicit communication about the partial and
situated perspectives of the different areas of focus. Vance concludes: "The point is we don't have
to be in the same place; we simply have to be doing something, and see the connectedness of it
all, and not undoing or denying each other's work" (Vance 1993 p135). There is no need to fall into
the paralysing trap of perfectionism, as Andrea Dworkin (1996, p217) concurs:
... do something. You don't have to do everything. You don't have to be perfect, you don't
have to be pure, do what you can do. Do it. Life is short and you don't know when it's going
to end for you, so do it, do it now.
As has been shown, ecofeminists endorse diverse involvement and cross-issue
networking that supports broad political understanding and action. I have no desire to define
limitations then on what can be termed 'ecofeminist strategies'. I do however consider that in
embracing a commitment to ecological and feminist consciousness, a common approach in
ecofeminist actions emerges. There are distinguishing features of ecofeminist strategy which
include the following aspects.

4.3.3

COMMUNITY-BUILDING AND GRASSROOTS STRATEGIES

The building of grassroots environmental and social campaigns and projects is vital
ecofeminist strategy. Projects span a vast diversity of issues and initiatives, and aim to empower
people and build community.
Marilyn Ferguson speaks of the need to reframe social problems and think about waging
peace, "...fostering community, health, innovation, self-discovery, purpose." (cited in Barnaby 1988
p18) The strengthening of grassroots involvement and community that encourages each person's
responsive involvement supports ecofeminist aspirations of non-hierarchical and participatory
societies (Mies and Shiva 1993). As Stephanie Lahar (1991) points out, current forms of social
structures are inadequate and fail to meet human needs and potential. Without addressing and
constructing alternatives to hierarchical and oppressive social structures, society will continue to
produce alienated and disempowered individuals who are incapable of creative and political
action:
... the existential isolation that is sign and symptom of the social condition that
ecofeminism

sees and critiques weakens us as potential agents of social and political

change. (Lahar 1991 p30)

Grassroots community strategies that model alternatives to, for instance, current land use,
economics or social and political forms are considered multi-beneficial - they can provide
opportunity for ethical livelihood, empower individuals and build community while achieving
specific aims (Rodda 1991).
Virginia Westbury (1991) outlines ecofeminist strategies that build on the social ecology
movement of American anarchist philosopher Murray Bookchin, and which embrace a philosophy
of bioregional living in communities that are egalitarian and decentralised. Group projects that
include initiatives like permaculture, community bush revegetation and sustainable agriculture
entail a commitment to the ecology of immediate environments, while being a means for
safeguarding health and food security. This philosophy also includes support for local, small and
independent farmers by buying and trading locally; instead of supporting global corporations and
absentee owners whose interest is solely in creating a high yield agri-industry (Westbury 1991).
Wendell Barry (1996) writes, that as an offshoot of involvement with these kinds of local
projects, a productive base for participatory social change is built. The self-determination
promoted in working with the land, Barry (1996) believes, is empowering and politically clarifying,
as well as useful. This is in contrast to present modes of production which are demoralising and

result in dependence on institutions and experts. Barry (1996, p8) argues that in current forms of
centralised, mechanised production individuals are in a state of consumer dependence:
... all meaningful contact between ourselves and the earth is broken. We do not
understand the earth in terms either of what it offers us or of what it requires of us, and I
think it is the rule that people inevitably destroy what they do not understand.
Dankelman and Davidson (1988), cite women that are individually and collectively
involved with land projects and creating urban agriculture which offers access to self-employed
livelihood, fresher, cheaper food, green space, and scope for involvement in earth's cycles. They
stress that these projects also necessitate involvement in activism - for example food production
involves fighting the market monopolies of transnational corporations, and against aspects of the
G.A.T.T. 14 that facilitate the patenting of life forms and restrict farmers producing and using their
own seed (Dankelheim and Davidson 1988, p96). Similarily it may involve lobbying against
genetic manipulation of food and seeds, against government efforts to make various medicinal
herbs illegal to grow and sell, and involve action for adequate health and safety standards for
food.
4.3.4

AN ECONOMIC SYSTEM BENIGN TO PEOPLE AND LIFE

Ecofeminist economic strategy relies on critique and analysis from varied sources.
Feminist critiques and reconstructions of economic systems, such as Marilyn Waring's If
Women Counted: A New Feminist Economics (1988), greatly contributes to ecofeminist strategies.
Waring's (1988) analysis exposes mainstream economic values as tunnel visioned - ignoring and
trivialising the majority of production taking place in societies. Within patriarchal culture anything
that is self-maintaining such as the powers of nature and of women to give and nurture life has no
monetary value - it 'counts for nothing'.
Hence social policy-makers and experts referring to figures such as the Gross National
Product work with only half a data base - or "statistical illusions" that ignore the life-giving and
sustaining work done by women (Henderson 1981 p171). Similarly, the life-giving work of nature is
taken for granted and assumed to be dispensable. Vandana Shiva (1992, p152) speaks out about
the implications of this absence of life in valued economic and social equations:
... modern industrial society has no time for thinking about regeneration, and therefore no
space for living regeneratively. Its devaluation of the processes of regeneration is the
cause of both the ecological crisis and the crisis of non-sustainability.
14General

Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, superceded now by World Trade Organisation (WTO).

Considering that women are half of the global population, perform two-thirds of the
world's work in terms of hours, earn one tenth of what men earn, and own one hundredth the
property that men own (United Nations 1991 p1), the question of a new economic system and
equitable distribution is crucial. As ecofeminists assert, the patriarchal system is driving human
society to its own ecological ruin and the severing of its own life-support systems.
Fundamental economic change is needed. This is because the basic principle in the
current global economy, as Mies and Shiva (1993) argue, is waste: when nature is demolished and
consumed, the economy is said to grow. This is regardless of the short and long-term
environmental and social effects of economic activity that degrades the environment and
demoralises, uproots and disempowers vast numbers of humanity. The use of non-renewable
resources, pollution and the extinction of species, Mies and Shiva (1993, p252) assert, all
decrease real wealth.
The basic priorities, assumptions, and logic of economic rationalism, Mies and Shiva
(1993) emphasise, must be exposed - economic policy ignores the needs of ordinary people and
continues despite the sufferings of ecosystem health and human welfare. The current economic
system is not a value-free trading system for the trading of goods, and it is not the only valid
approach to economics. It is a political system about power, control and ownership whose values
must be challenged15 (Mies and Shiva 1993). For instance, trade agreements like N.A.F.T.A. 16 and
G.A.T.T. are written by industry, and guarantee the rights of corporate powers to manipulate
communities and markets for their own interests (Korten 1996). As Chaia Heller in "For the Love of
Nature: Ecology and the Cult of the Romantic" (1993, p238) argues, more people must dare to
point out the inherent power struggles and flaws of the capitalist system and contest its basis of
protecting and increasing capital at any cost.
Ecofeminists are amongst many people calling for a new economic accounting method: "If
we are to have sustainable growth and positive peace, future economics must be based on the
belief that extreme wealth and poverty, usury, unfair trading, and erosion of the resource base are
immoral and unacceptable behaviour for human societies" (Barnaby 1988 p30). Ecofeminists
demand that social and environmental indicators be integrated into the GNP of national accounting
systems and international trade, and that fiscal measures be introduced to redistribute wealth
through progressive taxation (Mies and Shiva 1993).

15Treating

land as a commodity that can be owned, bought and sold, for instance, is a cultural construct that
is grounded in power and control, and which shows a fundamental disengagement with the land's inherent
inalienable value and human connection with it (Cecily Scutt personal communication 1998).
16North American Free Trade Agreement.

Real development depends on people's ability to gain control of the real resources of their
communities: land, water, labour, technology and human ingenuity (Mies and Shiva 1993).
Empowering local communities is the key to breaking up large concentrations of economic power,
and to link economic decisions to their consequences (Korten 1996).
In summary, the alternatives to the current economic system that ecofeminists accentuate
are based in decentralised, self-determining economies which redefine progress and development
so that environmentally benign and human-centred economic development policies are prioritised
(Mies and Shiva 1993). Ecofeminists envision this within partnership societies where men and
women share all work equally - paid and unpaid work. Such systems do not fundamentally
measure work in terms of profit and productivity, but in terms of the value of its contribution to
society. For instance, parenting, co-operative volunteer work or community service would be
highly regarded and rewarded as important human activity (Eisler 1987). This system would
account for factors such as environmental pollution and the intrinsic value of biodiversity, as well
as the value of nurturing and life-supporting labour largely done by women.
Practical initiatives that are aligned with ecofeminist aims towards a fair economy include:
land, food and housing co-operatives, renewable energy and permaculture projects that provide
local energy and goods, ethical and local credit unions (Douthwaite 1996), job sharing to make the
benefits and burdens of work more equitable, expanded trading interactions on alternative
economic systems such as the Australian L.E.T.S. (Local Energy Transfer System) schemes, and
expanding the development of alternative projects through community based forums such as
T.O.E.S. (The Other Economic Summit). 17
An important aspect of ecofeminist strategy around economic issues is to raise questions
in ongoing debate that challenges the assumptions of the economic status quo. Carolyn Merchant
(1995) for example, voices criticism of political stances on employment. Merchant questions why
increased production hasn't translated into shorter hours and less work instead of unemployment
for some and exhaustion in alienating and vacuous work for others - or why the public is constantly
being told that protecting the environment costs jobs while the current system destroys both jobs
and the environment.
4.3.5

LIVE SIMPLY SO OTHERS CAN SIMPLY LIVE

Many ecofeminists highlight the need for a drastic reduction in consumption as a practical
strategy towards a needs-based economy. This includes ethical consumption and the boycotting of
what Maria Mies and Vandana Shiva (1993) term "destructive luxuries" - products found to be
17An

internationally reputed economic think tank for the environment movement that criticises the policy
directions chosen by leaders of the official G7 and creates theory and political actions towards change
(Willington 1996, p14).

produced unsustainably, or at the expense of people who work for slave wages and in slave
conditions. Explaining the principles of ethical consumption Wendell Barry (1996, p8) writes:
Most of us are not directly responsible for strip mining and extractive agriculture and other
forms of environmental abuse. But we are guilty nevertheless, for we connive in them by
our use of their products and our ignorance. We are ignorantly dependent on them. We do
not know enough about them; we do not have a particular enough sense of their danger.
Those who advocate voluntary simplicity believe that ethical, austere living is not a hardship, but
is enough to create the basis for satisfied living - or 'enough is enough'. In other words, the simple
fulfilment of material needs is sufficient to create happiness and a high quality of life. This belief is
in stark contrast to the dominant attitude that happiness is achieved through, or is secondary to,
consumption that is over and above simple needs. As ecofeminists like Mies and Shiva (1993)
assert, overconsumption in the west has failed to produce a satisfied society. In industrialised
countries crime, violence, sexual assault, drug abuse, depression, and suicide indicate that wellbeing is not widespread. Their point of emphasis is that material consumption alone cannot satisfy
other basic human needs for community, a sense of purpose, love and an attachment to life's
processes (Mies and Shiva 1993 p254-5). A needs-based society that values these aspects, Mies
and Shiva believe, has the potential to create social well-being.
Others, however, like Chaia Heller (1993) and Alice Cook and Gwyn Kirk (1983) warn of
the inadequacy of voluntary austerity as an isolated strategy. Retreating into simple living, they
criticise, will not solve other powerful factors that detrimentally impact on environmental quality
and world politics.
4.3.6

SUPPORT FOR WOMEN

Drawing on radical feminist analysis, ecofeminist strategies emphasise support for women.
These may include projects and actions organised by and for women, or women-only meetings
and spaces at protests, conferences and festivals. This women-centred approach is aimed at
facilitating empowerment and encouraging the safety that women-only environments allow
(Caldecott and Leland 1983). Feminists have explained women-only space as a means for women
to enhance their power, pool resources and experience and affirm women's reality - as well as
allow for rest, recuperation and thinking away from male judgement (Allen 1970). Safe space for
women must seek to welcome and support all women, and hence openly endorse a stance that
does not allow heterosexism, racism, classism, ageism, ablism etc.
Annabel Rodda, speaking about women and environmental projects in her book Women
and the Environment (1991), argues that men and women relate in terms of men continuing to

have the ultimate power. Because of this, she explains, women are often reluctant to speak out
and are silent or embarrassed in mixed meetings. Hence mixed meetings will frequently not give a
representative view of a group's opinions and needs. Separate meetings, she writes, allows
women a chance to be heard without the threat of men taking over the conversation, ridiculing
them or degrading their ideas. Experiencing supportive women-only environments can allow
women to make the leap from relating passively to acting assertively in the public sphere. Rodda
also draws attention to the problems separate women's groups can pose - isolation and
marginalisation, or ones of limited funding and technical resources. She believes however, that
these problems can be overcome if challenged in the context of each different situation. 18
Ecofeminism also supports mixed-gender groups and projects that are women-friendly,
where women are positively encouraged to strive for equal leadership and decision-making power
with men (Caldecott and Leland 1983). This entails the difficulty of achieving true equality and
avoiding the tokenistic involvement of women in agendas that are fundamentally male initiated
and orientated (Rodda 1991). For a mixed-gender project to be non-tokenistic requires a group or
community attitude that outwardly acknowledges the evasiveness of sexism. It must be explicitly
understood that women face unjust treatment in wider society and recognised that feminist
concerns are human rights issues that are radical and essential. Characteristically, such groups
endorse affirmative action strategies and group processes in which power dynamics are
monitored, and which strive to stop women's ideas and work being ignored, dismissed, or
degraded (Rodda 1991).
The point is that ideally women should be equal partners with men in mainstream projects.
Within the current context however, women continue to need affirmative action policy and special
women-only projects or space that actively counteract the inhibiting forces of sexism.
4.3.7

DIRECT ACTION

"Ecofeminism holds that a personalized, decentralized life-

affirming culture and politics of direct action are crucially needed ..."(King 1989 p27)
Stephanie Lahar (1991) and Starhawk (1989), discuss ecofeminist strategy as uniting both
the idealistic and the pragmatic, being deconstructive and proactive. Direct action, they explain, is
an essential deconstructive strategy that resists the most life-threatening issues of militarism,
oppressive violence and environmental destruction. Direct action strategies such as rallies, sit-ins,
blockades, boycotts, nonviolent civil disobedience and creative forms of public resistance are
means by which the most pressing issues can be confronted directly.

18The

question of the pros and cons of women-only space is part of a wider debate within feminism.

Starhawk (1989) argues that ecofeminism is reconstructive and proactive, by creating

positive life-affirming actions and long-term transformational projects, such as some of the
community initiatives mentioned previously. Rosi Braidotti et al. (1994) say that like most activists,
ecofeminists find themselves becoming system opponents and systems managers. That is, they
are critical of government and industry while still engaging with these structures for vital interim
and short-term solutions: such as demanding wilderness reserves, law reform and affirmative
action, rape crisis centres, and animal shelters.
4.3.8

NONVIOLENCE

"Peace is not a destination. It's a way of travelling." (Scutt 1996

p110)

Political action aligned with ecofeminist aims prioritises nonviolent initiatives (Starhawk
1989). This involves nonviolent civil disobedience in acts of protest and persuasion, active and
creative non-co-operation with violence, and nonviolent intervention designed to undermine unjust
laws and practices. Peaceful resistance is aimed at undermining the opponent's source of power
(eg. public support, legislative decisions, misinformation, apathy), and is based on the belief that
ordinary people can affect political change:
According to the theory of nonviolent politics, power is dispersed throughout society: it is
not controlled byan elite at the top of a political pyramid. All elites (including governments)
depend on the goodwill, consent and co-operation of ordinary people in order to exercise
authority. (W.A.F.A. p14)
Group process is an important element of nonviolent strategy. Organisational structures
typically endorsed by ecofeminists involve collective effort and consensual or participatory
decision-making processes19. This is often within small working groups which allow for interaction
and fairness on a human scale, and which consciously guard against the corruption of power
(Starhawk 1988). This is practised, for instance, by persistently questioning if work-sharing is
equal, if people are being censored or if difference is being minimised - and by constant reflection
on group ethics and dynamics by asking: "Is the humanity, intelligence, sensitivity and contribution
of each person respected?" (Adair and Howell 1989 p225) This kind of commitment allows and
encourages involvement, and is aimed at empowering people.

19Ultimately ecofeminists

aim for participatory decision-making processes nationally and internationally, so

that far-sighted decisions for fairer wealth distribution, social justice and ecological sustainability can be
made. Frank Barnaby (1988 p34) describes the current national and international decision-making
processes: "What we have now resembles a medieval state, where wealthy barons exhert great influence,
private armies multiply, and rivalries are a major source of conflict."

These forms of nonviolent practice seek to embody alternatives to hierarchical models of

domination and control. This focus is affiliated with feminist views that endorse 'power with' in
social organisation - prioritising equality, communication, shared leadership, respect and a
welcoming of others' skills and ideas (Birkeland 1993). The 'power with', or non-hierarchical
approach to power also echoes anarchist ideals of responsible self-government - where voluntary
non-hierarchical organisations committed to equal access to power form the basis of political and
social structures (Anarchist Age Monthly Review 1995). This approach radically contrasts with
dominant patterns of 'power over' in organisations which are characterised by hierarchical
polarised thinking, deceit and domination - all of which inhibit reciprocity, diversity and feedback
(Starhawk 1987).
Ecofeminists are clear that the way in which conflict is viewed needs to be re-examined.
Conflict inevitably arises when different interests clash, but if approached productively it becomes
a process that allows for growth and change to develop (W.A.F.A. 1994). Mainstream attitudes
view conflict as negative and attempt to ignore and suppress it - ultimately compounding problems
with denial and nonproductive rigidity when conflicts can no longer be avoided. Starhawk (1989)
argues that work is needed to foster transformative conflict rather than destructive conflict. This is
done by embracing flexibility, listening and honesty as conflict resolution strategies.
The positive replacement of the win/lose view of power which resorts to physical, legal and
psychological revenge, with nonviolent win/win solutions of co-operation is a fundamentally radical
approach that, in the words of Vandana Shiva (in Rodda 1991 p5): "... challeng[es] the dominant
concept of power as violence with the alternative of nonviolence as power." The strength in this
approach lies in what Gandhi termed satyagraha or "truth force" - the force of resolutely telling
truth to power (Eisler 1987 p192). As Irene Diamond and Gloria Orenstein (1990) emphasise humanity is in a crisis which requires urgent action and the methods used must be nonviolent and
life-affirming.
Fran Peavey, in her book Heart Politics (1986), explores the effects of nonviolent practices
that facilitate open hearings for each conflictual party. Positive conflict resolution, she says,
involves working without the concept of enemies. Hatred, anger and righteousness, Peavey writes,
can often prevent successful communication and visibility of the full complexity of a situation.
Strategies in which opponents are cast as enemies can cause missed opportunities and provoke
violence. Peavey's point is that although in some situations oppositional pressure may be an
effective and appropriate strategy, in many others, significant change is not likely to result from
such means. Respect for different people and ideas, Peavey writes, encourages the emergence of
viable solutions and hopeful visions that are seeds for transformative strategies.

Nonviolent strategy, Peavey asserts, requires basic trust in humanity's fundamentally good
intentions. The aim of nonviolence is not to defeat your opponent, but to win the opposition over
or in the words of Starhawk (1993) invite your enemy to dinner, there is always room for you at
our table. Fault is seen as lying in social structures, institutions and behaviours rather than in the
individuals who implement them. This is consistent with long-term strategy for nonviolent social
change toward the fundamental realignment of values ecofeminists envision. As Peavey (1986,
p149) writes: "Our challenge is to call forth the humanity within each adversary, while at the same
time preparing for the full range of possible responses. What path can we find between cynicism
and naivete? "Peavey illustrates her position in a conversation with Joanna Macy: "If there are any
battle lines to distinguish between the good guys and the bad, they traverse the internal landscape
of each individual" (Peavey 1986 p164). Charlene Spretnak (1990, p14) explains nonviolence in a
similar vein:
... to lead by example ... to speak out clearly without malice against those who further
policies of injustice and ecological ignorance ... never feeling that we must ridicule or
crush those with whom we disagree.
Acting and thinking in this fundamentally different way requires the constant questioning
and confrontation of assumptions. As many admit, this task will not be easy "... and will not come
without struggle; virtually all the forces of our culture, our society, our daily life and what we pass
off as an educational system are arrayed against it" (Seed 1988 p122). There is also the problem
of working with the practical difficulties in rejecting these powerful concepts - such as where do we
vent anger usually directed at the dualistically perceived Other or enemy? Without an "us and
them" mentality, with no objects of hatred, where is frustration channelled?
The question of whether the destruction of property (eg logging machinery etc) can be deemed
nonviolent strategy, or at what point nonviolence becomes an uneffective strategy, are further
debates in this arena.
4.3.9

ALLOWING EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION "My

life, my joy, my fear, my anger. My love, my dreams,

my struggle for change. All of these I take with me, I'm on my way to tomorrow." (Words from the
song "The Other Side" by Sweet Honey on the Rock)
Processes that allow for emotional expression about the planetary crisis, such as the
healing work pioneered by Joanna Macy (California) in "Despair and Empowerment" and "The
Council for All Beings"20 workshops are important aspects of holistic ecofeminist strategy. By
facilitating support and listening to responses of fear, rage, despair and grief about the global
20Designed

in partnership with John Seed in Australia.

situation, these processes help to integrate personal response and feelings of powerlessness with
a political analysis and approach.
Joanna Macy in her article "Awakening to the Ecological Self" (1989) asserts that bridging
emotional isolation through some form of ongoing cultural therapy or spiritual process, is radically
essential. Expanding on this theme Fran Peavey (1986, p168) writes: "The taboo against talking
about nuclear war and other painful issues has created chasms between people and has kept us
from sharing some of the deepest parts of our human experience."
Susan Griffin's poetic exploration of these realms in Woman and Nature: the Roaring
Inside Her (1978), illuminates how each individual is deprived of the feelings of their own body's
emotional response - the strong inner wilderness which is shunned as uncontrollable, insane and
even evil. Speaking of this deprivation in a similar vein, Katrina Shields (1991, p7) writes: "Our
culture has so many ways to discourage us from knowing what we really feel and who we really
are: the "tranquilization by the trivial", the endless distraction, busyness, pressure to have and be
more and more."
Painful feelings are important warning signals toward self-preservation (LaChance 1991).
In the face of ecological annihilation, unemotional passivity and the blocking out of the need for
preservation is an evolutionary dead-end for the human race (LaChance 1991). The natural and
sane response of anxiety and grief to witnessing the insanity of global environmental and social
crisis can be cathartic - it can foster the personal power to implement change that bridges the gap
between information and action (Shields 1991). Joanna Macy (1983) states that by recognising
and accepting emotional responses, feelings of anger, grief, frustration and despair can be
translated into courage, power and creative response. Despite widespread cynicism 21 contrary to
this - we are entitled to doubts and fears about our current predicament. Planetary death is a
personal as well as a political issue - the immediacy of the crisis is real and warrants our terror
(Macy 1983).
In the words of a participant at Marilyn Waring's workshop on global economics (cited in
Birkeland 1993 p3): "The capacity to weep and then do something is worth everything. We want to
remember that emotions are things we value." It is psychologically paralysing to dwell on poverty
and potential environmental collapse for long - yet more people are needed to take a broad view
of the many social and environmental problems at stake (Barnaby 1988).

21Fran

Peavey explains that cynicism, anger and disinterest are often expressions of pain from a deep
caring, rather than not caring: "...I have seen the human will to improve, to make our lives and our world
more convergent with our ideals. I know the pain that comes from not being able to translate this will into
reality" (Peavey 1986 p161).

People fear the pain, powerlessness and guilt that may arise from taking a personal
interest and responsibility for social and environmental crises (Seed 1988). The feeling that such
involvement might cause distress and result in appearing morbid, fanatical or "too serious" greatly
hinders people from prioritising these issues. So does the fear of 'going mad' 22- there are no
cultural models that indicate that emotional expression is healthy and that being engulfed in strong
emotions can be survived or be beneficial. Western culture prioritises the control and repression of
powerful emotional feelings. This severe social conditioning and the deep need for acceptance as
a 'normal' person are probably the biggest obstructions to active involvement in social and
environmental movements for change (Macy 1983). The strong pull towards social conformity
blocks the most blatant signals which indicate that something is wrong. In Fran Peavey's (1986,
p170) words: "This willingness to go along, even to the point of harming others, isn't an aberration.
We are all well-practised in doing as we are told, doing what seems appropriate to the context. "
Ecofeminist philosophy is that only with the honest contemplation of the global situation
can clear strategy be created and practical solutions be found (Starhawk 1988). The consistent
denial of problems until they reach crisis proportions threatens flexible and calm thinking toward
rational solutions with outbreaks of terror, panic or paralysis. Again pointing to the importance of
balance, Fran Peavey (1986, p155) writes: "It's important to accept and vent our feelings, but if we
get stuck in this process and fail to think strategically about how to use our emotions, our work will
be less than appropriate".
4.3.10

THE PERSONAL IS POLITICAL

Many social change activists hold that a personal focus, whether in the form of individual
solutions or personal transformation work is wishful thinking or indulgent in the face of the political
work necessary to implement institutional and structural changes.
Ecofeminists campaign against this fragmented view of reality and value aspects of
personal change work as valid and even crucial practical strategy - they argue for a reintegrated
worldview which holds that a balance of both is essential. As has been argued, the required
changes are not marginal - they are fundamental changes to the ways we are living. Ecofeminism
holds that neither individual changes nor public protest are sufficient on their own (Birkeland
1993).
Insisting solely that governments and industries change their ways, and choose the lesser
of multiple evils, denies the fact that the environmental crisis has its roots in individual lives. The
situation, as Wendell Barry (1996) describes it, is that the public has given over individual
22There

are different meanings associated with the word 'mad'. I personally see a lot of justification for
'being mad' - mad at senseless injustices, mad at the ubiquitous degradation of life, mad at the farcical
political and social systems etc. See also Women and Madness (Chesler 1970).

responsibilities to politicians, corporations, and specialists who fund studies and inquiries but do
little to create practical alternatives. At some point, Barry says, individuals must accept the
discipline of getting personally involved in solving social and environmental problems. The
substance of individual lives, Barry argues, is where environmental health begins to be rebuilt.
Expressing feminist sentiment, Jocelynne Scutt (1996, p102) explains:
... individual lives are seen as part of a whole, instead of being isolated away from general
events ... what happens to each one of us, in our private lives, directly affects and is
affected by what happens to all of us in the public sphere.
Ecofeminists assert that political activism needs to be balanced with personal elements of
social change. Individual changes are seen as ineffective political strategy only if they are
embraced in isolation, to the exclusion of political activity. As Robin Morgan (1978, p308) writes:
"... if the political is solely the personal, then those of us at the barricades will be in serious
trouble". The necessity for this approach is emphasised by Patsy Hallen (1988, p84):
... the environmental crisis is not just a result of maladjusted economic power, military
insanity, population pressure or social injustice whereby one Australian uses fifty times the
resources of one Kenyan. It is also a crisis of the human spirit.
Appeals to reason, writes Janis Birkeland (1993), through educating and lobbying public
awareness assumes that primary motivations behind various actions are rational. This strategy,
she argues, overlooks the many irrational fears, prejudices and myths, the greed and vested
interests that drive military and economic policy 23. For instance, nearly everyone rationally
understands the predicaments inherent in outcomes that cause poisoned air, water and soil. Many
know the science, cosmology, and biology of connectedness, yet still this is not enough to break
free of cultural beliefs in, for instance, economic rationalism in which western societies remain
saturated 24(Birkeland 1993).
It sometimes seems to those trying to raise social and environmental consciousness that
no amount of information on the destruction of the biosphere is likely to effect change 25 (LaChance
23Vandana

Shiva (1988) speaks of the irony of 'rational' man leading us so irrationally to our doom. In the
face of this, she points out: "it is but rational to redefine categories and meanings" (Shiva 1988 p223).
24For instance, many understand the faulty reasoning inherent in economic rationalism (it is a model for
infinite expansion and growth with a resource base that is finite and limited) - yet continue to
fundamentally support this model (Willington 1996).
25Although more research and knowledge of our environment is useful, we already possess enough
knowledge of processes to understand that we are headed toward disaster - and to know the changes that
must be undergone to prevent it (LaChance 1991). What we need is a society that is prepared to act on this
knowledge with wisdom and foresight.

1991). This is because the solutions necessary to prevent disaster are impossible to amiably
integrate into the daily life comforts of those who live in mainstream mindframes. Conflicting or
challenging information to an individual's fundamental principles of reality hold the potential to
cause distress and hence are denied, filtered out or denounced as extreme or unsubstantiated.
People who change their viewpoints and become actively involved in social change usually do so
because they are emotionally moved to do so (LaChance 1991, p175).
This may entail some kind of emotional or spiritual 'awakening'. Starhawk (1989) considers
that emotional experiences of the social and environmental crisis are valuable entry points into
empowered activism. She finds that experiences of the interconnectedness of all life events
creates a sense of purpose, attachment to life's processes, and responsibility - feelings which she
sees as inseparable from spirituality. For Starhawk, such spirituality necessitates active integration
with the search for a better society through personal involvement in action against the existing
exploitative world system. This is in contrast to what Maria Mies and Vandana Shiva (1993) call
'luxury spirituality' - a term they use to criticise most mainstream forms of religion where members
remain 'apolitical' and uninvolved, hence indirectly supporting the status quo (Mies and Shiva
1993, p19).
A crucial point in ecofeminism and feminism at large is that individuals are surrounded by
cultural concepts and myths that continually squash newly found knowledge and awarenesses. Old
habits die hard; as Audre Lorde (1992) states, every person inevitably learns and internalises the
harmful features and patterns of the dominant culture of their origin. To paraphrase Mary Daly, we
are crippled in our minds, bodies and spirits, and punished for our efforts to become nonconforming, holistic selves (Daly 1978, p9). This, Lorde (1992) writes, needs to be recognised and
faced if we are to be free of the power of internalised sexist and racist stereotypes, inwardly turned
rage and self-hate, and unconscious desire to be accepted by the powerful and dominant in
society.
Audre Lorde (1992) emphasises that self-worth and strength that is non-competitively
based, needs to be consciously nurtured. New patterns must be learned that foster effective
communication based on relating with all people as equals. To understand and counteract the
internalised messages of racism, sexism, homophobia, ageism etc., and connect the personalised
aspects of oppression with other areas of liberation, is an ongoing process. It is a lifelong pursuit
which Virginia Warren (1992, p6) regards as "housekeeping issues" - they require that we
continually "... reassess large parts of our lives: our character traits, how we think about ourselves,
and how we relate to others." Starhawk elaborates on this nurturing of self-respect, which she
considers is inherently connected to respect for the environment: "We cannot restore inherent

value to trees, wilderness, and earth unless we also restore it to every human being on the planet"
(1989, p179).
As Birkeland (1993) and Brock-Utne (1989) point out, when confronting the
personal/political divide there is no need for dualistic thinking that condemns or disregards either
one or the other of the different aspects. Extremes that deny or subordinate personal development
to political action, emotion to reason or vice versa are not realistic or helpful (Birkeland 1993, p23)
4.3.11

INTERNAL VIOLENCE

As previously discussed, the internalised oppressions experienced in a life-destroying

culture result in individuals prioritising wealth, action and power, over life-maintenance, softness,
rest and nurturance. This indicates that easing internal violence is just as vital in transforming
society as addressing 'external' violence or any other form of oppression.
Internalised oppression, the internal self-inflicted violence in the form of self-blame,
negative self-judgement, and pushing ourselves too hard is a fundamental mechanism of violence
underlying all external aggression and behaviours. Neurologists estimate that the average person
has about 60,000 thoughts a day - 70% of which the person has had before, and 80% of which are
negative towards self and others (Isaac Shapiro 2003 personal communication). This self-talk is
abusive in a way that would not be tolerated from external sources. Internalised violence often
causes more harm than external influences, in the form of suicide, self-harm, addiction, and
depression. Internalised oppression often functions effectively where external oppression fails.
Even though internalised violence is oppressive and effectively suppressive, it is generally
considered as a private issue, not a political one to be discussed openly even though its effects
can be fatal. In the realms of activism, academia and beyond, this binary between the private and
political is prevalent, although feminists opened up a lot of this exploration in 70s&80s. As with
other falsely constructed dichotomies, the perceived inferior aspect, the private, is given less
status, shunned and ridiculed. The so-called external forms of oppression such as war, racism and
poverty are deemed worthy of attention, while the 'internal wars are valued as less significant, a
private personal affair not wide-reaching in effect, and invalid as scientific pursuit.
The science of ecology and quantum physics, and theories such as Systems Theory and
Chaos Theory are now scientifically illuminating what many ancient cultures and religions have
long held to be true - the infinite and phenomenal intricacies of all lifes interconnection (Macy
1989). They point to the reality of no separation between what we conceive to be our internal
selves, and our external world. There is no actual line or point at which we can say this is me -

and this is the world.26 Collectively we are being 'dis-illusioned' to the illusion of separation. This is
not to say that these labels or assumed separations need to be completely abandoned, just seen
and understood differently. It allows an exploration to consider life without those constructs, labels
and ideas - which can be picked up and used again later if needed (Shapiro).
This can be intellectually understood, but the implications of this realisation are profound.
Despite this understanding, habitual tendencies to believe that there is an actual boundary
between ourselves and the world continue, and it is worth noticing the price we pay for this
compelling collective cultural illusion of separation (Shapiro).
A wholistic understanding is that one sick cell in an organism effects the whole, and
therefore the sickness, suicide, drug addiction, or depression of one or - the inspiration and
ease with being alive of one, profoundly matters. In this way ecofeminists are valuing interests
previously seen as belonging to the category of the personal, or spiritual - but as every field of
western science is now finding, it is impossible to draw the boundary or exclude these from
investigation.
There has been a boom of interest in ways people are finding to relax and connect with
original self, or be at peace through whatever framework, path or spirituality is meaningful to
them. The word spirituality in this sense is used to mean the way or form in which a person finds
inner peace and rests in their original nature. In this vein ecofeminism values spirituality as
radically essential, just as much so as working against sexism, racism, classism, species-ism and
other hierarchies, and an integral aspect of holistic strategy.

The above mentioned ecofeminist strategies can be seen as the hallmarks of ecofeminist
practice. They can be summarised as grassroots environmental and social projects, economic
alternatives, nonviolent direct action, explicit support for women, participatory decision-making
processes, voluntary simplicity and ethical consumption, and aspects of personal change work.
These ecofeminist strategies enact the philosophies and insights discussed in Chapter 2 of the
literature review, and as will be shown, reflect the model for ecofeminist strategy revealed in the
research interviews.

26

As an experiment, you can try putting a piece of plastic bag over your nose and mouth for 5 minutes and
see how much you are seperate from the air (Shapiro), and so on for water, soil etc

5. WHY SHOULD T HERE BE HOPE IN T HESE STRATEGIES?

"Although the structures of war and domination

are strongly entrenched, they must inevitably
change, as all things change." (Starhawk 1989
p184)
In the climate of current environmental and social problems, many social commentators
suggest that cynicism and discouragement are the norm: "There is...a certain hardening of the
heart in political circles; a sense of growing helplessness elsewhere; a reckless wealth-gathering in
the money markets. We have already begun to live as if there were no tomorrow" (Barnaby 1988
p16). Within this context searching for legitimate reasons for hope, inspiration and optimism is a
necessary political action.
In this chapter I briefly discuss those points found throughout the ecofeminist literature
which I believe create realistic hope that ecofeminist practice and outline for social change has the
ability to divert planetary crisis. I include some examples of current world-wide ecofeminist
practice - with a particular focus on Australian ecofeminist activism - to create a picture of the form
of global ecofeminist activities in the 90s. I believe these illustrate that strategies of action which
reflect ecofeminist philosophies are well under way.
As writers like Riane Eisler (1987) propose, there are precedents - both anthropological
and historical 27 which indicate that egalitarian life-respecting societies are not unrealistic fantasies,
but possible or potential futures. The re-emergence of societies orientated around the reverence of
all life, Eisler (1987, p203) believes, is supported by the human desire for well-being, freedom, and
27Eisler's

work discusses evidence of pre-historic civilizations that were not hierarchic, violent or maledominated. She proposes that five thousand years ago European societies were egalitarian and in a benign
and respectful relationship with nature and Earth's processes (Eisler 1987).

justice. Deep yearning for peace, ecological security, beauty, and love, writes Eisler, is incentive to
believe that human societies have the will to stop our current course to destruction. If humanity
can insist and act collectively on these desires, then there may still be the capacity to create social
paths intent on survival and evolutionary breakthrough, rather than destruction, evolutionary
breakdown and collapse (Eisler 1987 p xxiii).
Ecofeminist writers like Caldecott and Leland (1983) point to the increase in acceptance of
ecological consciousness and radical concepts that witness vast shifts in thinking and a desire for
life's continuation. Humanity, they say, is now perceiving the dangers. Thirty years ago, there was
virtually no political awareness of environmental decline. Since Rachel Carson's landmark book,
Silent Spring (1962), there has been growing public concern about a variety of potential ecodisasters. Children and young people are increasingly taking up environmental values as moral
absolutes as they learn more of the ecological situation through school, and understand that their
own future social and economic choices are limited (Gottlieb 1993 p314). Speaking of important
shifts that have already occurred in environmental consciousness Chrissie Sharp (1988) writes:
Overall, however, the new system of conservation reserves which we now enjoy,
represents a profound change to land management principles. The concept that
representative natural areas should be withheld from development and rare species be
protected has achieved widespread acceptance from government and the community.
(Sharp 1988 p2)
Despite resistance to change, many people may have observed their own values and
lifestyles change through gradual or sudden shifts - for instance, conservation, ecology, and
recycling28 have become common words of general concern. Eisler (1987) suggests that people
are generally less tolerant of violence, and are teaching their children - male and female - to value
caring and co-operation; providing them with alternative models to traditional concepts and stories
about war, conquest and domination. The urgency of the present times, Eisler writes, has also
spurred many people to work toward realising scenarios for peace and justice. Millions of people in
the peace, feminist, ecology, Indigenous, and human potential movements worldwide are devoting
their lives to these tasks.
Ecofeminists also find hope in academic disciplines in which new science and scholarship
are questioning and challenging the prevailing models of reality (Eisler 1987). Chaos theory developed by natural and systems scientists - focuses on relation in nature instead of hierarchies.
Its exploration of the way fundamental change occurs has important relevance in the dynamics of
28I

realise that recycling is a problematic issue, in that it can be used as 'green credentials' to perpetuate and
justify economies fundamentally based on overconsumption.

social transformation (Eisler 1987). This is not to suggest that human cultural evolution mirrors
processes within biological systems, but that there are important similarities: transformation can
occur quickly when new influences (or ideas) appear at critical branching points of disequilibrium
eg. social and environmental crisis (Eisler 1987).
Carolyn Merchant (1995) and Michael Zimmerman (1994) believe that the study of
microlevel changes that generate macrolevel effects lends scientific credence to the stance that
each person's actions and moral decisions have significant political impact. The power of small
amounts of new information and the gradual encroachment of ideas, can be compared to a blade
of grass growing through a crack in concrete which eventually shatters it - or to ripples in a pond
that eventually spread to affect the whole surface. In the words of Gloria Steinem (1992, p315):
In the short run, each self-conscious choice affects behaviour, our own brain synapses,
and sends out ripples of change to those around us. In the very long run, it can affect the
environment of our generation, our descendants, our species, the adaptation of their
behaviour and brains, the reoccurrence of certain genes, and ultimately, evolution itself.
Ecofeminism does not provide solutions that are a 'quick fix' (Shiva 1992). The deep
transformation ecofeminist analysis points to requires patient and persevering efforts. In the words
of Robin Morgan, "A good political movement can wear down stone, grain by grain" (Morgan 1978
p312). Morgan also says:
We are digging in, since we know that patriarchy won't be unbuilt in a day, and the
revolution we are making is on every front: economic, political, social, cultural, personal,
public, sexual, biological, and even metaphysical. (Morgan 1978 p10)
Adding to this vein, Linda Vance (1993) writes of the slow and gradual nature of the
needed paradigm shift. This, Vance says, necessitates the cultivation of strategies that allow for a
lifelong process of activism to be sustained - rather than succumbing in panic to the crisis/peace
dichotomy.
And as Katrina Shields (1991, p16) writes:
Relying on mainstream media for information about change can discourage personal
involvement in social change because of the selective emphasis on high profile
personalities or institutions and the focus on problems and disasters. It is hard to gain a
perspective on individual contributions to the slow building of change, or of unspectacular
but solid achievements being made.

Each individual profoundly effects their environment over a lifetime, although a larger picture of
social change may only become clear in hindsight. As Fran Peavey (1986, p179) writes:
... I act on the conviction that everyone is making a difference. Just by living our lives,
consuming space and resources, we are making a difference. Our choice is what kind of
difference to make.
In summary, the fact that precedents for peaceful sustainable societies exist, that
significant worldview shifts have already begun, that there is new science and scholarship
challenging dominant paradigms, and that activist efforts can effect powerful change - especially in
the light of new theories about the macrolevel effect of microlevel activity - are promising
indicators that ecofeminist agendas for change can be achieved. Alternative and grassroots
activities can also provide hope that ecofeminist aims are being and can be enacted.
5.1

WORLD-WIDE ECOFEMINIST ACTIONS AND PROJECTS

In this section I outline some current forms of world-wide ecofeminist activity, to indicate
the extent to which ecofeminist philosophies and aims are being actualised in the 90s. The
abundance of these alternative and grassroots projects creates an inspirational picture of what
presently constitutes ecofeminist practice and strategy.
There are no single or central sources that globally categorise actions and groups involved
in ecofeminist strategies. Networks continue to evolve and expand, and the quality of information
available on Internet sites is improving. Examples of ecofeminist activities typically abound in
ecofeminist and 'women in development' literature, newsletters and conference papers. I will now
briefly present six examples of initiatives with ecofeminist principles and philosophies that are
illustrative of the divergent involvement of activist groups from around the world. This is followed
by a narrowing of focus to Australian ecofeminist activities.
W.E.D.O. - the Women Environment and Development Organisation, is committed to "hold
institutions, corporations, states, organisations and individuals accountable for their actions,
products and processes." They are an international network that produces up to date analysis and
theory to counteract dominant points of view about development, women and ecology. Some
examples of their work include distributing lobbying advice for NGOs, spreading legal information
and social change tactics, and lobbying for women's groups' involvement in World Bank and IMF
debates around debt and the design of economic policies (W.E.D.O. Primer 1995, p7).

W.E.N. - the Women's Environmental Network in Britain investigates and exposes the social and
environmental costs in the life-cycle of products, and co-ordinates regional and international
networks such as the International Feminist Network which spreads news on women's
demonstrations and projects. They facilitate W.I.C.C.E. - Women's International Cross-Cultural
Exchange Program where women participate in an exchange for several months in women's
organisations in different countries (Braidotti et al. 1994, p161).
G.A.B.R.I.E.L.A. - The General Assembly Binding (Women) for Reforms, Integrity, Equality,
Leadership and Action is a movement of women workers in the Philippines that pledges to fight for
economic self-reliance and for a just and free society. It is an umbrella group of more than 70
women's networks. G.A.B.R.I.E.L.A.'s actions give combined attention to social change struggles:
for economic rights, women's rights, family and marriage rights, children's rights, health and
reproductive rights, education and cultural rights, political rights, consumer rights, Indigenous
rights, peace and nuclear/U.S. free rights, safety and anti-pollution rights, access to sustainable
resource and environmental rights, and land reform (G.A.B.R.I.E.L.A. Women's Collective 1996).
Acao Democratica Feminina Guacha - Friends of the Earth Brazil, maintain a central emphasis on
women's rights while opposing chemical based farming, and lobbying for changes in development
and environmental aid campaigns (Guazzelli 1988, p149).
D.A.W.N. - Development Alternatives With Women for a new era, consists of groups based mostly
in L.A.P.A.A.C. countries providing global support networks that promote equitable ecological
development. Strategies are based on co-operation, responsibility for others, and a resistance to
hierarchies. They highlight a commitment to peace, to a women-centred approach to birth control,
to environmental sustainability and fair resource distribution (Dankelman and Davidson 1988,
p143-4 ).
Y's E.Y.E.S. - is a Y.W.C.A. worldwide network of thousands of women's groups concerned
primarily with energy and environmental issues but also other areas of health, refugees, human
rights and peace. Current projects include demonstration centres for alternative biogas energy
use, establishing environmental education in schools, and co-ordinating actions to spy on and
expose polluters (Dankelman and Davidson 1988, p146-7).
5.2

AUSTRALIAN PROJECTS

To my knowledge there is no literature that focuses on Western Australian ecofeminist

activism, although Carolyn Merchant (1995) discusses examples of Australian ecofeminist
activism, including some projects that Western Australian women are involved in.

Australia-wide, there have been many women-only environmental and peace actions, from
the 1983 Pine Gap women's camp and similar protests since then, to recent women's old growth
forest blockades (Merchant 1995). In Sydney there is an ecofeminist activism office called
Ecofeminist Actions co-ordinated by Ariel Salleh and operating within the Women's Environmental
Network at the Nature Conservation Council. They publish a regular "Ecofeminist Actions" section
in Chain Reaction - the monthly magazine of the Friends of the Earth network who focus on
environmental and especially nuclear issues. There has recently been established a linkup of
prominent Australian ecofeminists and earth philosophers called Earth Philosophies Australia
(E.P.A.). This E.P.A. linkup aims to find strategies for making earth philosophies like ecofeminism
more widely accessible by reducing academic jargon and finding key metaphors and ideas that
can be integrated with experiential practice and action (current E.P.A. projects are mentioned later
in the research findings).
A pioneering Australian ecofeminist magazine Earthwise Women, now in its second year,
provides information for and of women who are involved in ecofeminist strategies. Issues explored
include appropriate technology, permaculture, self-sufficiency, energy efficient building design,
wildlife protection, activism around various environmental issues, landcare, and ecotourism,
alternative childrearing and education. The magazine has an explicit commitment to a feminist
focus (Earthwise Women 1996).

These groups and initiatives are clearly involved in linking up divergent activities and
projects, enacting the cross-issue networking that is characteristic of ecofeminism. They enact the
ecofeminist strategies discussed in the review of the international literature, and as will be shown,
reflect the model for ecofeminist strategy that is revealed in the regional study. These examples
show that initiatives are occurring globally in which ecofeminist principles and philosophies are
beginning to be implemented, and are promising indicators that ecofeminist agendas for change
can be achieved.
In the following chapter, I discuss the process of my field research and the methodology I
used in interviewing ecofeminist activists in my region. This leads into an examination of the
findings from the research interviews, and a comparison of these findings with the ecofeminist
theory and strategies already discussed.

6. HEARING ECOFEMINIST ACTIVISTS IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA

My research fieldwork on this topic took place after a broad exploration of the practice and
theory of ecofeminism, ranging in source from academic and activist literature and the Internet, to
personal communications with ecofeminists. My aim in doing the fieldwork was to see what people
who embrace ecofeminist principles and philosophy were doing in my own local area of Western
Australia. I also intended to discuss what these practical activities, strategies and initiatives looked
like within the global context of ecofeminism as introduced in the literature review.
To this end, I interviewed twelve active women whose work and lives seemed to embody
ecofeminist ideals. I chose to interview women activists because their focus inspired me, and
because it included an awareness and commitment to gender issues. I tried to include women
whose varied activities and projects illustrated the diversity of ecofeminist approaches. This
included considering and trying to span difference in age, class, cultural background, and rural and
urban locality. The problems I encountered with diversity in cultural representation will be
discussed in the next chapter. I knew of most of the women I included in this study through my
own activist involvement over the last eight years, and in talking with many activists I gained
further suggestions of others I might interview who were deemed ecofeminist by popular
consensus.
After approval had been gained from the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Arts at
Deakin University I contacted the women and briefly shared with them relevant information about
myself, my topic and the aims of my research. After they indicated their willingness to be involved,
the interviews took place in locations of their choice. The meetings all occurred between July and
September 1996. They ranged in duration from one half hour to two hour discussions, taking as
much time as was needed. The women were given a choice as to the recording method used, but
since none felt too uncomfortable with tape recorders, all the interviews were recorded on
cassette.
The interview method I used in this project was essentially that regarded as feminist
phenomenological interviewing (Reinharz 1992). I began with self-disclosure and shared with the
women my interests, and the intentions and motivations for my research. Then using a semistructured approach, and allowing as much as possible for an interviewee-guided investigation, I

asked for the participants' perspectives and feelings on how they saw their work and lives
embodying ecofeminist principles and philosophy. I then gauged whether interviewees were keen
to speak unprompted or whether they preferred to begin with the structured questions (Appendix 1)
and go freely from these to other areas of interest. In other words, I used the prepared questions
more as a guide for the topics I wanted to explore, and changed their order to follow the
participants' train of expression, talking about some questions in depth and skipping others where
appropriate.
When I came to compile and analyse the data, I listened to the taped interviews and noted
quotes and information that I considered relevant, interesting or inspiring, and which involved
themes related to and resonant with ecofeminist theory I had covered in the literature review.
When transcribing the interviewees' words I tried to present them as they were spoken, to give the
reader a sense of the conversations that took place.
I begin the presentation of data with a small chapter on the women's biographies. This
introduction to the study participants provides a context in which their comments on ecofeminist
philosophy and strategy can be placed. It also presents an overview of the practical strategies the
women were engaged in when the interviews took place. The main analysis of the interview
findings follows, where I discuss the common perspectives that emerged from the interviews to
illuminate the practices and strategies that the women felt put ecofeminist theory into practice.
After writing the draft findings of this paper, the participants were contacted and asked to
comment on all material that was associated with them by name. This allowed them to verify or
disagree with the information and interpretations I had gathered about them. I wanted to be careful
to consider the ethics of referring to the participants by name in this thesis, but the women
overwhelmingly felt easy about being referred to by name and were used to having their
viewpoints and projects discussed in public. I promised each of them that any reference to them
by name in my final paper would be subject to their agreement and discussion, and that they were
able to withdraw at any time. This feedback process led to clarification and minor modification of
practical details and interpretations. It also allowed for a follow through in commitment to
communication and respect with the interviewees (Reinharz 1992).
6.1

INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS

In examining the project proposal to interview ecofeminists about their practices, the most
problematic issue that I encountered was the uniformity of my sample: the women in my interview

sample were all white and predominantly middle class29. Despite my efforts towards finding a more
diverse group, the ecofeminists I wanted to interview were consistently from a niche of similarly
positioned people. Eventually, after some despair, this experience brought me to new
understanding of aspects of ecofeminist theory that I had thought I knew, but which deepened with
my experience of it. It was impressed on me that ecofeminist theory served a vital role within
restricted sectors of predominantly white culture. Within the restricted realms of academia,
ecofeminism is intellectually validating new, yet ancient ideas and approaches that are
reappearing/occurring globally in diverse ways and aspects.
Another area of consideration I had about my research revolved around my own
integration in the 'ecofeminist community' and the degree to which my opinions and viewpoints
might influence responses. I was already acquainted with many of the interviewees as friends or
as activists in similar fields, and in all of the interviews I expressed to the women my opinions and
world-view. Standard research methods which emphasise separateness, impersonality and
distance may perceive such personal involvement and disclosure as a danger that is likely to
influence responses and result in biased and unscientific research. In response, I agree with Ann
Oakley (1981, p18) that, "All research is political" and that there is no such thing as truly objective
research. Feminist critics of traditional research methods argue that personal involvement and
bias is always present in research design, data collection and analysis, with unsaid choices and
intentions being hidden behind the cloak of 'objective' research (Reinharz 1992 p74).
Finding feminist research methods appropriate, I have tried here to make visible and open
to evaluation the choices, methods and motives involved throughout my research process. The
research I carried out for this thesis has personally convinced me of the depth of benefit and
appropriateness of self-disclosure and of engaging in participatory research in an 'involved' or
'connected' manner. Indeed, throughout the interviews I found that shared ideals and commitments
lead positively to an enhanced intimacy of understanding and empathy between myself as
interviewer and the interviewees. This resulted in very few barriers to establishing rapport - except
perhaps those due to class, age and individual focus. I do however consider that while these
factors act to minimise barriers between the researcher and the researched, the findings of this
thesis remains my understanding of the interviewees' accounts.
6.2 THE PROS AND CONS OF THE METHOD

29When

I began questioning this I decided to ask the women I had interviewed which class they identified
themselves with: eleven identified as middle class, and one identified as working class.

I chose the semi-structured interview as research method because it allowed for a

complex and detailed personal interaction to develop, with opportunities for clarification and
discussion that enhanced communication (DeVault 1986). The interviewee-guided approach put
participants at ease and facilitated an atmosphere of self-exploration, allowing the women broad
and deep consideration of how they choose to live and perceive of their lives. By asking for openended comments, I hoped to minimise any projections of my own expectations and conceptual
frameworks onto the participants' thoughts. I wanted instead to allow and encourage the
expression of feelings and ideas in the women's own words. As Reinharz (1992, p18) explains, this
approach can produce "... non-standardized information that allows researchers to make full use of
differences among people", rather than seeing interviewing as a means of data extraction to test a
preconceived hypothesis.
I did find this method difficult to stick to at times - finding truth for myself in Reinharz's
(1992) words: "Feminist phenomenological interviewing requires interviewer skills of restraint and
listening..." (Reinharz 1992 p21). Listening to the tapes I heard myself occasionally interjecting
information or opinions, despite my conscious effort to just listen and focus all dialogue around
encouraging the women's own explorations and expressions.
Nevertheless, this particular interview method had many practical advantages for this
research project. Firstly, it was achievable within the given time constraints. Secondly, the format
suited the practical availability of the interviewees and worked well with their reflective and
articulation skills. Thirdly, due to the relatively small number of ecofeminist activists in W.A., I
believe it was successfully representative of the diversity of initiatives taking place. And fourthly,
the form of the open-ended interview method fitted well with the general interaction style of the
interviewees.
6.3

THE QUESTIONS

Reflecting on how effective and functional the prepared questions were (see Appendix 1)
was interesting. I found that the first question ("What do you see as ecofeminist strategies and
action?") was useful in bringing out diverse perspectives on ecofeminist thinking which were often
refreshingly clear, simple and concise. It also raised interesting debate and feeling on exactly what
and who can be termed ecofeminist. Three of the women interviewed didn't strongly identify with
ecofeminism and weren't very familiar with the term - although they largely agreed with the brief
outline of ecofeminist principles that I offered. On this question, Patsy Molloy said
... there are a lot of activists who aren't necessarily ecofeminist because it takes a lot to
me, it takes a lot of analysis to put it together in that way, to actually realise what the roots

of all of these things are, and most groups are so involved in on the ground, y'know
fighting for a particular issue they that they don't have time to analyse and look back at all
the causes.
The focus of questions 2, 3, and 4 (around networking) approached similar areas from
different angles. Upon listening to the tapes I found that the repetitious nature of these questions
proved useful, helping bring to the surface experiences and thoughts that participants might not
have initially considered relevant.
Questions 5 and 6 (about the gender politics in social movements and men's involvement
in ecofeminism) provided a lot of interesting information about the environment and social change
movements - they also allowed women to speak about areas in which they were confident and in
which they had knowledgable experience (a few of the women found the academic nature of
ecofeminism daunting, fearing that they 'wouldn't know enough' ). The questions also provided a
listening space for the participants' grievances about their activist experiences and emphasised
the ongoing need for feminist focus and input within these areas.
In retrospect I believe the interviews would have greatly benefited from an additional
question at the end of the inquiry. This question would have asked about the women's opinions and
experience of the interview to allow us both an intellectual and emotional finish to the interviewing
process. This happened informally to some extent, but I now feel that a prepared question to this
end would have guaranteed a certain degree of feedback, and hence encouraged a greater
involvement and equality in the project.
The open-ended questions did allow for respondents to focus on what they wanted to say,
and on their perceptions, which was exciting. However, in retrospect more specific and directed
questions such as: 'Are you on any committees?', 'Do you do talkback radio/public response?', 'Are
you writing anything?', 'How do you rejuvenate, or sustain your work?' may have provided more
precise and consistent comments from the interviewees. I do consider though, that a flexible
approach, through its non-controlling manner, is more respectful and allows for a much freer
exchange.
Late in the research I also wished I had questioned interviewees specifically about power
and control, and how they can be overcome. The topic of men and ecofeminism is a problematic
issue and it could have been more deeply explored. A question specific to the women's thoughts
and strategies on dealing daily with sexist imbalances of power and control may have been useful.
For example; how did the women express their feminist knowledge about sexism and the

oppression of women within specific situations where power imbalances were experienced
between men and women? I felt similarly in regards to racism, wishing I had queried about direct
and practical strategies undertaken to counteract it. Similarly again, a question considering the link
between heterosexism and power and control could have asked how individuals and movements
decide to deal with the discrimination lesbians and gay men face within social movements and
wider society. Such a discussion may have revealed the limitations homophobia imposes on
acceptable gender behaviour - especially, as Adrienne Rich explores, the threat to all women that
lesbian harassment implies (Rich 1981). These issues of power and control could have been more
directly addressed in detail.
6.4

FUTURE CONSIDERATIONS

The interview process made me think about the increased depth and span of discussion
which would be facilitated by multiple interviews. I wished for the opportunity to explore the variety
of thought and considerations which I felt would emerge at different times in the women's lives as
their changing life context offered them new perspectives. The time restrictions involved in this
thesis however, prevented me from embarking on more interviews late in the research process. I
believe though that it may have been possible to achieve multiple interviews within the given time
restraints had I planned for them from the start.
During the research project I wondered if sending participants a topic brief prior to the
interviews might have led to an increased depth of discussion in the interviews. In future research
of a similar nature this will be considered - many of the women wished I had briefed them first on
the questions. They wanted time to contemplate and reflect on their lives in relation to the
interview topics, which were considered to be of a broad and intellectual nature. This option,
however does include the drawback of producing self-editing, and the preparation of what
interviewees might consider to be 'appropriate' answers. There is the possibility that with time to
'form their thoughts', the participants' responses would depart further away from their actual
experiences and immediate perceptions (Reinharz 1992).
Comments from the participants, such as the following by Pam Rumble, lead me to
believe that the issue of participants trying to 'say the right thing' was present anyway, and that the
danger of interviewees 'preparing' too much with the use of a brief would perhaps be very small.
I feel like I wanted to sort of impress you and say the right things (laughs) ... I would say
that, you know it felt like there was maybe 5% of the interview was really really where I'm
at. The rest of it I was trying to please you and say the right thing (laughs). Now that's

honesty! Isn't that hilarious?... I think I was trying to persuade myself as well, that I could
actually deliver something worthwhile and valuable for someone else.
Perhaps both of these desires - for multiple interviewing, and for catering to interviewee
request for briefing, could be satisfied in a two-stage interview process which would involve both
aspects. By the time of the second interview, participants would have had time to think over the
areas in question (but again, this may not be possible within the given time constraints).
6.5

RECIPROCAL NEEDS MET

The benefits of feminist interviewing can be profound. Ann Oakley (1981) found that being
interviewed could benefit women by, "leading them to reflect on their experiences more than they
would otherwise have done ... and in giving a valuable outlet for the verbalisation of their feelings"
(Oakley 1981 p15). Simply by providing sympathetic and interested listening in a safe supportive
way the participants' experiences are validated, potentially enabling them also to develop ideas
and construct meaning. Many of the women expressed a positive experience of this. Pam for
instance said:
a

... there were times though where I felt really empowered by the interview like I could feel
connection between the reality of my life, like what I'm really doing and how I really feel
about my life, and about the world and about what's happening out there with the
environment and with other people ... I felt really good, this is me, this is my life, this is me
being a powerful person from the inside ... this is what I love, this is my work.
From talking to me about ecofeminism before, during and after the interviews, Pam also

felt that she had learnt new terms that enabled her to articulate her thinking in a clearer way.
The women generally expressed finding the interviews stimulating and valuable, allowing
them to be heard and have an intellectual sharing of their ideas and perspectives. Many found this
kind of support lacking in their lives and felt quite isolated in their ecofeminist ideas and efforts.
The women were overwhelmingly encouraging of the research project and expressed appreciation
of the exchange of information that occurred.
Such outcomes are prioritised in feminist methodology, seeking a reciprocity that allows
research to become an unexploitative exchange as well as meaningful in its own right ( Reinharz
1992 p46). This exchange treats participants as subjects, rather than as passive objects and
fosters feedback and input, while aiming to avoid perpetuating the dichotomy of the researcher
and the researched (Klein 1983, p6). As previously stated, this kind of research helps to forge the
links between the practical and the theoretical, grounding theory in relevance and reality. It aids in

the ongoing critical examination and reconstruction of theory, and facilitates ecofeminism as a
self-reflexive social movement (Bragg 1997 p5).
The interviews gave me insight into the need for some form of ecofeminist discussion and
support network; and I came to see them functioning momentarily as just such a network.
Throughout the process I became inspired to later initiate some sort of ecofeminist network that
might empower women by breaking the isolation of the current situation where on the whole
ecofeminist inspiration is gained largely from books. I dreamed of the possibilities of co-ordinated
ecofeminist direct actions, school outreach projects and local conferences/speak-outs. I talked with
a friend Eshana (Elizabeth Bragg) who co-facilitated 'Gender and Environment' workshops and
'The Council For All Beings' workshops at a recent Bush School in Denmark, W.A., run by the
Earth Philosophies Australia network - and we became excited about working to create an
ecofeminist experiential workshop (see Chapter 8: Reflecting and Piecing Together Dreams).
6.6

PERSONAL TRANSFORMATION

I became conscious of the personal consequences of my research in a conversation with

Eshana, who wrote about her own research that "... the most dramatic potential for change with
this type of interviewing ... is within the researchers themselves" (Bragg 1997 p5). Her discussion
of research as a potential agent for personal transformation and a valuable process of broader
social change was pertinent to my own experience.
My perspectives on the meanings of ecofeminism were expanded and seemed to become
clearer, more 'grounded' or solid throughout this research process. I sometimes felt surprised and
challenged by my assumptions and the generalisations I realised I had formed from my own
reading and experiences. What struck me most of all was the basic simplicity of ecofeminist
theory and/or practice that was expressed by the study participants, and which I will later discuss.
I felt extremely privileged to listen to women I admire and respect as they shared with me
their viewpoints and often very intimate insights into their lives, motivations, projects and
perspectives. It was empowering for me, and greatly expanded my sense of place and connection
within a broad community of activists and thinkers. During the interviews I often simultaneously
felt a continued sense of listening to the elders within this 'community' in a kind of mentor
relationship, and of sharing valuable information with peers. The whole interviewing process gave
me practical experience in overcoming the conditioned social hierarchies created around the
'heroes', leaders and writers of any movement. The atmosphere of mutual and non-hierarchical

respect I experienced was incredibly uplifting. Prior to this research, I had been experiencing my
own degrees of intellectual isolation.
In summary, I believe the phenomenological interviewing method was well-suited to the
aims of my project. The above mentioned beneficial outcomes from the research - real and
potential - indicate the functional multiplicity of this kind of feminist approach.

7. FINDINGS FROM

THE

WOMEN INTERVIEWED

Please see appendix 2 for a short biography of the twelve women I interviewed. The
biography highlights the strategies and projects participants were engaged in at the time of the
interviews, and reveals involvement in a cross-section of issues.
THE EMERGING PATTERNS

In this section I use excerpts from the interviews to illustrate the emergent patterns of
current ecofeminist strategy and action in Western Australia. The approaches discussed here all
succinctly reflect the theory and practice formerly outlined in the literature review. They can be
summarised as a conscious commitment to feminist analysis, participatory and non-hierarchical
group process, awareness and action on the ecological and social interconnectedness of all things,
an attention to diverse issues and networking, and a balancing of the personal-political equilibrium.

7.1 STABILITY

IN DIVERSITY

Throughout the interviews the women expressed the ecology-based notion of diversity as
strength.
The diverse nature of ecofeminism was spoken of in themes parallel to those raised in the review
of the literature. Chrissie Sharp, for instance, spoke of the difference she saw between selfconscious ecofeminism, and a less formal sense of ecofeminism that recognises
interconnectedness and a deep need for change. She sees ecofeminism as a term not used very
often but nevertheless as one of the major expressions of our times, happening everywhere in
different forms. Patsy Molloy mentioned that ecofeminism isn't an outwardly recognised
movement with "a membership that you belong to like Greenpeace" - but it's on the move whether
or not there are specific actions taking place. Jo Vallentine also echoed this sentiment by saying:

"a lot of good ideas are actually springing up serendipitously around the planet, almost
simultaneously, so there's something going on."
The basic premise of respect for a broad range of strategies and focus, and each
individual's unique approach and sense of meaning recurred throughout the interviews. All were
accepted as vital pieces in the same puzzle, that changed according to the life contexts that
influenced a person's direction. Patsy Molloy saw it in this way:
... What I think of as ecofeminist, are the women I work with who are involved with social
change, who are feminists right ... it doesn't seem like we have these large scale global
strategies ... it seems as though we work much more as a deep support mechanism ... or
network or something, recognising that we're fighting in the same direction sort of thing,
but we give each other listening space and respect each others ideas, and don't try and
direct each other...
She went on to say that the ecofeminist women she knows have lost the feeling that "if
you're not in the forest this week then you're not an activist any more." Instead she sees there
being a sense of supporting other women and allowing them to flourish, while respecting that
differently focused projects are interweaving aspects towards similar goals. Patsy Hallen who
mentioned cherishing organic flexibility and spontaneity, expressed the strength of ecofeminism as
a solidarity or unity of expression, rather than a uniformity or sameness that demanded a party
line.
The interviewees prioritised synergic problem-solving approaches that echoed conclusions
by Mies and Shiva (1993) and other ecofeminists. The need for multi-faceted strategies was based
on the assertion that the problems of ecological destruction, poverty, inequalities and alienation
are so deeply rooted and connected that an equally broad response of interlocking solutions is the
only viable option for effective change.
I liken this to what Diane Harwood explained in her interview as her approach in bush
regeneration work. The problem she tackles is not something that a single effort with big machines
and a grand macho approach can fix, or where results can be seen straight away. The nature of
the problem demands a process that is persistent, ongoing and suitable: "it's a problem that's been
growing for years, you can't just wipe it out like that in one year."
Jo Vallentine explained how she saw the process by which the diversity of projects and
actions occurring globally became connected and part of expanding networks. It often begins, she
said, with small action groups, women's co-operatives and tiny village oriented projects starting off

with a N.I.M.B.Y. (Not In My Back Yard) approach - with no initial big picture or vision. This she
said, is a good place to start, because there eventually develops the realisation that the whole
world is your backyard and that different issues are interconnected. With time and hard work, Jo
said, these small groups eventually become involved in national and international networking; for
example, attending conferences where there is support from others, learning, and a cross
fertilisation of ideas that help build an expanded political understanding.
7.2

LIVING OUT THE IDEALS

The importance and impact in style of approach was a recurring theme in the interviews
and echoed priorities raised in the literature review. It was clear that these women were
consistently valuing doing politics differently. The foundations from which they operated echoed
fundamental principles from feminist ethics and ecological consciousness. The shift from
dominance to partnership, fragmentation to connection, insecurity to interdependence, was the
thread of commonality within the diversity of their actions (Eisler 1987).
Many of the participants explained how they see each project as creating a microcosm of
what was desired for the wider society, and emphasised the two way process of influence - being
affected by society but also holding the capacity to affect it. They emphasised valuing the means
as much as the ends, living out ideals and acting on theory as much as possible. Each effort was
directed not just toward a single isolated goal but sought to achieve many aims at once. There was
a common desire for consistency - to bring a multi-faceted awareness into everything, as
discussed in the literature review, integrating the missing elements into each field.
Within Christabel Chamarette's Greens (W.A.) office for instance, she believed in
integrating as many ideals as possible into each project. She worked to constantly push
boundaries so that there were no judgements on appearance, so that gender and sexuality could
be addressed, and awareness of racism and Aboriginal issues were of key importance. Attention
was given to maintaining international links with various groups and issues. The ethical principles
within her office included workers giving each other support and feedback, and sharing the
'housekeeping' work. Christabel also spoke of integrating a respect for the soul and spirituality into
all aspects of her work, referring to her approach as 'heart politics' which tries to speak in clear
and honest terms that come straight from the heart. She felt that many women in politics, and
much of 'alternative' politics ignored this kind of holistic approach and gave too great a value to
accommodating power systems within the status quo, accepting the narrow and hierarchical
thinking of orthodox politics.
When I asked participants to describe their experience of cross-issue networking they
expressed this kind of effort and awareness as centrally important - an ecofeminist standpoint

which also strongly emerged in the literature review. There was unanimous expression that
alliance building, communication and networking was the necessary work to bridge boundaries and
remove false dichotomies.
Patsy Molloy stated that self-reflection on inclusiveness was a common characteristic of
ecofeminists:
... [raising] really interesting debates about things like how exclusive we're being, and how
middle class in our values and things like that, so we're trying to keep our interaction with
the rest of society as broad as possible, and mostly that means that women are working in
sort of small group ways, but doing things like crossing boundaries, and trying to link up
different groups of people and different interests, so in the sense of a strategy I s'pose
what it is, is to break down some of the barriers that exist.
Patsy held that fair process in environmental negotiations must include the involvement of
Aboriginal peoples. She said this would produce a more complete process with a healthier
outcome - although she emphasised the importance of having no assumptions about what
Aboriginal peoples would say or do within various negotiations.
The interviewees reiterated a central theme of ecofeminism - that if humanity is to survive
the habits of domination must be overcome.
Chrissie Sharp strongly expressed the importance she places on mutual respect for the
difference in peoples' language and style that surrounded their inspirations, allowing for each
person's variety in 'flow', approach and expression. She explained this outlook as the strength that
upheld her radical aim to be neither controlled by nor controlling of other people in her work and
life. She believed that measures such as constitutions, rules of conduct, and formal guidelines
were often unrealistic, stating:
... in reality people don't actually consult rulebooks about how to interact, and there's this
obsession to somehow fix it, like this is the rules in how we're going to conduct ourselves,
as if you can do that.
Chrissie didn't like the hierarchical pattern of traditional organisational structures, seeing them as
obsessively controlling, springing from "a need, maybe a kind of insecurity on their part, they don't
trust other people and therefore want to be controlling of other people." She preferred trusting that
open and flexible processes would work effectively.

Similar aims of being responsive to varied people and situations, rather than using a
dogmatic and didactic approach were raised by Kylie Cook. As an ethically motivated vegan, she
expressed the ecofeminist standpoint that the oppression of one group (in this case animals) is
linked to all other forms of oppression. She explained how she sought promotion of veganism
within the healthfood shop Manna in creative and subtle ways that were not overbearing or
dogmatic - believing the latter approach to be insulting, ineffective and provoking negative
reaction. By illustrating practical and ethical alternatives (in this case by only serving vegan takeaway food), she aims to trigger consciousness change over time. Kylie referred to this as working
on a 'cellular' level, with an 'evolution of thought' arrived at gradually, rather than a 'slap-in-theface' reactionary approach. Kylie explained that any one aspect of Manna's functioning might open
people up to other aspects of Manna's principles.
A feminist principle raised was that of avoiding deification of people who are in the public
eye as leaders and experts. In other words, the belief that true equality involves giving up heroworship. Patsy Molloy for instance mentioned the isolation that key figures often experience;
saying that what is needed is for everyone to overcome any aura of awe that inhibits normal and
ordinary friendships between people as equals. Beth Schultz echoed this sentiment indicating that
women leaders especially were isolated and needed support. Many of the women spoke of the
insight gained by purposely addressing each individual as a valuable person no greater or lesser
than themselves, keeping in mind each person's needs for friendly and common social
interactions.
The majority of the women interviewed emphasised the importance of attention to
personal politics. Kylie Cook for instance expressed communication as paramount when she said
"The difference between the dream and reality is that there's still not sufficient communication."
This also became clear talking to Emma King about the structure of meetings she has
experienced throughout her activist life. She considered that addressing gender balance, teaching
about group consensual process and good facilitation was incredibly worthwhile effort. The clear
benefits were women and minorities being heard more, less burnout and membership turnover,
and a more comfortable atmosphere to work in. Mainstream methods which upheld hidden
hierarchies and power dynamics she saw as perpetrating the very system of oppression that they
were working to change.
Pam Rumble, whose work centres on peaceful nonviolence theory, was clear that for her
ecofeminism and good facilitation go hand in hand. Open and explicit goals with processes that
aim to empower people, she finds, are effective and successful alternatives to the old ways of
authoritative leadership. In her role as facilitator she likes to see people's needs considered

valuable and that all involved leave meetings feeling listened too, acknowledged, nurtured, and
satisfied.
Jo Vallentine recalled her election in 1984 with the Nuclear Disarmament Party (N.D.P.) as
effective non-hierarchical, women-centred strategy. Women did the work and organising, in an
organic 'flat' participatory structure:
... it was women working for the future of the planet, women who were really, really scared
... it was women who organised that campaign and did it extremely effectively, we had kids
riding their tricycles up and down the corridor ... it was a women and children organised
adventure, and it was just so exciting, and so supportive and so ... organic, you know it
just really grew up ... and it was a bit different on the other side of the country, because
there was a bloke candidate who said 'this is how it's got to be' ... a man who organised
the whole of the N.D.P., so its structures were very much a pyramid - and therein lay the
seeds of its own destruction, it wasn't really organised with a whole lot of consultation ...
And people on the other side of the country have never really understood that, even now,
and at the time they thought it was a bit of a fluke that Western Australia got someone
elected. I mean we did it

THREE TIMES.

I got elected three times, and people on the other

side of the country I think still haven't tumbled to the fact that it was actually something to
do with the way we organised, which was very much sharing.
Patsy Hallen explained that this kind of commitment to non-hierarchical participation is
part of the power of ecofeminism - making visible the oppressive dynamics and logic of
domination - and acting in alternative ways.
Beth Schultz mentioned from her own experience in the environmental movement over
the last twenty years, that this attention to open fair consultation was the "confounding strength",
and was in contrast to "ultra-macho" politicians and "frothing-at-the-mouth" right-wing
commentators who employ any tactic to win - whether it be personal attacks or sexual slurs.
However, as Chrissie Sharp commented - voicing a point raised by many of the women
interviewed - being an environmental or social activist is no guarantee that interactions and group
dynamics will function in non-dominating ways. She mentioned for instance that although the
Greens W.A. has a decision-making process that is participatory and against control, constant
attention is still required to counteract people who try to control and manipulate consensual
processes.

There was much said commending the benefits of working in small task-oriented groups.
They were seen as allowing personal relationships with each person in the group, and fostering
communication and respect that was seen as lacking in bigger organisations. From the stability of
these small core groups, portrayed as effective and comfortable, could then come connections to
larger community organisations and projects.

These efforts at living out ideals can be summarised as cross-issue inclusiveness and
alliance building, and non-hierarchical participatory group decision-making process that respects
each individual's input. These reflect the central ecofeminist strategies previously discussed in the
literature review.
7.3

EMPOWERING EDUCATION

Many of the women interviewed stressed the need for non-conventional education about
environmental and gender issues, nonviolence and a respect for self and life processes. They
prioritised work that increased the reach of alternative ideas, values and practises, and that
expanded public understanding of human rights, feminist and justice issues, and the biological
foundations of life and conservation. The tactics they employed all resembled what Patsy Molloy
described as Co-counselling models of exploratory and empowering education for social change.
Patsy Molloy explained the principles of such exploratory education resting in the belief
that every person has valuable knowledge about the world, but not the confidence or tools to
express it. Strategies for respectful education, Patsy said, aimed for a reciprocity of exchange that
was free from patronising or condescending attitudes that assumed teaching or learning to be a
one-way process.
Within this vision of respectful education, Patsy stressed the need for honesty when
working with people. Through her activist involvement she has come to feel that 'rescuing' efforts
to keep people's hope alive through fake optimism is an imposition of views - probably, she
believes, middle class views. She now feels that implying that 'success is only just over the hill' or
that solutions are easily achieved is dishonest and only encourages a cycle of despair.
These aims for empowering education also closely resemble theory and strategy raised in
the literature review.

7.4 THE DIFFERENCE AND VALUE OF WOMEN

All of the women I interviewed were clear that they did not support biological determinism
and found it misguided and damaging. On the topic of essentialism, and expressing a strong
feminist standpoint, Louise Duxbury had this to say:
I still get heaps of women who sort of say 'well you know the difference between the boys
and the girls as you're raising them, you just can see'. I never believed that there was any
real sort of genetic pass on, well that pisses me off, because what I see is that it's a copout, people are actually sort of copping out of the forces that exist in our society which are
bloody strong, and their impact on our children.
The interviewees were also unanimously in agreement that there were definite differences
in the socialisation of the sexes which deserved attention. Parallel to the discussion raised in the
literature review (See Chapter 3), the participants recognised gender roles as fictional - and
wanted to see them change, while positing that because of women's different conditioning, women
had learned vitally different approaches from men and had valuable contributions to make. The
sense of women's different approaches was reiterated in many participants' interviews and often
connected with an expression of feeling more comfortable and empowered working with women
than with men, or in mixed groups.
Many references were made to women's tendency to be less dominating and controlling.
Patsy Molloy for instance believed that women tended to be more aware of domination and unjust
practices, and, like all oppressed peoples, had to be more reflective on these dynamics.
Emma King who initially worked mainly with women in the peace movement, spoke of the
shock she experienced when later becoming involved working with men in mixed groups - she
noticed a change in approach that was distinctly non-personalised, aggressive, and competitive.
She felt that women had much to offer the social change movement because of the maleorientated nature of the social structures challenged, and because of the nature of social solutions
and alternatives which often mimic what has traditionally been associated with 'women's ways' of
doing things.
Jacquie Svenson, in a similar vein expressed a preference for working with women
because of what she considered were women's tendencies towards being communicative and
caring. She mentioned feeling that women in her experience played an initiating role in addressing
egalitarian issues of decision-making processes, and challenging mainstream perceptions and
approaches to power. Jacquie recounted her experience of women bringing a positive 'softness',
friendship and powerful emotional presence into offices, court rooms and forest blockades.

In Jo Vallentine's experience, women were more effective than men at doing the linking up
that ecofeminism points towards, and were more likely to endorse a holistic perspective. She
explained that women knew how to network and track down connections, and were good at putting
common strands and people together.
As discussed in the literature review, the problems in voicing these opinions and
experience involves the issue of reinforcing patriarchal stereotypes, casting women as inherently
nurturing, who should care for and tend to all the loose ends of the world. In the interview with
Louise Duxbury, she reminded me that although ecofeminism includes the revaluing of the socalled 'feminine' nurturing and receptive human traits, this should not restrict women only to these
principles. On the contrary she states:
This whole thing of women ... that they bring that sort of feminine approach in working as
a

whole community, and it's true they do, but in some ways it almost devalues

women's efforts

and women's contributions ... it doesn't permit them to be as full in

their concerns as they

might like to be, it's almost prescribed by 'well that's feminine',

rather than FEMINIST, I'm not prepared to be constrained by having a more nurturing
personality.
Jo Vallentine emphasised that while ecofeminism endorses what has traditionally been
seen as the 'feminine' values of caring, listening and nurturing instead of competition, force and
domination, there is the need to extend these to men in the widespread culture, so that men can
become what she called 'global nurturers' too.

7.5

LEADING IN A DIFFERENT WAY

Many of the interviewees aspired to get women into the political arena and positions of
power in order to project women's ideas and different agendas. Louise Duxbury talked about the
different flavour of the message and agenda of women's leadership. She saw this for instance in
Aboriginal activist women and women who speak out about Bougainville. In terms of conflict
solving, Louise noted such women leaders talked of continuity of community as a prime objective.
She saw them participating in negotiation and effective communication that did not compromise
the strength of their particular position. Again, as Louise accentuated, these differences weren't
always apparent and are not part of essentialist claims, but rather they are real tendencies
resulting from the patriarchal system with its different socialisation for boys and girls.
Louise supported feminist principles of rotating leadership roles so that there was a shared
responsibility in a group for what she termed 'out-front' positions. In her experience, the way men

and women tend to lead is vastly different. Men she found, were more often charismatic leaders in
an isolated position 'out-front', while women prefer to work as a team relying on networks of
support from other women around them. Although men need support too, she emphasised, they
often don't seek it or recognise the need. Speaking about the difference between women and men
in leadership she said:
... women who do get involved with land conservation district committees, they quite often
take on the role of secretary, or they define themselves as a support person, rather than
being out-front in a leadership way. So for me, within activist circles too, I have been very
interested to help other women develop the skills to be in leadership roles, and it isn't
leading in quite the same way as men lead ... we prefer - and I suppose I speak for myself
- I prefer to work in a team, even though I am out in front quite a lot. I don't want to be out
in front alone and vulnerable and unsupported, I don't think that that's a sustainable thing
to do, and I think that's the difference between men out- front and women out-front.
Louise Duxbury expressed her aims as giving women the space and support for positions
of leadership. She works with rural women who she says are isolated but effective leaders who
could do more if they were more supported.
Jacquie Svenson, responding to her own experience of leadership in the environment
movement, suggested the need for women to go beyond their 'comfort zone', to overcome their
strong conditioning against leadership. Unlike men's conditioning that encourages them to be
ambitious and powerful, women had to overcome their fears of being overbearing and
domineering, and their conditioning against assertiveness.
7.6

THE NEED FOR GENDER ANALYSIS

As was to be expected, a major ecofeminist focus that recurred throughout the interviews
was that of attention to gender analysis. The women strongly stated positions that paralleled
ecofeminist theory.
Jacquie Svenson, for instance, held that effective social change must deal with all basic
inequities: between men and women, between races, classes, and cultures, and within a global
context of an inherited colonial capitalist system. However, she emphasised that ecofeminism's
central principle is a feminist analysis of all situations and issues. The tendency for women to take
responsibility for everything, she considered, was already too prevalent. Without a centrally
feminist focus, gender analysis could get lost amidst other responsibilities, whether they be
providing childcare, food and emotional support, or work on various political issues. Jacquie was
clear to insist on the importance of this focus, especially in the face of what she considered was a

backlash where so many men (and women) would not even acknowledge the injustices caused by
patriarchal relations.
Expressing similar views, Patsy Hallen talked of the 'master's voice' of force and sexism
that still pervades. The majority of social change and environmental work, she argued, remains
gender blind and doesn't pay tribute to feminism or ecofeminism. Gender neutrality, she said, is
fine in an egalitarian utopian scenario, but the reality is that we operate within the existing context
of an oppressive worldview. Patsy emphasised the need to keep pushing for a gender analysis building in a cultural and historical view. This applies even within - or especially within - 'crisis'
campaigns or projects that seem important enough to backstage how people are treated in the
movement.
Christabel Chamarette raised a fundamental ecofeminist tenet discussed in the literature
review: that ecofeminism is seeking change far beyond terms of equality of numbers or affirmative
action within the current system. As she explained it:
[We are seeking] the contribution of feminine values to the good of all people to be
recognised and available ... [but] the real battle is against patriarchal and oppressive
structures and for social justice for all, and that transcends gender ... that's where I see
ecofeminism as being, and myself as being ... I want to transcend gender equity or
equality, to say, no it's the importance of the contribution women have to make to society
that has to be part of that growth, not just a balancing of numbers which can still let the old
hierarchical systems remain unchallenged ... I think women have a role of transforming
politics so that it isn't so hierarchical, so party politics dominated and

so that the voice

is given back to the people where it belongs.

7.7

GREEN AND SOCIAL CHANGE MOVEMENTS ARE STILL NOT FREE OF SEXISM

All of the women interviewed related stories of their experiences within activist circles
indicating that the structural and individual practices by which sexism is upheld remains
entrenched.
Illustrating this was Patsy Molloy's discussion of the hidden and unacknowledged sexism
and powerplays in the green movement. Discriminating and oppressive patriarchal attitudes were
still prevalent and insidious, Patsy said - although she did express experiencing a decline in overt
sexual exploitation from when she was first involved campaigning twenty years ago. Beth Schultz
also cited some progress during her time as an activist, but felt that despite the growth in
awareness and efforts, sexism was alive and kicking. Beth explained the inescapable presence of
sexist attitudes that exerted enormous pressure, with women suffering and having to compromise

in order to survive in a system where men rule, especially as bureaucrats and within the
professions.
In my discussion with Jo Vallentine, she reflected on the bullying tactics in decisionmaking procedures by people who had agendas of control. Mirroring the experience of other
interviewees, most of these power-seeking and dominating people, Jo said, were men. All of the
people who were critical and condemning and who gave her a hard time within the green party,
she recounts, were men.
Interviewees spoke of men still holding a privileged position. Men are by far the majority of
members in up-front, prominent positions - as the primary media spokespeople and decisionmakers who held the majority of paid positions in all of the peak environmental groups (such as
the Australian Conservation Foundation, Greenpeace, World Wildlife Fund, and The Wilderness
Society). Jo Vallentine voiced a common perception of this gender imbalance in saying "you know
the membership doing more than half of the work is women." Interviewees pointed to the fact that
women were still the majority in traditionally "women's" roles; such as answering phones, sewing
banners, posting leaflets, doing preliminary work, being support people, cooking and nurturing, and
often doing the unrecognised and backbenched volunteer work. Their comments made it clear that
these basic relations still go unnoticed and that feminist analysis of social change movements is
marginalised.
In my interview with Jacquie Svenson she expressed a deep frustration with the persistent
sexist assumptions she encountered in many of the men she worked with. She described these
imposed limitations as revolving around the traditional dualistic perceptions of women as either
"perfect goddess" or "useless female". Jacquie found that her interactions with men often tended
to be along the dichotomous lines of either unwanted sexual interest - or total disregard for her
work and ideas. She explained how her constant effort to facilitate equal relations and promote
teamwork were often met with virtually no support. This lack of response and imbalance in effort,
Jacquie described as draining and oppressive. She found that many of the men she worked with
tended to be generally withholding of information and affirmation, as well as being highly critical,
creating a competitive atmosphere in which she felt she had to constantly prove herself. She
mentioned however, that a few of the men she worked with were clear models of a "nonviolent,
non-domineering yet strategic and convincing way forward". The point Jacquie emphasised was
that men in the green movement had often thought about issues of power, "... including of men
over women, but that they also still reproduce power dynamics absorbed from patriarchy in ways
that surprise and anger us".

In addition, Jacquie expressed that her work with the Greens (W.A.) lead her to see the
movement as male-dominated, patriarchal and not ecofeminist or feminist - except for the shining
lights of a small few. As a strategy for working within this environment, she tried to stay actively
linked to, and informed of feminist issues in other countries. While she found the international
accounts of women's oppression threatening, she said it also gave her a context within which she
could place herself. This focus and understanding, she said, gave her strength to deal with the
sexism in her own immediate environment.
7.8

THE MEN QUESTION

In the light of the participants' experience of sexism in various movements it was very
interesting to hear their views on the problematic relationship of men to ecofeminism. As the
discussions revealed, there was consensus that men can be, must be, and are involved in
ecofeminism. There was general agreement that in theory there is some sympathy and empathy
amongst men for ecofeminism, but that in practice there is a general lack of a follow-through by
men.
Emma King summed up her view by saying that while some men endeavour to understand
and challenge the intricacies of patriarchal oppression, there remain enormous barriers and gulfs
in experience between men and women. Emma expressed that it was generally out of men's field
of experience to really understand the reality of constant subjection to demeaning sexual
stereotypes and second-class status. Hence, she said, the pressing need for feminism is rarely
understood or prioritised by men.
Patsy Molloy felt there was still very little room for women in Australian society to escape
from strictly defined gender roles. This, she said, was still true in the green movement where she
felt there was virtually no support from men for women who take on non-traditional roles. She told
me:
They'll ALLOW women to take positions, but they don't necessarily actively support
them, and even if they do actively support them there's areas like homophobia that freak
them out completely, and so it's like they've come somewhere, but not very far ... There's
still a sense of men hanging around and using the right language, rather that examining
their own sort of issues of oppressions and actually dealing with their own hurts, and that's
where it's got to go I think.
Louise Duxbury echoed this sentiment:

... when they wholeheartedly support and endorse women's actions, I believe that they are
involved with ecofeminist activity. It is that sort of support and co-operation that we
ecofeminists are seeking ... it is rare, it's quite threatening, and it's also grappling with
understanding it ... so it's that willingness to allow that ecofeminist perspective to be out
there, and then actively co-operating with it ... so it's like there's different levels of allowing
it to exist, we don't just want to have it existing we want it ... to flourish.
She went on to say:
I think what's needed ... by men is actually actively making a decision to understand
ecofeminism, and to recognise it, and to co-operate with it, which means breaking some of
their old habits that they've got about the way that they think about women and the way
that they react to women's activities.
While discussing the relationship between ecofeminism and men, Christabel Chamarette
emphasised that men's involvement was essential. Christabel stressed that efforts towards
women's empowerment that did not highlight the need for men's parallel involvement in change,
put the weight solely on women and expected the victim to be responsible for change. She voiced
a commonly expressed sentiment, calling for men to relinquish the habits of power they've
accumulated through oppressive systems. Christabel spoke of these systems as particularly
structurally oppressive to women but also restrictive to men who weren't willing or able to
collaborate in the elite hierarchical clusters of power. The vast majority of people would benefit,
she said, from the negating of these structures which deprive everyone of their entitlement to fair
free debate.
Patsy Molloy expanded on her opinion: the best way men could be involved, she said, was
by listening clearly to women's input within an agreed upon affirmative action process in groups.
This, she considered, should be recognised as operating within the context of a wider world where
women's thinking is not valued or respected, and where the word feminism continues to put a
majority of people on the defensive. The promotion of single sex actions and groups, Patsy
commented, relied on creating the safety for these to be discussed and supported, so that women
didn't feel threatened with attack or judgement by raising feminist concerns.
The interviewees were unanimous in their call for men to recognise sexism and work to
diminish it - within themselves and within society. There was a consensual wish that men actively
learn about feminist principles and confront their fear of losing position as a privileged group. This
would include actively campaigning against aspects of patriarchal oppression, and consciously
revaluing so-called "feminine" approaches and human attributes.

Jo Vallentine expressed a feeling I believe was fundamental to all of the women

interviewed; that although there is without doubt ample justification for blame and hate of the
patriarchal reality, this approach was seen as not helpful in moving beyond patriarchal injustices.
Many of the women interviewed mentioned that anger was a vital and essential response to the
injustices of sexism that should be appropriately expressed. Long-term strategies to deal with
patriarchal issues of male power and control mixed this appropriate expression of anger with
communicating with men on these issues.
A number of women also expressed that a true bid for women's liberation required resolute
efforts on women's part to take full self-responsibility. Patsy Molloy said that women must be
courageous and seek opportunities to speak and fight for ourselves instead of relying on traditional
expectations that men will speak up for us and leap into battle for our principles.
7.9

THE SISTERHOOD OF WOMEN

Most of the women articulated the importance and need for support mechanisms that
counteract the injustices and sufferings inflicted by the patriarchal system. As previously
mentioned, many preferred working with women, finding it less threatening and often more
productive, needing women around them for support, feedback, and nurturing.
Beth Schultz, for example, recalled groups where women activists had come together to
share stories and have a laugh about sexist incidents, while working together on strategies to
respond to sexist put downs and attitudes in their work environments. She recollected the stress
she and other women had experienced in work environments hostile to women, struggling with
expectations held by men to operate in traditional 'masculine' ways. She also related the increased
work load of being sought after on every committee as representative and token women, and the
constant hard work of maintaining and proving a status of capability.
Endorsing women-only space, Louise Duxbury had this to say:
For me the most important thing is to give women the space to be able to get their own
direction. So for me it's a strategy for getting ecofeminist action, is to give women space ...
Like these Women in Landcare workshops I'm working on at the moment. It's giving them
the opportunity to sit together ... They get together and the thing they enjoy the most is
exclusive time for them, to pursue their interests, to be validated with other people, to
develop up networks, and to learn the skills so that they're able to carry on with their
goals ... Things like having women-only events you see, are one of those really important
factors.

As she continued, Louise illustrated the freedom resulting from a non-competitive environment:
... they don't feel stupid, they don't feel like this is a place where someone's going to
ridicule them if they ask something dumb and show you're ignorant ... that's a really
important part of it - a non-competitive situation, and that's how we all thrive best, is to be
able to pursue our goals from our own internal motivation, rather than outside
competitive[ness].
Louise explained how women crucially need recognition - their contribution and work often going
unacknowledged and unvalued. She talked of statistics being skewed, making women's
contribution invisible:
I'm trying to gather some statistics like how much time are they spending doing things like
bookkeeping for the farm, unpaid work in the community, unpaid work on the farm. They
still refer to themselves even as farmer's wives, and they're just out there

FULL-ON,

often

working off-farm, on-farm, child caring, in community work as well, and many of these
don't appear in any statistics. The recognition I think is crucial.
Pam Rumble discussed her experience of co-ordinating a small support group for women
she knew. She described the women to be of similar age and interests, and all 'strong' women;
taking control of their lives and involved in leadership work in areas of health, education,
community development or political activism. She described finding that what she and they
needed the most was a lot of nurturing and relaxing. Each gathering, she explained, was different
and was facilitated by those who felt inspired and energetic on that particular night. Pam described
the discussions they had as "getting their thinking organised and united", and they sometimes
would work together on an issue in the community they felt needed resolving. She explained that
with the support of the women she is certain are right behind her, trust her, believe in her and hold
her in high regard, she feels confident to step out into high profile political work.
My interview with Emma King raised another interesting point, as she related her insights
into women-only groups and projects as valuable agents of social change. Emma described the
empowerment women often experienced in the supportive interactions common in women-only or
women-majority groups. Experiencing the difference between these and male-dominated groups
she explained, was potentially life-changing and eye-opening. The women involved could
experience alternative group dynamics to what otherwise seemed like the inevitable hierarchical
and competitive dynamics of mixed groups.

Mirroring ecofeminist thinking discussed in the literature review, the attitude expressed by
the women was that women continue to need affirmative action policy and special women-only
projects or space to actively counteract the inhibiting forces of sexism. They sought for strategies
and projects that empowered and encouraged women (Caldecott and Leland 1983), allowed
resources and experiences to be pooled, and affirmed women's reality in a safe respectful
environment (Allen 1970).
7.10

THE PERSONAL-POLITICAL EQUILIBRIUM

During the interviews personal practice emerged as a direct link to political strategy. The
issues discussed here closely resemble arguments by Lorde (1992), Starhawk (1989) and
Birkeland (1993) raised in Chapter 3. In this section, I intend to explore the diverse dimensions of
personal practice that arose from the interviewees' responses.
The simplicity of the connection of personal practice to political strategy was well
expressed by Patsy Hallen, who explained the personal as a strong and vital entry point into the
political. Contrary to traditional political thinking, Patsy explained seeing personal growth and
transformation as not necessarily a distraction to political involvement, as long as the spiritual
and/or personal aspects were consciously politicised. Her personal approach values leaving room
for inconsistencies, spontaneity and play, ideas she draws from Arne Naess in Is It Painful to
Think? (Rothenberg 1992), and giving attention to the ethics of kinship, care, love, friends, and a
sense of place. She likened this combination of the personal and political to the art of juggling needing to balance an even flow of elements without it all falling apart.
Political activism was seen by many of the interviewees as self-empowering action with
deep personal significance. This mirrors Starhawk's (1989) opinion, that a connected involvement
with the world and social movements for change is inseparable from spirituality. The presence of
spirituality was embedded in many of the interviewees' views about their own political practices. Jo
Vallentine and Christabel Chamarette stood out as women who drew great strength for activism
from their spirituality. Both were active in social change movements within different church
organisations.
Jo Vallentine's involvement with a spiritual and political pilgrimage highlighted this. The
protest pilgrimage entitled 'S.U.R.F. to Canberra - Stop Uranium, Reclaim the Future', happened in
August 1997 and consisted of thirty Australians and two Russians from the areas near Chernobyl
poisoned by radiation. Following similar pilgrimages in the U.K. and U.S.A., S.U.R.F. visited
nuclear testing and deployment sites, uranium mines and nuclear waste dump sites, visited
beautiful and sacred places and met with traditional owners. Jo expressed the spiritual intention of
the pilgrimage as taking healing ritual to each destination in the journey and experiencing the

'intensity' and 'weight' of each place, while making powerful statements about the need to end
nuclear weapons and the nuclear industry.
The deeply intertwined nature of political activism and spirituality was expressed
differently by Chrissie Sharp. She explained the importance of her daily meditations as a strategy
that helps her maintain a "centred, grounded, loving, calm space" - especially during the
demanding times of election campaigns where she felt the responsibility of being her best to
represent a great many people.
While discussing this, Chrissie mentioned time spent travelling extensively through
different areas she referred to as bioregions. Meditating in different places, she explained helped
her to feel a connection with particular land areas beyond human politics and concerns, exploring
what she calls the 'eco-self' - a term adopted from Joanna Macy (eg. Macy 1989).
Chrissie spoke movingly about the failings of contemporary society to produce well-being
and happiness in its citizens. Her viewpoints reflected that of many ecofeminists, notably Maria
Mies and Vandana Shiva (1993), who criticise western societies' primary concern with
consumption and material goals. Well-being, Chrissie said, did not rest on the ongoing
accumulation of goods, but on communication and peace with the 'inner self'. She expressed
feeling hope in the present era as the first in which western people were opening up to whole new
perspectives on the inner self - long attended to in other cultures - which make for human wellbeing.
Pam Rumble shared with me the shock she experienced coming back from a holiday
overseas, and spoke about her desire for some kind of ritual that reconnected her daily with the
land and place of her surroundings, focusing her awareness and appreciation on the life around
her:
But the real thing is I actually am

REALLY, REALLY sad

about what's going on, coming back

here from Asia it really struck me. Everyone I met was just in

SO MUCH

distress and SO sad

and SO MIXED UP and confused, and that makes me feel that we are so fragile ...
DISCONNECTED FROM LIFE ITSELF,

SO

the best things, the things we really need to be able to

sustain ourselves ... Getting out in the garden just now today was the best thing I could
have done for myself, just to connect myself to my body and the earth and where I am
physically, and I felt really good, I felt comfortable in my body, I felt strong, I felt nourished,
I felt rested ... and I felt a renewed vigour for coming back here. What my feelings are is
that I'd really like to do some rituals, I'd like to bless the earth, or at least take some
offerings to the earth every day.

Jacquie Svenson expressed similar wishes for spiritual connection and ritual. She hopes for a
practice that recognises the depths of the "absolute miracle of being human and alive" which she
sees as so crucially absent amidst the fast pace of contemporary human society.
Many of the women's views reflected common feminist sentiment expressed for instance
by Audre Lorde (1992), that the limitations posed by internalised oppressive thinking deserves vital
attention.
Kylie Cook emphasised her own efforts to overcome the harmful conditioning instilled in
her throughout her life in a patriarchal society; seeing her own personal growth as the essential
basis for all of the other work she does. The questioning of every concept she has and every
technique she uses to go about living her beliefs, she said, is the starting point from which she
then extends out to her children, her partner, other parents and people in all spheres.
Emma King also saw the personal level of questioning and change as essential. She
spoke of the important and necessary inner work and searching to understand conceptual
mechanisms which allow us to oppress people or 'scar the earth'. Engaging in this sort of process
of growth, exploration and communication, she said, was a lifelong process of personalising
nonviolence and ecofeminist principles. She emphasised the importance of integrating this kind of
work and individual non-structured actions like recycling, composting, and growing your own food,
with a structured approach to actions such as blockades, educational forums or government
liaising strategies.
The weight the women I interviewed gave to the ecofeminist theme of nurturing the self
reminded me of the importance and validity of a balanced approach and lifestyle. Much reference
was made to health and allowing for 'time-out' when things got too much, and many echoed
Vance's (1993) recognition of maintaining a long-term struggle.
Louise Duxbury summed up her view of ecofeminism and why she placed self-nurturing as
such an essential ingredient within this outlook.
For me ecofeminism, is that holistic attitude, that y'know you don't just want to save the
environment, in fact you're not going to be able to just save the environment. If you don't
deal with things like y'know the whole social context, and Marx was very good at outlining
the flaws of capitalist society ... [but that's not enough] if you don't deal with the basic
inequities between men and women, and also between races within our society. I feel like
you've got to deal with all of these issues, it's a bit like having them all in a line and

pushing them all at the same time. So that's what is important for me - to try and grapple
with all of those things and sustain yourself at the same time, so y'know it can be
mindblowing! I think that's why people don't choose to do that, why you have people who
are prepared to put

ALL

their energies saving a piece of wilderness who don't grapple with

the social context ... In order to do that, to be concerned with all those issues all at once
you need to make sure you're really well nurtured yourself, to me that's part of
ecofeminism.
Pam Rumble echoed this standpoint saying she recognises that such an awareness and effort isn't
easy for anyone, and that each person is 'struggling to keep it together'. She felt enticed by ideals
of working powerfully and effectively while remaining relaxed.
Many of the women's lives illustrated how holistic and diverse strategies function to
balance an individual's life and make it 'sustainable'.
Diane Harwood, for example, explained that running the environment centre shop was
light relief from the hard and often despairing work of bush regeneration. Ordering soap, she said,
was easy and achievable, unlike trying to stop workers from the Shire Council bulldozing special
native bushland areas. Diane spoke of the atmosphere within the environment centre as 'womblike' and a comforting break from other work environments - the people there generally being
quite aware and trying to overcome gender and racially based discrimination. She, like many of
the participants, also found ways of making aspects of her work satisfying and fun in order to avoid
the stress and upset that could otherwise be easily encountered.
A big part of Patsy Hallen's personal strategy illustrating this commitment to a balance
(although, as she admitted, a strategy restricted to privilege), involves her working for six months
of the year and taking the other six months as holiday. During this break she and her partner spend
extended periods of time bushwalking in outback areas as a means of rejuvenation, reconnecting
with nature, and gaining inspiration.
Jo Vallentine's point in her interview, I thought represented the balance between health
and urgency most of these women implied they were trying to achieve in their lives. She felt that
while taking a break and re-energising is a necessary strategy, it should be recognised as a
privilege possible only in countries like Australia where the urgency of predicaments isn't
constantly 'in your face'. She recalled her experience in countries where daily life-threatening
situations meant people simply could not afford to take three months off when they felt burnt-out or
needed a holiday. She felt that those who had access to information and technology, and the

luxury to theorise and study, also had a responsibility to initiate and maintain broad-based debate
and communication on social issues.

All of the strategies and principles discussed here succinctly reflect the ecofeminist
thinking raised in the literature review. The interviewees' strategic approach can be summed up as
a conscious commitment to feminist analysis, participatory and non-hierarchical group process,
awareness and action on the ecological and social interconnectedness of all things, an attention to
diverse issues and networking, and a balancing of the personal-political equilibrium. As is my
thesis, these emergent patterns illustrate the distinguishing features, current content and form of
ecofeminist strategy.

8. REFLECTING AND PIECING T OGETHER DREAMS

8.1

FULL CIRCLE

I embarked on this thesis striving for a global perspective on ecofeminist strategies for
change. Harbouring activist visions, I hoped that my time spent researching could also contribute
to or seed some sort of project that could inspire and assist ecofeminists globally.
Though I soon found this aim to be a delusion of grandeur (at least for the topic of an
Honours Thesis), I can now grasp the benefits of starting off in this vein. In the early stages I was
researching activities from as many divergent sources as I could gather, contemplating
correspondence with scores of groups worldwide. As the impracticalities of this became glaringly
apparent I narrowed my focus - think globally, act locally. Now in a round-about way, I have gained
an answer to my questions, greater clarity and a picture of where my efforts and activism can be
beneficially directed. As previously mentioned, the interviews made clear to me the need for more

networking among ecofeminist activists - both for support and for the sharing of information. This
project has provided me with a spring of ideas inspiring me to work towards supporting and
initiating such ecofeminist networks, working groups, support groups - plans for ecofeminist direct
actions, outreach projects, and experiential workshops. Hence the outcome of this research has
been transformational.
8.2

FITTING INTO A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE

This research has provided an expanded regional picture of Western Australian women
who embrace ecofeminist principles and philosophy. It illustrates how the practical approach,
activities, and strategies of these women merge with ecofeminist theory as expressed in the
existing literature.
This localised study can be seen to converge with regional approaches elsewhere to form
a global picture of how ecofeminists are envisioning and enacting strategies for change. Global
ecofeminist strategy lies in the connecting of these differently situated efforts - both intellectually
and practically exploring and strengthening the connections between divergent movements,
projects, and ideas. These various political and community activities are of necessity focused on
specific needs and different experience.
Despite varied contexts, such projects do fit into a wider style that remains true to
ecofeminist principles. The networking and in many cases the uniting of these efforts and actions,
reaches out to form and constitute the decentralised global movement ecofeminism envisions. The
expansion of this decentralised yet connected movement is the strategy that ecofeminists believe
can successfully transform the current hierarchical and aggressive global system into one based
on co-operation and partnership. The vision is of extended networks, coalitions and alliances of
people working toward basic common goals of egalitarian, ecological living.
The practical reality of efforts towards this transformation became clearer to me
throughout the process of conducting this research. By questioning interviewees on their actions,
project involvement and span of their communications, I gained an insight into the actual reach of
the working projects and networks that currently constitute this vision.
As I hope to have shown, the women interviewed displayed a positive array and diversity
of practices, illustrating that strategies of action which reflect ecofeminist philosophies are well
under way. These ecofeminists are deeply involved in cross-issue networking based on
inclusiveness, protesting injustice where they see it, on fronts that are regional, national, and
international.

In summary, this is evidenced by the interviewees' involvement in areas spanning action

against environmental destruction, working for sustainable agriculture and landcare, native bush
regeneration and alternative lifestyles of ethical production and consumption; as well as action
against genetic manipulation, child abuse, rape, suicide, sexism, racism, homophobia, sexual
exploitation, economic and class struggles, and war - both internationally and in aspects on the
home front that practically and ideologically protest war efforts (See appendix 2: Case
Biographies The Practical Strategies).
This divergent involvement and awareness resonates with ecofeminist demands that we
not flinch at the tactical and analytical problems of being involved in so many different fields
(Stokland et al. 1982). It reflects effort for inclusive and holistic action and approaches.
I have emphasised throughout this thesis that there are certain distinguishing features of
ecofeminist strategy. I will now summarise the principal aspects that comprise an ecofeminist
approach, as were illustrated in the research findings and which I believe can be seen as a model
for ecofeminist practice.
8.3
8.3.1

FINDINGS AND SIMPLE ECOFEMINIST PRINCIPLES ILLUSTRATED

- A SUMMARY

GENDER AWARENESS

A primary principle of ecofeminism expressed by the interviewees was a sensitivity and

awareness to gender dynamics and its environmental implications. It is worth re-emphasising here
that the interviewees DID NOT associate women with a closer affiliation to nature than men. No
biological determinism was expressed. Aligned with ecofeminist findings, they did however imply
significant links between the institutional violence against women and against nature. Many of the
women explicitly indicated that competitive macho (masculinist) outlook was implicated in the
destruction of nature.
This was concisely and simply illustrated for instance in discussion with Diane Harwood
about her bush regeneration work. She commented that she could "get through to just about
anyone to care about nature", but this effort was reversed or whittled away with many men later on
in the pub, when macho pride and the competitive struggle to avoid domination meant that nature
lost out: "They have a very thin skin and don't want to be seen doing something else, their mates
will rubbish them."
A similar point illustrated by Beth Schultz was explained in her perspectives on groups in
the green movement as being either "male" groups or "female" groups. This succinctly
summarised ecofeminist sentiment such as that expressed by Janis Birkeland (1993) who writes of
strategic approaches being either masculinist or feminist orientated, which either sex can adopt.

The masculinist (mainstream) approach is gender-blind; it ignores, or is unaware of gender politics

and psycho-sexual causes of social and environmental problems. The masculinist approach,
Birkeland argues, denies the powerplays of social pressures and stereotypes that demand
conformity to aggressive and hierarchical systems, and disregards personal and emotional
dynamics within groups (Birkeland 1993 p19).
8.3 2

EXPLICIT FEMINIST COMMITMENT

There was consensus in the interviews that women continue to suffer unfairly from sexism,
without doubt pointing to the continuing need for feminist analysis and strategies. Women were
seen to have a valuable, indeed vital contribution to make to social change because of women's
socially constructed difference. Many of the women interviewed had explicit feminist outlooks that
celebrated and supported women moving into positions of leadership - expressing that women
tended to lead differently to men, and with a more community-minded focus. Women in the
present context were seen to be more often aligned with non-authoritative goals, having more
experience and skills in networking and facilitating connections than men.
As with radical feminist practice discussed in Chapter 4, these women generally upheld
the need to hear women's voices in safe places - whether in women's only space, women's support
groups, or explicit mixed group policy that acknowledges sexism and allows for women's fair and
unhindered input (Bell and Klein 1996 pviii).
8.3.3

EXPAND THE ROLE OF MEN

Men's active involvement in ecofeminist actions was invited and strongly called for. The
message to men was to become more educated in, and actively supportive of feminist and
ecofeminist principles. The interviewees encouraged aspects of the men's movement which
facilitated men reconnecting with daily life involvement in caring for children, the aged, or the sick,
and in communicating and providing emotional support. The women also expressed feminist
concerns that men expand pro-feminist political efforts that confront patriarchy and highlight the
links between patriarchy and environmental degradation. This includes standing up against sexist
practices and institutions within social change movements and without, deconstructing and
challenging "masculine" stereotypes and conditioning which encourage aggressive and
competitive behaviour, and supporting everyones nurturing and expressive ability. These are
strategies by which men can confront the logic and workings of oppression from their own
positions in patriarchy. This links in with feminist belief articulated in the following quote by Robin
Morgan (1978, p64): "No matter how empathetic you are to another's oppression, you only become
truly committed to radical change when you realize your own oppression - it has to reach you on a
gut level."

8.3.4

ECOLOGICAL CONSCIOUSNESS

In retrospect, the focus on ecological survival which distinguishes ecofeminism from

anthropocentric feminisms was inherent in the interviews rather than explicitly talked about. The
women's commitment to environmental projects and alternative schemes seemed to be taken for
granted.30 The focus of the womens' work and activism held ecological consciousness centrally.
For the most part, the interviewees' entire outlook was imbued with ecological concepts of
connection, web, relation, and deep ecological concepts that informed all areas of their lives.
Translating ecological perspectives into social realms, the ecology-based notion of
diversity as strength was paramount, as was the respect for pluralism and a refusal to settle for
isolated parts. This belief in the strength to be gained from diversity and analysis that integrates
environmental, feminist, class, and race analysis is an ecofeminist insight that could benefit other
practises that do not connect these issues. I might state again the radical depth of ecofeminist
valuing of diversity, inclusiveness and interconnectedness, and how starkly it contrasts with
dominant linear and anthropocentric thinking. In the face of monolithic utilitarian attitudes this ethic
of reverence for the diversity of life in all its forms remains subversive. As Robin Morgan (1978,
p16) described inclusive feminist and ecological thinking: "... [it is] a process which dares to
celebrate contradiction and diversity, dares to see each field-daisy as miraculous, each pebble as
unique, each sentient being as holy."
8.3.5

FUNDAMENTAL CHANGE

The interviewees overwhelmingly expressed commitment to fundamental change, positing

that marginal modification of the present system is an inadequate approach. The underlying
critique of orthodox reformist thinking was evidenced often - in the discussion of power dynamics
in small groups and wider society, in discussing the dominant voices in the media, and in criticisms
of the entrenched sexism and racism in the powerful bureaucracies of business and government.
This parallels ecofeminist theory which maintains that the current structures created by
and representing patriarchal, hierarchical and dualistic values cannot simply be reformed into a
system benign to women, nature, Majority World people and other subordinated groups (Mies and
Shiva 1993). Movements with reformist agendas and masculinist approaches are held to offer no
viable longer-term solution and hence have limited potential. Such movements and approaches
typically employ any means to achieve isolated aims and function with a crisis mentality (Vance
1993). They tend to be wary of the 'feminist' label or focus, as well as other radical analyses that

30Certain

perspectives and practices had become an integral part of the interviewees' lives. I realised this for
instance, knowing that quite a few of the participants had been or are currently involved with organic
gardening, permaculture projects, and the alternative trading scheme L.E.T.S. (Local Energy Transfer
System) - although none mentioned these initiatives explicitly.

may be seen as 'discredited' in the mainstream (eg. analyses that consider animal liberation,
critiques of capitalism, or explicit policy to deal with racism, homophobia etc.).
8.3.6

CREATE WHAT YOU DREAM

Alternative forms of organisation were a fundamental aspect of the strategies emphasised

by the women in this study. This emphasis echoed approaches prioritised in the literature review
by ecofeminist writers such as Adair and Howell (1989) and Peavey (1986). The women
interviewed were consistently involved in projects practicing non-hierarchical, inclusive, open and
participatory group processes. Their strategies were nonviolent and sought change both at the
macro and micro levels; aiming to transform the dominating 'power over' dynamic into cooperation 'power with' dynamics of respect and sharing (Petra Kelly in Plant 1989 px). There was a
stated preference for working in small groups where communication could be on a personal level.
This feminist commitment to means, as well as ends, is one of the mainstays on which
ecofeminists base their strategies.
As in ecofeminist principles discussed in the literature review by Lahar (1991) and
Starhawk (1989), the women interviewed were creatively involved in melding a longer term vision
with a pragmatic approach to present situations. Positive, proactive strategies were endorsed as
preventing the 'burnout' caused by being caught in purely reactive strategies. Echoing Rodda
(1991), such strategies were also held to be beneficial by offering opportunities to earn a living,
live a healthier life with restored hope, and simultaneously learn and demonstrate how to live in
ways that respect nature and all of humanity.
8.3.7

THE WORLD IS MY LOUNGEROOM

- CROSSING THE PERSONAL/POLITICAL DIVIDE

Many of the lives of the women interviewed embodied the feminist slogan 'the personal is
political', indicating that the meshing of the political and personal realms remains "a powerful
analytical tool" for feminists (Bell and Klein 1996 pxxiii).
This was evidenced in the expressed need of the interviewees for a sustainable activist
approach or lifestyle. The attention to balance displayed by the women reflected a recognition of
the power of the dominant paradigm, and the difficulty of maintaining an alternative approach and
outlook within this context. The women emphasised that it requires constant effort to remain
inspired and focused, and to internalise alternative ecological and feminist principles. This
reflected ecofeminist emphasis raised in the literature review, on the importance of consciously
counteracting internalised racism, classism and sexism etc., and the disempowering elements of
self-blame, guilt and shame which unconsciously binds each individual to faulty patriarchal beliefs
and patterns (Lorde 1992 and Warren 1995).

Many of the women's lives involved various methods that focused on the ongoing creation
and maintenance of soulful refuge and sustenance. The women also valued a spiritual connection
with the land - speaking of spirituality as any means that facilitates contact with the deeper
mystery, miracle and passion of the world. I would like to mention here the tabooed territory
ecofeminism ventures into by including this respect for spirituality in academic fields. As Elizabeth
Bragg (1997, p2) writes:
[There is] a tendency within academia to shy away from matter of the "sacred", the "spirit"
or "soul"... one finds it generally difficult to speak of a "spiritual" connection with the
natural world as having any kind of reality without being relegated to the "fringe" of
acceptable academic behaviour.
8.3.8

DANCING ACROSS BRIDGES

Ecofeminists call for coalition building, and the crossing of the dichotomies of faulty
polarised thinking (Griffin 1989). Politically this involves cross-issue networking and thinking bringing to each field and issue the missing aspects of holistic political perspectives. Personally
this involves challenging the dualistic conditioning of stereotypes, gender and sexuality limitations,
and embracing the expressions of the body and soul, the erotic, the intuitive, the mysterious
(Griffin 1989). As many of the interviewees highlighted, this also includes appropriately expressing
fear, anger and grief without too much concern about their emotive nature or political naivety.
Ecofeminist respect for communication and caring is revaluing what has traditionally been
delegated as 'women's work' without losing sight of political feminist analyses. Highly valuing the
so-called 'feminine' aspects of humanity squashed under patriarchal hierarchies, also manifests in
such commitments as respectful childrearing practices and education with young people and
adults. Some of the interviewees who were mothers emphasised the importance and power of
including children in political and community actions - so that they learn from first hand experience
and so that group dynamics are enlivened by their presence. The presence of children was
considered capable of transforming group atmospheres; giving vitality, encouraging responsibility
and necessitating a focus on the daily implications of actions that determine the quality of their
future.
This dancing across bridges and breaking of boundaries undermines dualistic notions
rather than implying a reversal in the way dualistic notions are valued (Vance 1993). For instance,
the valuing and embracing of art and spirituality as in Lucille Mair's words:
Art is absolutely essential and indispensable - at once a tool of survival, a source of
delight and refreshment, a promise, and a glimpse of transcendence ... a tool for

liberation, a means of bringing to vivid life the moment of the fall of tyranny, and
communicating protest in a manner which goes straight to the heart and can not be argued
with or denied. (Lucille Mair in Stokland et al 1982 p53-4)
does not necessitate the rejection of rationality, but rather enacts an ability to integrate the whole
(Griffin 1989). This is precisely why ecofeminism endorses methods which are at once creative
and confronting, powerful and gentle, combining the rational and the intuitive.
8.3.9

ACTIVISM IS ESSENTIAL

The women I chose to interview all included activism as an indispensable component in

their lives. Although they are committed to the ecological consequences of their personal actions
and lifestyles and are involved in various personal transformation methods, all are steadfast in
their involvement in political aims. None in the words of Robin Morgan, put "... the making of
political mischief second to the making of pottery, teas, tie-died garments, hand-dipped candles...
get[ting] stoned, laid or away from it all" (Morgan 1996 p6).
The interviewees' worldview included the idea of reciprocal freedom: that full creative
human potential cannot be achieved with isolated individual awareness and coping strategies. The
behavioural changes possible within the present system are small due to the overwhelming power
of the social context in which everyone is saturated (Peavey 1986). The ability to practise and
teach respect, or care for human and non-human life within an aggressive capitalist system is
limited. This is because this system fundamentally relies on exploitation, degrades honesty and
compassion, and despises openness and vulnerability. To survive within this system individuals are
forced to accept certain behaviours which limit personal growth potential.
The women I interviewed embodied the ecofeminist standpoint that personal freedom and
development requires political and community involvement. They rejected the idea that selfcontemplation, self-realisation and working on a personal level were separate aims to be done
before any political work is embarked upon. As I hope to have shown in the discussion of the
interviews and in the literature review, ecofeminists see the separation of the personal and political
as faulty dualistic thinking, and espouse grassroots involvement in political issues as an important
means of self-realisation (Birkeland 1993 p46).
8.3.10

GET INVOLVED: THE POLITICAL IS PERSONAL

All of the women interviewed undoubtedly held a sense of responsibility and accountability
when reflecting on the wide-reaching facets of current socio-economic and environmental
problems. Their participatory worldview and feelings of intimate connection and commitment to
their surrounding world echoes sentiments expressed by Kate Soper:

[We need to] restore a sense of our own organic extension in the world, and thereby be
shocked into responsibility ... I have not ever deferred readily to politicians, but I can no
longer look on now in the same way while they are allowed to fumble around with the
entire future of the world. (Soper 1983 p341)
Our silence, however reluctantly, makes us complicit. Who will act, rectify and work for
change if not us? As Alice Cook and Gwyn Kirk (1983, p31) put it: "Of course, not everyone has
equal power to effect a change - most of us do not have the same power as a cabinet minister, for
example - but we all have the power of refusal in our own lives. "
The women in my study indicated that their planning and strategies were continually
seeking ways to reach beyond familiar circles; aiming to reach the mainstream and those in the
powerful structures of big business and the military, painfully aware of the fact that "... corporate
power is above governments and largely dictates who gets elected and what they do" (Birkeland
1993 p44).

These political approaches constitute the distinguishing features of ecofeminist action. As

previously stated the interviewees' approach can be summed up as a conscious commitment to
feminist analysis, participatory and non-hierarchical group process, awareness and action on the
ecological and social interconnectedness of all things, an attention to diverse issues and
networking, and a balancing of the personal-political equilibrium. These strategies and principles
succinctly reflect the ecofeminist thinking raised in the literature review, and as is my thesis,
illustrate the current content and form of ecofeminist strategy and practice. To my knowledge this
is unprecedented in the existing literature and represents new ground in ecofeminist self-reflection.

9. FINAL REFLECTIONS

9.1 SIMPLE COMPLEXITY

Throughout this project I have oscillated between seeing the complexity and the simplicity
of ecofeminist thinking, planning and practice. The complexity lies in the multitude of angles
constituting a holistic approach, the depth and diversity of analysis and critiques that support
ecofeminist conclusions. This multi-faceted understanding requires analyses that include global
and historical political contexts, ecological consciousness, feminist scholarship, critiques of
science and the western worldview, and the joining of ecological politics with feminist visions. The
situation now, its causes and origins, is much more than the analysis commonly offered from all
quarters: the media, education, medicine, and psychology, the government, big business, the
military, but also from factions of current alternative theorising within academia, environmental
and social change movements. Ecofeminists are asking for a lot - for a multi-faceted reappraisal
of everything, and for deep transformation. As Stephanie Lahar has said:
Ecofeminism makes such big promises! The convergence of ecology and feminism into a
new social theory and political movement challeng[es] gender relations, social institutions,
economic systems, sciences, and views of our place as humans in the biosphere. (Lahar
1991 p28)
The magnitude of problems faced demand this depth and holistic complexity.
During the course of researching and writing this thesis however, the simple nature of
ecofeminist thinking began to reverberate more and more strongly. As I found myself becoming
adept at explaining ecofeminist concepts, and as I listened to inspiring women do the same, I
discovered a new feeling about ecofeminism which rested in simple, even common perspectives.
Ecofeminist foundations of the interconnectedness of all issues and solutions seemed to resound
with many people I talked with.
My conclusion is that ecofeminism is at once both simple and complex. Within the simple
call for awareness and action on the connectedness of all issues lie the complex details that
demand attention to form a holistic and clear picture. This picture of ecofeminism is based in the
ecology-based notion of diversity as strength.
As I've already said, listening to the experiences and perceptions of the women I
interviewed greatly added to the simplification of my perspective. Clarification came in the focus

on practicality and seeing how people are currently enacting or illustrating simple ecofeminist
principles.
The interviews also gave me first hand experience of what Robin Morgan (1978, p313)
relates in her words - "Love is more complex than theory" - as I witnessed my own tendency to
what Patsy Hallen reminded me was our desire to stop thinking and relax. She pointed to the
human desire to oversimplify, to lose contact with the ongoing issues and debate, and the further
detail and current context that fills out the reality of practical situations. In discussion with Patsy
she brought me back to this - theory is the map but reality is ever more complex and changing,
even still while the simple recommendations of ecofeminism hold true over different contexts,
forever is the need for ardent attention to changing situations.

The representation of ecofeminist activism in this research shows the variety of ecofeminist
engagement in confronting and working to diminish environmental destruction, sexism, racism,
classism, heterosexism and other forms of oppression. It also indicates the common factors
uniting ecofeminist approaches. The strategies summarised above are what distinguish
ecofeminist strategies from other social movements for change. Approaches that resort to
hierarchical, exclusive and aggressive methods and means, or dismiss attention to sexism,
racism, homophobia etc., fail to challenge the dominant paradigm's system of hierarchical
dualisms - and hence support the very system they hope to change (Diamond and Orenstein
1990). As has been shown, this crucial difference is manifested in the methods and style
consistently used by the women interviewed, and reflects the ecofeminist theory explored in the
literature review.

9.2

BOUNDARIES AND BEYOND

Reflecting on the limitations of this discussion I found some interesting points.

I would have liked to list and discuss more examples of ecofeminist initiatives that I
discovered during this research and which I found inspirational. I also wish I could have delved
deeper into the situations and actions of women in Majority World countries.
I'm certain that input from different Aboriginal Australians on ecofeminist perspectives
would greatly enrich a regional and global understanding. An idea came to mind of presenting
general ecofeminist principles to people from diverse backgrounds and situations to comment on,
interpret or expand in their own way. The resulting language, metaphors and insights unearthed I
imagine would be revelatory - simultaneously such research would put ecofeminist ideas into the
realms of the broader public to be questioned and discussed. Such efforts may also trigger
educational journalism and hence complement activist efforts.
In sum, I believe this research has clearly demonstrated to me the need for further studies
of the current ecofeminist networks and groups globally, so that these links can be supported and
expanded. Ecofeminism is a fast growing movement gaining national and international recognition
as a progressive critical social theory and movement (Lahar 1991, p36). The analysis and insights
of ecofeminism are spreading; with articles appearing in popular magazines, discussion groups on
the Internet and growing academic and philosophical scholarship (Hallen 1994 p18). As previously
stated, research that is reflective of the current situation of ecofeminist practice will provide
ecofeminists with a clearer updated 'map' to plan, create and travel with.
What is needed are more regional studies to fill in a global picture, keeping ecofeminists
up to date with the current pace and form, successes and shortcomings of the movement. As with
the findings of this research, such case studies are also likely to function as a socially
transformative process. Participatory research potentially provides mentor and peer networking
and communication, strengthens community, and inspires and nurtures a commitment to
ecofeminist ideas.
9.3

THE JUGGLER, THE POET

Engaged in a juggling act and a seesaw balance, is this trying to trust and act in a new
way of being within an old system - dealing with the enormity of ecofeminist understandings about
what it means to be a human being on this planet right now amidst phenomenal threats,
oppression and crisis.

What is required is impossibly overwhelming or easy depending on the mood of the day.
Similarly it is simple and hard to remain up to date and literate about the principles of ecology and
feminism, and the myriad issues of the day within a global and historical perspective; to remain
focused on the conceptual structures that underpin the politics and economics of society, learning
and implementing effective tools for working within and without of these systems for social
transformation. Add to this the spanning of these tasks with a playful spirit, while maintaining
creative awareness of life's awesome journey on this planet over the last four billion years (Seed
1988). It requires staying sane, healthy and inspired in the existential vacuum of a dysfunctional
consumer-based society, while also being an effective mechanic, gardener, cook, friend and
daughter etc.
This is the magnitude that often makes us shrink away from any action or knowledge of
our predicament. It may seem way too late, huge and impossible - perhaps more so today, after
thirty years of extensive feminist findings and activism, dire ecological warnings from all scientific
sectors, and huge groundswell public concern and action in the ecology and peace movements.
Still there are the growing atrocities of corporate greed backed by governments, an onslaught of
even more insidious technological warfare on earth's systems and humans. In the face of this we
re-ask, what are we doing? What are ecofeminists, feminists, ecologists doing? Are our strategies
effective, and is it enough?
we are old and wise, young and strong weary from the journey
weeping at your sticky blood and the enormity we face,
tired and restless
nurturing and new
fiery and wild
passionate and raw, hurting
clever and courageous
we are dancing prancers and pack horses ready for the long haul
with our flutes and computers,
articulately dumbfounded
how sweet is our love
compassionate efforts
eye for connections
there are many many friends against this armegeddon
(Jarrah 1998)

Working with these women was, and is, a pleasure. The ecofeminists I know are bold and
resolute. They are determined, caring and honest in their vulnerability, upholding a belief in
humanity's capacity for benevolence and co-operation in the face of so much destruction.
Academically, politically, spiritually, in community and with hard work, honesty, play and
love we erode the legacy and onward march of the life-destroying empires. Holding fast to the
meaning of what we know to be true, and our visions for peaceful life. Standing up against
injustices, and for the hopes, places, people and commitments held dear. We are still in front of
tanks and bulldozers, still putting ideas and flowers in gun barrels and minds, trying for
communication.

i trust the burning sun

the spinning earth

(the call of birds)

the speed of trees

the burst of flowers

the cold of ice the hottest fire

the silence of death.

I am wary of the wildest ocean

the strongest current
i trust fresh water,
when i'm thirsty

the cold air

I bow my head.

i will trust your earth and my fire

your water and my desire
my cloud and your shelter,

my moon

waxes and wanes.

(Jarrah 1998)

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Appendix 1
PREPARED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What do you see as ecofeminist strategies and action?
2. a) Are you involved in, or do you know of any activities or actions you would term ecofeminist,
that are happening in W.A.?
b) Are you involved in, or do you know of any activities or actions you would term ecofeminist,
that are happening in Australia?

c) Are you involved in, or do you know of any activities or actions you would term ecofeminist,
that are happening internationally?
3. a) Do you experience much, or any ecofeminist networking in W.A.?
b) Do you experience much, or any ecofeminist networking Australia-wide?
c) Do you experience much, or any ecofeminist networking internationally?
4. a) Do you experience networking or alliances between differently focused social movements in
W.A.?
b) Do you experience networking or alliances between differently focused social movements
Australia-wide?
c) Do you experience networking or alliances between differently focused social movements
internationally?
5. What are the gender relations and gender politics like in the movement/s or areas you are
involved in?
6. a) Do you consider that men can be, or are involved in ecofeminist strategies for change,...and
if so how?
b) Do you see any difficulties around this issue?

appendix 2
CASE BIOGRAPHIES

- THE PRACTICAL STRATEGIES

The following case biographies place central emphasis on the current strategies and
projects that participants were engaged in when I conducted the interviews.
******
7. FINDINGS FROM

THE

WOMEN INTERVIEWED

I will now present a short biography of the twelve women I interviewed as an introduction
to the data gained from the study participants. As a thorough reading of each woman's current
projects and actions reveals, each participant is clearly involved on a number of diverse fronts both in terms of form and cross-section of issues.
7.1

SHORT BIOGRAPHIES OF STUDY PARTICIPANTS

Christabel Chamarette is trained and works as a clinical psychologist, and is a former

Greens (W.A.) Senator. She referred to her work in the senate as 'monitoring the language of
authority', and saw it as effective consciousness-raising in parliament.
The diversity of her approach has included the following: She is a program director of a
child sexual abuse project helping survivors, perpetrators and partners towards the prevention of
further abuse. She is a member on the Archbishops Advisory Panel on Complaints Against the
Clergy helping women who have been abused, and is involved in the Deaths in Custody watch
committee. She works with a 'popular culture centre' which teaches hands-on arts with the aim of
exploring life-meaning and value especially aimed at youth and preventing suicide, and is on the
board for the Youth Legal Service. Christabel is running as a candidate for the Constitutional
Convention, aiming to get women and other disadvantaged groups fairly represented - the present
constitution, she emphasised, was written when women and Aboriginal men didn't have the vote.
Christabel is part of an Anglican church social justice and responsibilities activist group
which she described as counteracting the church's role in supporting patriarchal attitudes that are
contrary to true spiritual messages. The group includes people from all churches who want a
different pro-community approach to spirituality. She is also sporadically involved with various
think tanks and conventions. Recently she presented a paper on Native Title at the Fifth
International Symposium of Peace Psychologists on the topic of Reconciliation. Christabel
communicates with State and Federal Parliament by writing submissions (a recent one being on
Police Car Chases), and by preparing questions to be raised by Greens (W.A.) senators.
******
Kylie Cook is a co-ordinator of Manna Wholefoods - a healthfood and organics shop that
functions as a networking centre for alternative people in Fremantle and Perth. Kylie and her
partner have been active environmental and animal liberation activists, and this is now reflected in
a business which is very much centred around presenting ways to practice ethical consumption.

Kylie explained for instance how the business promotes organic food as a means of
supporting the worldwide movement for ecologically sustainable agriculture, as well as promoting
simple environmentally sound practices such as providing recycled jars and bags for customers.
The shop stocks very few animal products and by selling only vegan take-away food promotes
veganism as a viable, ethical alternative to supporting oppressive and environmentally unsound
meat industries.
Manna supports activists practically by donations and providing healthy food for
fundraisers and blockades. They often set up letter-writing stalls in front of the shop, and make
information on various environmental and social justice issues available. The Fremantle
Environment Centre is housed above the shop. They stock a wide range of books and Kylie
explained that she is always networking information, ideas and connections for people that come
through the shop. She personally is a wealth of information on topics spanning feminism, green
alternatives, self-healing medicine, gay and lesbian liberation, parenting, personal growth, global
issues, music and the arts, and animal liberation issues.
Kylie actively promotes non-sexist, non-racist education for her children and at their local
school. Children, and hers in particular, are a very big part of the shop's atmosphere. They have a
children's play space which she hopes to expand to cater for all age groups. Works by local artists
are also displayed and sold in the shop.
Kylie and her partner are working toward changing the shop into a 'unit trust', which entails
co-operative ownership with binding ethics. Manna practises positive discrimination by favouring
oppressed groups when hiring. They also seek tradeswomen whenever building maintenance or
renovation work is needed. Their non-hierarchical intentions requires clear communication and
feedback, for which they occasionally call in a facilitator.
******
Louise Duxbury is a full-time co-ordinator at APACE Greenskills - an environmental
training and education group for unemployed people, based at and originating from the Denmark
Environment Centre (on W.A.'s south coast). She is a long-time environmental activist and lives in
her environmentally designed house with her partner and children on one of the longest
established working communities in the area.
She organises 'Women in Landcare' groups as a stream of the work undertaken by
Greenskills, and is currently writing her Masters degree in this area. Louise is part of a women's

support group and is involved in Co-counselling - forums which she feels support the discussion of
ecofeminist concerns and provides personal support to her.
******
Dr. Patsy Hallen is a senior lecturer and foundation member of Murdoch University in
Western Australia where she teaches philosophy, environmental ethics and ecofeminism. She coordinates visiting ecofeminist scholars who teach at Murdoch.
Patsy is publicly active in speaking out on environmental and feminist issues, especially in
the area of science, for instance against genetic manipulation. She is involved with the Earth
Philosophies Australia (E.P.A.) link-up, mentioned in the review of the literature, with which she
has just recently co-ordinated the first E.P.A. Bush School. The aim of Bush Schools is to integrate
the experiential with the intellectual, melding ecofeminist and ecological principles with meditation,
bush walking, and other body awarenesses, as well as ritual/group processes, activism, artistic
expression and storytelling - including that by local traditional owners (in this case a Nyungar
woman). This follows the belief that intellectual ideas are not enough, and that we cannot simply
think our way out of current dilemmas. The Bush School included work with N.S.W. activists
Eshana (Elizabeth Bragg) and John Seed and their workshops entitled 'Gender and the
Environment', 'Nurturing the Ecological Self', and 'The Council For All Beings'.
******
Diane Harwood is a co-ordinator and co-founder of the Denmark Environment Centre and
Shop, within which she has been an activist on a number of environmental campaigns over the
last ten years. She is involved in keeping the environment centre up to date with a wide variety of
issues, and ordering stock for the shop.
Diane has long practised native bush regeneration in her locality, and received the 1996
John Tonkin Greening Australia Award for Individual Endeavour in Bushland Regeneration. She
practically single-handedly maintains native bush areas in her region, weeding out exotic species
and planting natives, and co-ordinates groups of volunteers in bush regeneration projects.
******
Emma King is a peace activist at Peace House in Perth - a building that houses the offices
of various activist groups in Perth. Her greatest involvement is currently with W.I.L.P.F. - the
Women's International League for Peace and Freedom.

Emma's present work revolves around co-ordinating a conference in the Asia-Pacific

region that aims to highlight the connections between militarism and various forms of human
oppression. The forum will bring together people of the Asia-Pacific region who are involved in
differently focused political change work. These span the oppression of women to anti-militarism,
poverty and the degradation of the environment. She envisions that the forum will provide a
medium for activists in the region to work and co-operate together, exchange information and
enhance an holistic understanding of their situation.
******
Patsy Molloy is a long-time environmental activist in the nonviolence movement. She is
actively involved with the Australian Nonviolence Network, which she describes as a loose
structure of activists teaching and practicing nonviolence work with a strong feminist emphasis.
Patsy described her current work as helping to prevent burnout in activist groups by
facilitating communication and support for the people involved. She is currently working with the
Bellevue Action Group, a resident grassroots group trying to solve the problem of toxic waste
dumping in their locality. Patsy mentioned that her interest is in strategies that speak to, and are
products of working class peoples. Strategies, she says, initiated by white middle class leaders
often alienated working class people by their method and approach. In the Bellevue Action Group
she encourages strategies from knocking on people's doors with health surveys to sausage sizzles.
She helped facilitate coffee mornings with people who were long-time residents in the area to
collate autobiographical and anecdotal evidence that gave them validation and confidence in their
sense of their own history.
Patsy is also a dynamic theatrical performer of her own work - with a feminist focus she
described as "combating patriarchal and hierarchical systems harboured in peoples' psyches".
She and a friend do comedy that confronts homophobia and stereotypes about lesbians - also
satirising other aspects of patriarchy, exploring gender stereotypes and the dualistic construction of
the homosexual/heterosexual, male/female divide.
******
Pam Rumble is a long-time activist with environmental, feminist and community issues.
She is currently a South-West Greens (W.A.) organiser, and co-ordinates a local women's support
group. Her main work which she described as ecofeminist involves community development and
facilitation. She works with the Golden Hill Steiner School helping organise gardens, school
maintenance and building work as well as facilitating communication and a participatory decision-

making process there. She has done similar work with conflict resolution at the Mia Mia Housing
Co-op.
Pam lives and works with her partner and children on their property which is a registered
W.W.O.O.F.ing (Willing Workers On Organic Farms) farm. They have just finished building their
environmentally designed, solar-powered mudbrick house together, and work making ethical wood
products for a livelihood.
She has long term involvement with Co-counselling, which she describes as a broadbased worldwide movement that employs listening exchange as a technique to help free
individuals from past distressing experiences, thereby allowing them to be more effective political
activists to create a just world. Co-counsellors usually work in pairs, but also form small groups to
tackle different issues ranging from homophobia, disability, and racism, to women's and men's
support groups.
Pam has recently returned to university study to seek inspiration, aiming to learn concise
language that will increase her capacity to be effective and articulate in her work.
******
Dr. Beth Schultz is a long-time forest activist in Western Australia, with involvement in the
Conservation Council and various forest conservation groups for twenty years. She publicises
research on forest management and ecology related to logging practices and responds to proindustry arguments. She is a prominent figure in the forest debate, holding a wide range of
knowledge and experience in her areas of expertise. She is active with WAFA - the Western
Australian Forest Alliance, an umbrella network for conservation groups concerned with forest
issues, and which is engaged in blockading old growth forest logging in W.A.'s South-West.
******
Dr. Chrissie Sharp was employed as a Member with the Environmental Protection
Authority for five and a half years (and was the first woman on the E.P.A.), and has been very
involved as an activist in various environmental issues in W.A. over the last twenty years. She is a
current Member for Legislative Council with the Greens (W.A.). As a green politician she has
moved beyond traditional green issues into contact with social equity networks.
Chrissie is based in Balingup (south-west rural W.A.) where for the last twenty years she
and her partner have run the Balingup Small Tree Farm. The farm is part of the W.W.O.O.F.ing

network and grows trees for farm rehabilitation. Through the work of the farm she promotes
landcare, agroforestry and 'green development' alternatives.
******
Jacquie Svenson is a former co-ordinator for the Wilderness Society (W.A.), and was the
Environmental Advisor for the Greens (W.A.) when Christabel Chamarette was in office. She has
spent the last four years lobbying for forest issues in W.A. and was very involved as a
spokesperson and lobbyist in recent old growth forest blockades in the south-west forest regions of
W.A.
Jacquie is currently engaged in completing her law studies at the University of Sydney,
and is also focusing on political theatre.
******
Jo Vallentine was first elected as a senator in 1984 with the Nuclear Disarmament Party,
was elected a second time as an independent, broadening from a purposefully narrow base of
nuclear disarmament into social justice issues such as Aboriginal land rights, and was elected a
third time with the Greens (W.A.).
Jo is currently involved in what she describes as the best work she's ever done - a project
called the Alternatives to Violence Project, working in prisons with prisoners who volunteer for
workshops that aim towards individual empowerment and nonviolent ways of dealing with
conflicts.
In her favourite country along Moore River she is a co-organiser of a group taking action
to stop pollution and an urban "development" which threatens to spoil the river.
Believing open public discussion of sensitive issues to be a key factor in social change,
she has worked with investigative journalists John Pilger and Brian Toohey documenting American
influence in Australian politics. She talked with Gough Whitlam, and was writing to an American
spy Christopher Boyce, who has been imprisoned in the U.S. in solitary confinement since 1985,
and whose work with Pine Gap came up in a court hearing revealing the extent of C.I.A.
manipulation in Australia.
She has visited the Philippines, Kenya and Nicaragua and has been involved with people's
struggles for the environment, against pollution and grinding poverty, against US bases, against

sex tours and exploitation on all levels. She also mentioned involvement with the Penan tribal
forest people's campaign in Malaysia to save their rainforest home from destruction by logging
companies.
Jo talked of enhanced global networking she experienced through connections on the
Internet and via e-mail where she accesses current information and feels obliged to pass it on. An
issue she has been involved with lately that greatly benefited from this new technology, for
example, was the campaign to get nuclear weapons declared illegal by the International Court of
Justice, achieved on 8/7/97.