Learning

CHAPTER 7

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Lecture Outline
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

What is Learning?
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Observational Learning
Factors that Facilitate Learning
What Happens in the Brain When We Learn?
Learning Disabilities: When Things Go Wrong

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What is Learning?
Lasting change as a result of practice, study, or

experience
Learning curve: A graph showing change in
performance on a learning task over time

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Two Types of Learning

Nonassociative learning: change resulting from
experiences with a single sensory cue
o

Habituation
Weakening of response to a stimulus after repeated
presentation
Sensitization
Increase in response to a stimuli after presentation of a strong
stimulus

Associative learning: Connections are formed between two

or more stimuli

Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning

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Classical Conditioning
The association of two stimuli
Ivan Pavlov

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Classical Conditioning

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Components of Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that
naturally produces a response
o Dog food
Unconditioned Response (UCR): The natural physical
response to the stimulus
o Salivation to dog food
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The stimulus that is
originally neutral but after pairings with an unconditioned
stimulus becomes meaningful
o Tone
Conditioned Response (CR): The learned physical
response to a previously neutral stimulus
o Salivation to tone
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Pavlovs Dogs

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Components of Classical Conditioning

Please identify the UCS, UCR, CS, CR in the following

examples:

Jonathan loves spicy food! Last week he ate at Tia Mexicana three times
and literally perspired from the hot spices. Yesterday, as he drove past
the restaurant, Jonathan began to perspire profusely.

Jeremiah is 6 months old. His mother warms his bottles in the

microwave. Whenever the bell on the microwave rings, Jeremiah begins
to drool.

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Four Major Conditioning Processes

Acquisition: The initial learning of the stimulus-response
relationship
Extinction: Diminished responding that happens when
the CS (tone) no longer occurs right before UCS (food)
Spontaneous Recovery: CR can recur after a time delay
without need for further conditioning
Stimulus generalization: The tendency of a new
stimulus, one that is similar to the original CS, to elicit the
CR
o Implicated in fear conditioning

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Little Albert

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Classical Conditioning and Fear

Watson conditioned Little
Albert to be afraid of a white
rat
o He hit a steel bar making a
loud, scary noise every time
Little Albert reached for the
animal
o After repeated pairings, Albert
would cry just at seeing the rat
o Generalization: Albert came to
fear other white things such as
white beards
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Classical Conditioning and Phobias

Phobia
o Exaggerated, irrational fears associated with a particular
stimulus

Examples: Snakes, spiders, heights, dark, etc.

Systematic Desensitization
o Repeated introduction to feared stimuli without US

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Classical Conditioning and Taste Aversion

Conditioned Taste Aversion: Associating a

specific food with subsequent illness
o

Unlike fear conditioning

Taste aversion can occur after only one pairing

Occurs even if several hours have passed between eating and
becoming ill

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Operant Conditioning
Also called instrumental conditioning
We learn by reinforcement and punishment
Behaviorism: A branch of psychology insisting on
investigating observable behavior
o Edward Thorndike

Law of effect: Behaviors with pleasurable results are likely to

continue and those with unpleasant results are less likely to
continue

B.F. Skinner
o Operant Conditioning: Similar to law of effect. Thorndike
invented operant conditioning; Skinner popularized it and
conducted extensive research on it

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Operant Conditioning

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Pigeon-Guided Missiles

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Reinforcement
Reinforcement increases future behavior
Positive reinforcement
o

Praise, food, money, sex, or anything positive will increase the

likelihood of the behavior happening again

Getting a good grade after studying for a test will increase the
likelihood that someone will study for the next test.

Negative reinforcement
o

Removing a constant painful stimulus (nagging, loud noises, pain,

painful cravings) will increase the likelihood of the behavior
happening again

If we put on a seatbelt and it stops the constant beeping, then we are

more likely to put the seatbelt on again the next time.

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Punishment
Punishment decreases future behavior
Positive punishment
o Yelling, spanking, putdowns will discourage the behavior
from happening again.
o Punishment by application of some stimulus

Negative punishment
o Silent treatment, no car or phone privileges, timeout will
discourage the behavior from happening again.
o Punishment by removal of some stimulus

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Positive Reinforcement and Punishment

Positive Reinforcement
Giving a dog a treat for listening to your command
Positive Punishment
Yelling at the dog for not listening
In both examples, you are adding something

(praise or yelling)

But with R, you will increase the likelihood the dog

will listen to you and with P, you will decrease the

likelihood

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Negative Reinforcement and Punishment

Negative Reinforcement
o Constantly nagging your boyfriend until he buys you
flowers, once flowers are bought the nagging stops

Negative Punishment
o After your boyfriend buys you flowers, you dont allow
him to watch football

In both examples, you are subtracting something

(stopping nagging or withholding football)
But with R, you will increase the likelihood you will
get flowers again and with P, you will decrease the
likelihood you will get flowers again
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Types of Reinforcers
Primary reinforcers
o Stimulus reinforces behavior without experience or training.

e.g., food, water, comfort

Secondary reinforcers
o Stimulus reinforces behavior because it helps to attain a
primary reinforcer.

Working earns money that can be used for food and comfort.

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Schedules of Reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement: Behavior is

reinforced every time

Intermittent reinforcement: Behavior is

reinforced only some of the time

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Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules

Ratio schedules
o Fixed ratio schedule
Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of
responses.
o Variable ratio schedule
Reinforcement occurs unpredictably or after a
fixed average number of responses.
Interval schedules
o Fixed interval schedule
Reinforcement occurs after a fixed time has
elapsed.
o Variable interval schedule
Reinforcement occurs at varying time intervals.
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Using Operant Conditioning

Behavior modification: A planned effort to
change childrens behaviors by reinforcing desirable
behaviors and avoiding reinforcement of undesired
behaviors
o E.g., Caregivers not responding to a tantrum

Shaping: Rewarding behaviors that are

increasingly similar to the desired behavior
o Used frequently with animals
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Learned Helplessness
Learned
helplessness
o Through repeated
conditioning, people
learn that they cannot
control certain
outcomes in their
environment and
subsequently fail to do
so even when they are
able
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Learning and Thinking

Latent learning occurs without reinforcement and
is not used until called for.
o Not a result of conditioning.

Spatial navigation learning

Gaining information about the environment while casually
exploring
Information (latent learning) is later used to find quickest route
Insight learning
Aha moment

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Observational Learning

Behavior is acquired by observing the actions of

others
Modeling: Learning occurs through watching and
imitating others

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Observational Learning

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Observational Learning
From the Media
Albert Bandura (1977)
o Bobo doll experiment

Children watched one of three versions of a film showing a woman

beating an inflatable Bobo doll.
Reinforcement Version: adult given candy after aggression
Punishment Version: adult scolded/spanked
No-Consequences Version

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Bobo Doll Experiment

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Bobo Doll Experiment Results

Observing consequences
mattered
o Children who watched
punishment less likely to
imitate aggression

All children able to imitate

adults aggression,
regardless of film version
Direct reinforcement not
essential for learning, but
the expectation of
reinforcement influences
which behaviors are
expressed
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Factors that Facilitate Learning

Timing
o Multiple exposures separated by time facilitate learning facts
HINT: Studying material over the course of the semester is
more effective than cramming the night before the final exam
Context
Context effect: If you learn information in only one context (e.g., in
the classroom), you may be less likely to recall it in a different
context (e.g., at a job interview)
Awareness and Attention
o Awareness and attention enhance most types of learning
o Some types of learning can occur without awareness
Non-associative learning
Sleep
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What Happens in the Brain When We Learn?

There is no single learning system in the brain.

o Multiple neural systems trigger different types of learning.
o Neuroscientists believe all learning involves changes in
synaptic strength.
o Long-term potentiation (LTP): synaptic change that involves
increased activity in the postsynaptic cells after strong, repetitive
stimulation

o Donald Hebb

Cells that fire together, wire together

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Learning Disabilities
Learning disability describes a deficit in a specific
area of learning while other areas of learning are
normal.
o Dyslexia

Common disability in learning to read

o Dyscalculia

Common disability in learning mathematics

o Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD)

Characterized by inability to pay attention

o Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Characterized by inability to pay attention and excessive activity

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