Brainstorming

Brainstorming - Idea Hunting by a Group of Persons.

Brainstorming is by far the most widely used tool to stimulate creative thinking. It
was developed in the 1940s by the American advertising executive Alex Osborn who
believed that anyone could learn to generate creative solutions for a wide variety of
problems.
Brainstorming is a group method of ideation in which stress is laid on
the quantity of ideas generated. Members are asked to generate a
large number of ideas while criticism is kept under check. Participants
are encopuraged to build upon the lideas of others, but not knock out
them down.
Perhaps the most important benefit of "Brainstorming" in complex
problems is the identification of the categories of solution
concepts.
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brainstorming process
brainstorming technique for problemsolving, team-building and creative
process
Brainstorming is a great technique for generating creative ideas. Generally
performed in groups, it's a fun way to get lots of fresh ideas out on the table and get
everyone thinking and pulling together.
To start out, keep the group on the small side( 4 - 8 ). The participants should be
relatively at ease with one another, and as you continue to brainstorm together over
time, they'll become more comfortable throwing out off-the-wall ideas--which often
generate the best results.
Begin by choosing a facilitator to record the ideas on large, poster-size sheets of
paper that can be stuck to a bulletin board or along the walls of the room.
This will keep all the ideas clearly visible. And follow these important ground rules:

Suspend criticism. All ideas, no matter how crazy they may seem, should be
encouraged and recorded without comment or criticism from the group. The
general goal of brainstorming is to collect as many ideas as possible, making
quantity much more important than quality at this initial stage.
Postpone evaluation. Brainstorming sessions are not the time or place to
evaluate the merits of the ideas suggested. So don't suspend the process to
evaluate the projected results of any single idea.
Build on others' ideas. At their best, brainstorming sessions are fast-paced
and fun. Participants should try to build each consecutive idea on the
previous ones. This can sometimes result in surprising twists and turns.

brainstorming process
1. Define and agree the objective.
2. Brainstorm ideas and suggestions having agreed a time
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

limit.
Categorise/condense/combine/refine.
Assess/analyse effects or results.
Prioritise options/rank list as appropriate.
Agree action and timescale.
Control and monitor follow-up.

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Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a powerful tool used by teams and businesses around the world.
The concept was first introduced by Alex Osborne in the 1940s.
Brainstorming is a tool for generating ideas. It is an activity in which all members of
a group (whether it be a work team, classroom, committee, etc.) contribute to a list
of problems to be solved or solutions to a problem.
Brainstorming helps to get a lot of ideas into discussion in a short amount of time.
Brainstorming may look unstructured, but to be effective, there should be some
ground rules.
These can include:
- Set a time limit on the brainstorming session.
- Don't let participants get sidetracked. Now is not the time to critique ideas that are being
suggested.
- Be sure that everyone speaks freely.
- Be sure everyone contributes.
- Let the participants, not the leader, do the talking.

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Design and Manufacturing Notes

Chapter 1
DEFINITION OF ENGINEERING DESIGN
1.1 Introduction:
The economic future of India depends on our ability to design, make and sell competitive
products. Excellent design and effective manufacture are the pre-requisites of a
successive industry.
There is a general impression that the quality of Indian products can still be improved.
The fact that consumers have lost their confidence on Indian-made products cannot be
denied.
This problem can be solved only by designing and manufacturing better products through
improved methodology. Keeping this in view, the subject Design and manufacturing
purpose to present the methods and procedures of design and manufacture.
Although engineers are not the only people who design things, the professional practice
of engineering is largely concerned with design. It is usually said that design is the
essence of engineering.
The ability to design is both a science and an art. The science can be learned through
procedures developed by eminent scholars. But the art can be learned only by doing
design.
1.2 Types of Products A product is the tangible end result of a manufacturing process
and is meant for satisfying human needs.
The product can be classified as follows: 1. Convenience goods
These are less expensive and are clustered around shops and restaurants. These can be
purchased at consumers convenience. E.g. Cigarette, Candy, Magazines etc.
2. Shopping goods
These are expensive and people buy it less frequently. E.g. Jewellary garments etc.

3. Specialty goods
These are purchased, taking extra pain. E.g. Rare objects like stamps.
4. Industrial goods.
These are items used in the production of other items. Eg. Raw materials.
Another way of classifying products is into, (a) Continuous Products, and (b) Discrete
products
The continuous products are those which are produced in a continuous fashion. For
example, plates, sheets, tubes and bars etc are produced in very long lengths, and then
these are cut into desired lengths.
On the other hand, discrete products are produced one after another, each in separate
units. On the basis of the output product, the Industry is usually named as continuous
industry and discrete industry.
1.3 Requirements in a good product
1. Customer Satisfaction 2. Profit
How to achieve customer satisfaction? The product should function properly.
-It must have desired accuracy
-It must have desired reliability
-It must be easy to operate
-It must be serviceable
-It must make minimum space utilization
-It must withstand rough handling
-Pleasant appearances.
-Reasonable price.
How can it be profitable?
-It must be easy to manufacture
-The raw material must be cheap and easily available
-The manufacturing process has to the decided on the basis of quantity to be produced
-It must use standard parts
-It must be easy to pack and distribute.

1.4 Definition of Design: (S 94)

Designing is such a vast field that it is defined in several ways.

Various definitions of designing as pronounced by well-known designers are --:

Design is that which defines solutions to problem which have previously been solved
in a different way
Design is the conscious human process of planning physical things that display a new
form in response to some pre-determined need.
Design is an act of collecting all pertinent information for the production of goods
and services to meet some human need.
The design of any component includes two things, (i) Product design (ii) Process design
The product design involves the development of specification for a product that will be
functionally sound, good in appearance, and will give satisfactory performance for an
adequate life. The process design involves developing methods of manufacture of the
products so that the component can be produced at a reasonably low cost.
1.5 History of Design Process
(i) Design by Single Person
(ii) Over-the-wall design
(iii) Simultaneous Engineering
(iv) Concurrent Engineering
(v) Integrated design and Manufacture. In olden times one person could design and
manufacture an entire product.
Even for a large project such as the design of a ship or a bridge, one person had sufficient
knowledge of the Physics, Materials and manufacturing processes to manage all aspects
of the design and construction of the project. This period is referred to as the period of
design by single person in the history of design.
Customers.
Marketing
Engg.
Design

Production
By the middle of the 20th century products and manufacturing processes became so
complex that, one person could not handle all aspects of design and manufacturing. This
situation led to over-the-wall design process. In this method each functional departments
were separated from others, as shown by wall. There was only one-way communications
between Customer, Marketing, Engg. Design and production department.
The customers throw their needs to marketing department. The marketing department
may throw the customer needs to the design department, in many instances, orally. The
Engg. Design department may conceive a design and hands it over to the manufacturing
sections. The manufacturing department interprets that design and makes the product
according to what they think suitable. Unfortunately, often what is manufactured by a
company using over-the-wall process is not what the customers had in mind.
his is due to lack of interaction between the different departments. Thus, this single
direction over-the-wall approach is inefficient and costly and may result in poor quality
products. By the early 1980s the concept of simultaneous engineering emerged. This
philosophy emphasized simultaneous development of the manufacturing process- the
goal was the simultaneous development of the product and the manufacturing process.
This was accomplished by assigning manufacturing representatives to be members of
design team, so that they could interact with the design engineers throughout the designs
process. In the 1980s the simultaneous design philosophy was broadened and called
concurrent engineering.
A short definition of concurrent engineering is the simultaneous progression of all
aspects, at all stages of product development, product specification, design, process and
equipment etc. In concurrent engineering the primary focus is on the integration of teams
of people having a stake in the product, design tools, and techniques and information
about the product and the processes used to develop and manufacture it. Tools and
techniques connect the teams with the information. Although many of the tools are
computer-based, much design work is still done with pencil and paper. In fact, concurrent
engineering is 80% company culture and 20% computer support. With the advent of
computer technology, drastic changes have taken place in the field of design and
manufacturing.
The result was a completely integrated design and manufacturing system. This system
makes a good use of technologies such as CAD/CAM, FMS etc. The computer integrated
manufacturing systems (CIMS) moves towards the Factory of the future. CIMS is
necessary for better quality, efficiency and productivity.
QUESTIONS
1. How can you explain the term design? Explain the process of mechanical design.
Discuss the role of creativity in the design process (S94, 8M) 2. The design of product is
..........customer expectations. (S99, S94)
3. .get first preference in design
Answer---. Functional requirements (S93)

4. Explain the meaning of (i) Conceptual design (ii) Functional design (iii) Production
design. Give suitable examples for each. (S03)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------CHAPTER 2

TYPES OF DESIGNS
2.1 The design can be classified in many ways. On the basis of knowledge, skill and
creativity required in the designing process.
The designs are broadly classified into three types
(i) Adaptive Design (W 95, 97, 98 00)
(ii) Variant Design (S 97, 99)
(iii) Original Design
(i) Adaptive Design
In most design situations the designers job is to make a slight modification of the
existing design. These are called adaptive designs. This type of design needs no special
knowledge or skill. E.g. converting mechanical watches into a new shape.
(ii) Variant Design
This type of design demands considerable scientific training and design ability, in order
to modify the existing designs into a new idea, by adopting a new material or a different
method of manufacture. In this case, though the designer starts from the existing designs,
the final product may be entirely different from the original product. E.g. converting
mechanical watches into quartz watches. Here a new technology is adopted.
(iii) Original Design
Here the designer designs something that did not exist previously. Thus, it is also called
new design or innovative design. For making original designs, a lot of research work,
knowledge and creativity are essential. A company thinks of new design when there is a
new technology available or when there is enough market push. Since this type of design
demands maximum creativity from the part of the designer, these are also called creative
designs.
2.2 On the basis of the nature of design problem, design may be classified as:
(a) Selection design
(b) Configuration design
(c) Parametric design
(d) Original design
(e) Re-design

(a) Selection Design. It involves choosing one or more items from a list of similar items.
We do this by using catalogues. Eg. -Selection of a bearing from a bearing catalogue
-Selection of a fan for cooling equipment -Selecting a shaft.
(b) Configuration / Layout / Packaging Design (W 97, S'02)
In this type of problem, all the components have been designed and the problem is how to
assemble them into the completed product. This type of design is similar to arranging
furniture in a living room. Consider the packing of electronic components in a laptop
computer. A laptop computer has a keyboard, power supply, a main circuit board, a hard
disk drive, a floppy disk drive and room for two extension boards. Each component is of
known design and has certain constraints on its position. For example, the extension slots
must be adjacent to the main circuit board and the keyboard must be in front of the
machine.
Keyboard
Main Circuit board
Extension slots
Floppy drive
Power supply

The different components are shown above. The designers aim is to find, how to fit all
the components in a case? Where do we put what? One method for solving such problems
is to select a component randomly from the list and position it in the case so that all the
constraints on that component are met.
Let's take keyboard first. It is placed in the front. Then we select and place a second
component. This procedure is continued until we reach a conflict, or all the components
are in the case. If a conflict arises, we back up and try again. Two potential configurations
are shown above.
(c) Parametric Design Parametric design involves finding values for the features that
characterize the object being studied. Consider a simple example We want to design a
cylindrical storage tank that must hold 4 m3 of liquid. The volume is given by V = r2 l
The tank is described by the parameters, radius 'r', and length l. Given V = 4 m3 = r2 l r2
l = 1.273 We can see a number of values for the radius and length, that will satisfy this
equation. Each combination-values of r and l gives a possible solution for the design
problem.
(d) Original Design As described in an earlier section, an original design in the

development of an assembly or component that did not exist before.

(e) Redesign The redesign is a modification of an existing product to meet new
requirements. It is same as adaptive design. Most design problems solved in industry are
for the redesign of an existing product. Suppose a manufacturer of hydraulic cylinders
makes a product that is 0.25m long. If the customer needs a cylinder 0.3m long, the
manufacturer might lengthen the outer cylinder and the piston rod to meet this special
need.
2.3. On the basis of the objective or strategy the designs are of following main types.
A. Production Design
B. Functional Design
C. Optimum Design
A. Production Design In production design, the designer designs something in such a
way that the cost of producing the product is minimum. That is, the first responsibility of
the designer is reduction of production cost. Hence, a production designer is concerned
with the ease with which something can be produced, and that at a minimum cost.
B. Functional Design W93 In functional design, the aim is at designing a part or member
so as to meet the expected performance level. Functional design is a way of achieving
given requirements.- but the same may the unproducible or costly to produce. A good
designer, then, has to consider the production aspects also. A product designed without
keeping all these aspects into account, wastes time, money and efforts.
C. Optimum Design [W 95] It is the best design for given objective function, under the
specified constraints.

2.4 On the basis of the field/ area or the domain of design, the following types are
important.
1. Mechanical Design
2. Machine Design
3. System Design
4. Assembly/sub-assembly design
5. Computer aided design
1. Mechanical Design It means use of scientific principles, technical information and
imagination in the design of a structure,or machine to perform prescribed functions with
maximum economy and efficiency.
2. Machine Design It is the process of achieving a plan for the construction of a machine.

3. System Design System Design is an iterative decision making process to conceive and
implement optimum systems, to solve problems and needs of society.
4. Assembly/sub-assembly design [S 93] In the design of Assembly/sub-assembly the
major criterion is the fulfillment of functional requirements. The assembly has to be
designed to meet broad technical parameters and purpose for which it was meant.
The characteristic features are: The total number of parts used in the design must be
minimum. Sub-assemblies should be capable of being built separately in order to give
maximum manufacturing flexibility. Standard parts may be used. Flexible parts
should be avoided, as they are easily damaged during handling and assembly.
5. Computer aided design [CAD] It is a design methodology in which the designs take
the advantages of digital computer to draw concepts, analyze and evaluate data etc.
Computers are largely used in a design office for simulation and prototype study. In
modern design, computers have become an indispensable tool.
Other types of designs are Probabilistic Design Industrial Design

Probabilistic Design [S 96] It is a design approach in which design decisions are made
using statistical tools. Generally, the external load acting on a body, the properties of
materials etc are liable to vary. In probabilistic design, the designer takes into account the
variations of such parameters.
Industrial Design [W 93] It is the design made by considering aesthetes, ergonomics and
production aspects.

Questions
1. What are the characteristics features of system design, assembly/sub-assembly design
and component design? Explain briefly with the help of examples. [S'93, 5M] 2.
Distinguish between functional design and industrial design. [W'93]
3. Discuss the meanings of conceptual design, creative design, adoptive design and
variant design. [S'97]
4. What are the three main types of design? Give a comparative analysis. [W'00, W '97]
5. Explain the difference between creative design, adoptive design and variant design.
[S'02 W'98]
6. Designing for function involves the use and knowledge of .. Ans. Eng.
Sciences [W '94]
7. Explain the meaning of (i) Conceptual design, (ii) Functional design and (iii)
production design. Give suitable example of each. [S0'3]
8. Explain layout design. [S0'2]

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Chapter 3
DESIGN PROCESS AND ITS STRUCTURES
3.1. Introduction
Developing a manufacturable product is not an easy job. This chapter presents some
methods that help achieve quality products. Rather than making a detailed study, only an
overview of designing process is attempted here.
3.2. Features of design process
The following features can be observed in a design process.
* Iteration
* Decision-making
* Conversion of resources
* Satisfaction of need
Design is completed in many phases. In each phase, repeated attempts are required to
accomplish the aim. A satisfactory conclusion can be reached on, only after a number of
trials. Decision-making is essential for a designer to select one out of several. A designer
often comes across several equally acceptable alternatives to meet some end. In such
conflicting situations, designer has to make the best decision. In any design process, there
is conversion of resources such as time, money, talent, materials and other natural
resources. All designs are aimed at satisfying some human need. Needs, whether
important or unimportant is the starting point of design.
3.3. How a design is born?
In a broad sense there are two methods by which a design comes into existence.
a. Design by evolution (Traditional Design)
b. Design by innovation (Modern Design)

a. Design by evolution
This implies the traditional method of design in which the objects and articles that we see
around has taken its present form by gradual change of time. If one looks at history it can
be seen that most of the tools, equipments, implements, took a long time to acquire their
present form. Things changed gradually with the passage of time. Each change was made

to rectify some defects or difficulties faced by the users. Bicycles, calculators, computers,
steam locomotives etc. all went through a process of evolution in which designers tried
one concept after another. Even today this process is being used to some extent. However,
this evolutionary process is very slow. i.e., it took a very long period of time to occur
even a slight modification.
he main reason for this slow evolutionary process of design was the absence of proper
information and design data records.
In modern design situations the evolutionary methods are not adequate because of the
following reasons.
1. The traditional designing did not consider the interdependence of products. They were
concerned about only one component /product. But in the modern world, the existence of
one product is dependent on another in some way or other.
2. In the past, production was on small scale. Thus the penalty of a wrong design was
tolerable. But, in the present time, production is on large-scale basis. As a result, any
penalty of a wrong design will cost great loss.
3. Requirements of the customers of todays world changes so frequently. Traditional
design lags behind the advanced product & process technologies available today.
4. Traditional design methods cannot cope with competitive requirements of the modern
world. Due to the above reasons modern design problem cannot be handled by traditional
methods.
b. Design by Innovation
Since the traditional design method failed to cope with modern design requirements,
nowadays almost all designs are made by innovation. i.e., developments of a product by
following scientific and purposeful effort. The innovative design is entirely different from
the past practice of evolutionary design. Here the designers task is greatly magnified. He
has to design and create something, which did not exist yet. Here he tries to solve the
design problem in a systematic and orderly manner.
This approach is similar to analytical problem solving. However, an innovative designer
faces the following difficulties.
1. He has to collect and evaluate information on a product, which is non-existing yet.

2. Necessity of analyzing complicated interaction of components.

3. He has to make predictions regarding its performance.
4. He has to ensure the technical and economical feasibility of the product.
Notwithstanding the above difficulties, there are eminent experts like Morris Asimow,
J.E. Shigly, Dieter etc have attempted to systematize the design process.
This systematized steps in design process is called Morphology of Design. The best way
in which any problem can be solved is to break up the problem and to try for a solution in
an analytical method. This approach of problem solving is also adopted in the
Morphology of design.

3.4. Problem-solving Methodology

Knowingly or unknowingly we follow six basic actions when we try to find solution of
any problem.
1. Establish or convince ourselves that there is a problem. Or we understand that a
solution is needed.
2. Plan how to solve this problem
3. By analyzing the problem we decide what is actually required from the problem-solver.
Or we decide the requirements.
4. Generate alternative solutions.
5. Evaluate the alternatives.
6. Present the acceptable solution.

3.5. Morphology of Design.

Morphology means a study of form or structure. Morphology of design refers to the
time based sequencing of design operations. It is a methodology of design by which ideas
about things are converted into physical objects. The logical order of different activities
or phases in a design project is called the morphology of design.
3.6. Design Process- Simplified Approach

A simplified approach to designing as outlined by Morris Asimow is given below.

According to him the entire design process in its basic forms consists of five basic
elements as given below.
General Information
Specific Information
Design Operations
Outcome
Evaluation
No
Yes
GO TO NEXT STEP

Design operations imply the various processes done during designing. These include
Searching for possible alternatives systems to satisfy a need. Formulating a model for
analysis purpose. Materials selection, etc. But in order to carryout the above processes
(i.e., design operations) a lot of information is required.
The required informations may be broadly classified into two.
1. General Information E.g. Scientific Laws Information on market trends etc.
2. Specific information. E.g. Information on manufacturers catalogue Materials science
handbook etc. Once the designer has obtained the necessary information he can start
design operations.
The design operations give outcomes. The outcome may be in the form of Computer print
outs, or drawings. Next stage is the evaluation of this outcome. The purpose of evaluation
is to decide whether this outcome is able to meet the need. Here a comparison between
the capabilities of the outcome and the need is carried out. If the outcome is sufficient to
meet the need, the designer goes on to next step, otherwise the design operation is
repeated.

3.7 Detailed Morphology of Design

A design project goes through a number of time phases. Morphology of design refers to
the collection of these time phases. The morphology of design as put forward by Morris

Asimow can be elaborated as given below.

It consists of seven phases.:
I. Feasibility study
II. Preliminary Design
III. Detail design
IV. Planning for manufacture
V. Planning for distribution
VI. Planning for use
VII. Planning for retirement

Phase 1. Feasibility Study.

This stage is also called conceptual design. A design project always begins with a
feasibility study. The purpose and activities during feasibility study are To ascertain
there really exists a need [ie the existence of need must be supported by necessary
evidences, rather than the outcome of ones fancy] Search for a number of possible
solutions Evaluate the solutions i.e. is it physically realisable? Is it economically
worthwhile? Is it within our financial capacity? Phase

2 Preliminary (Embodiment) Design.

This is the stage art which the concept generated in the feasibility study is carefully
developed. The important activities done at this stage are: * Model building & testing *
Study the advantages and disadvantages of different solutions. * Check for performance,
quality strength, aesthetics etc.

Phase III: Detail Design

Its purpose is to furnish the complete engineering description of the tested product. The
arrangement, from, dimensions, tolerances and surface properties of all individual parts
are determined. Also, the materials to be used and the manufacturing process to be
adopted etc. are decided. Finally, complete prototype is tested.

Phase IV: Planning for manufacture

This phase includes all the production planning and control activities necessary for the
manufacture of the product.
The main tasks at this phase are
* Preparation of process sheet, i.e. the document containing a sequential list of

manufacturing processes.
* Specify the condition of row materials.
* Specify tools & machine requirements.
* Estimation of production cost.
* Specify the requirement in the plant.
* Planning QC systems.
* Planning for production control.
* Planning for information flow system etc.

Phase V: Planning for Distribution

The economic success of a design depends on the skill exercised in marketing. Hence,
this phase aims at planning an effective distribution system.
Different activities of this phase are
* Designing the packing of the product.
* Planning effective and economic warehousing systems.
* Planning advertisement techniques
* Designing the product for effective distribution in the prevailing conditions.

Phase VI Planning for Consumption/use

The purpose of this phase is to incorporate in the design all necessary user- oriented
features.
The various steps are
* Design for maintenance
* Design for reliability
* Design for convenience in use
* Design for aesthetic features
* Design for prolonged life
* Design for product improvement on the basis of service data.

Phase VII: Planning for Retirement.

This is the phase that takes into account when the product has reached the end of useful
life.
A product may retire when
* It does not function properly
* Another competitive design emerges
* Changes of taste or fashion The various steps in this phase are
* Design for several levels of use
* Design to reduce the rate of obsolescence.
* Examine service-terminated products to obtain useful information.

3.8. Methods of Innovative Design

As we know, innovative design is an organized, systematized and logical approach for
solving a design problem.
There are two design methods for innovative design.
(i) Design by creative design route
(ii) Engineering Design

(i) Design by creative routs [Creative Design]

This is a design method that demands maximum creativity from the part of the designer.
Hence this method is also called creative design. Here the designer finds solutions to
problems by allowing his creativity aspects grow in a particular manner. Creativity [S94,
W95, W98, S03]
Majority of designs belong to variant design, where the designer simply modifies an
existing system. But the success of engineering design depends on the modes of thinking
and acting distinctively different from others. A creative designer is distinguished by his
ability to synthesize new combinations of ideas and concepts into meaningful and useful
forms. Design is commonly thought of as a creative process involving the use of
imagination and lateral thinking to create new and different products.

Qualities of a creative designer [S96, S00, S03]

The creative designer is generally a person of average intelligence, a visualiser, a hard
worker and a constructive non-conformist with average knowledge about the problem at
hand.
Generally, a creative designer has the following qualities.
* Visualization ability. Creative designers have good ability to visualize, to generate and
manipulate visual images in their heads.
* Knowledge All designers start their job with what they know. During designing, they
make minor modifications of what they already know or, creative designers create new
ideas out of bits of old designs they had seen in the past. Hence, they must have
knowledge of past designs.
* Ability to manipulate knowledge The ability to use the same knowledge in a different
way is also an important quality of a designer.

* Risk taking A person who does not take the risk of making mistakes cannot become a
good designer. For example, Edison tried hundreds of different light bulb designs before
he found the carbon filament.
* Non-conformist There are two types of non-conformists:-constructive and obstructive.
Constructive non-conformists are those who take a firm stand, because they think they
are right. Obstructive non-conformists are those who take a stand just to have an
opposing view. The constructive non-conformists might generate a good idea. But the
obstructive non-conformists will only slow down the design process. Creative designers
are constructive non-conformists, and they want to do things in their own way.
* Technique Creative designers have more than one approach to problem solving. They
are prepared to try alternative techniques, till they reach a satisfactory solution.
* Motivation They always motivate others in the design team. In such a favourable
environment creativity is further enhanced.
* Willingness to practice Creativity comes with practice. Creative designers are ready to
practice for a long enough period.

Roadblocks to Creativity
* Fear of making a mistake
* Unwillingness to think and act in a way other than the accepted norm.
* Desire to conform to standard solutions.
* Unwillingness to try new approaches
* Fear of criticism
* Lack of knowledge
* Overconfidence due to past experience
* Unwillingness to reject old solutions
* Fear of authority
* Difficulty in visualization
* Inability to distinguish between cause and effect

* Inability to collect complete information

* Unwillingness to be different
Methods to enhance Creativity
* Use of analogy
* Asking question from different view points
* Memories of past designs
* Competitive products
* Deliberate day-dreaming
* Reading science fictions, etc.

Intuition [S01]
Intuition means sudden ideas or flashes of inspiration and involves complex associations
of ideas, elaborated in subconscious mind. Intuitive ideas lead to a large number of good
and even excellent solutions.
Creative Design Route [W95, 94, 98, 900]
Creative design route is the procedure through which a creative design is born. The
success of this design lies with the creativity of the designer. Creative design route can be
practiced by following the sequences shown in figure.
During preparation period, the designer analyses the need and collect all the necessary
information required at various stages.
Preparation
Concentration
Incubation

Illumination
Verification

Concentration is the period when the designer digests all the aspects of the problem
situation and tries various possible combinations. The next step is the incubation period.
The designer relaxes away from the problem for some time. Illumination is the sudden
insight and throwing up with a solution. The final step is the verification. Now, testing
and inspection of the design is done and the details are completed. For a designer using
creative methods for design, habitual or familiar methods must be avoided.

(ii) ENGINEERING DESIGN (W 96)

Another procedure for obtaining innovative design is Engg. Design.
Apart from creativity-approach, this is a logical and intellectual attempt to solve design
problems. It largely depends on discoveries and laws of science.
The different steps in Engg. design process is given below:
- Recognition of need
-Definition of the problem
-Gathering of Information
-Conceptualization
Evaluation of concepts
Communication of the design

Since all design projects are meant for satisfying some need, any design work starts with
Recognition of the need.
The need for a design is initiated by either a market requirement, the development of a
new technology or the desire to improve an existing product.
Once the need has identified, the next step is to define the design problem. This is the
most critical step in the design process.

The definition of the problem expresses as specifically as possible, what the design is
intended to accomplish. It should include objectives and goals, definitions of any special
technical terms, the constraints on the design and the criteria that will be used to evaluate
the designs.
The success of a design project depends on the clarity in the definition of the problem.
Need Analysis is the technique used to define the problem(Chapter 6). The next step is
collecting information. In many phases of deign process a large quantity of information
may be required. The required information can be obtained from textbooks, journals, or
other agencies (See Art. 6.4) The conceptualization step involves, finding several design
ideas to meet the given need. Inventiveness and creating is very important in this step.
The different ideas conceived are weighted and judged in the evaluation step. The
advantages and disadvantages of each idea against its performance, cost aesthetics etc is
valued. After evaluation, the best design is emerged. This final design with every detail is
furnished in last step-ie communicating the design.

Common features between Creative Design & Engg. Design (W.94)

(1) The preparation phase in creative design and need analysis in Engg. Design is more or
less common. Both steps deal with analyzing the need.
(2) In both design methods brainstorming and Synetics can be applied.
(3) Reviewing is applicable in both design methods.
(4) For both deigns, the success depends on the clarity with which the need statement is
prepared.
(5) Testing and inspection is applicable for both designs.

Difference between Creative Designs & Engg, Designs (W 94)

1. Intelligence is not a must for creative design-but the same is desirable in Engg. Design.
2. Creative design is based on use of analogy and synthesis of alternatives but
engineering design is based on proven laws and past experience.
3. Creative design involves phases like incubation, illumination but no such philosophy

is followed in engineering designs.

4. Creative person is highly intuitive and independent in thinking and usually resists
working in group but engineering designers like teamwork.
5. Customs, habits and traditions are enemies of creativity but the same are required in
engineering design.

3.9. Divergence, Transformation & Convergence (S97 5M)

The entire design process can be said to have composed of three distinct phases Viz.
Divergence, Transformation and Convergence phases. The problem definition, need
analysis and conceptualization etc. aims at generating as many ideas as possible to solve
a given design problem. Thus, these activities belong to the Divergence phase. That
activity wherein the concept is converted into physical object is termed as transformation
phase. The convergence is a narrowing process, where the best optimal solution is tried
for, by eliminating unwanted ideas.
3.10. Design Process Using Advanced Technology (W00)
Although Engineering is a major sector of the economy in a developing country. It has
not been benefited greatly from advances in computer technology. Engineers still use
computers only in peripheral tasks, such as drafting and analyzing, but not in making
fundamental design decisions.
Current computer tools such as computer-aided drafting are restricted to the end of the
design process and play no fundamental role in aiding design. It aids only in the final
drafting of the specifications. Computer-aided Design, (CAD) means a class of tools for
crating drawing, or the physical description of the object. CAD systems have been
sophisticated and 2D and 3D models are available. The CAD allows the designer to
conceptualize objects more easily.
The design process in CAD system consists of the following stages.
1) Geometric modeling
2) Analysis and optimization
3) Evaluation
4) Documentation and drafting.

QUESTIONS

1. How can you explain the term design? Explain the process of mechanical design.
Discuss the role of creativity in the designs process. (S94. 8M)
2. The mechanical design process normally has six stages and amongst them the three
stage are ----- ------ ------- (S99, S94, 1 M)
3. What is morphology of design? Explain the various steps with the help of block
diagram (W.95)
4. The three stages of design are (W 96)
5. State the different phases that are involved in morphology of design (S.96)
6. Briefly discuss the concept of creativity as applicable for solving design problems (W
98. 6M)
7. What makes the design process tortuous? Explain (W 99, 6M)
8. The creative design process can be considered to be (S93)
9. Discuss creativity and creative design. Use examples to explain. (W 95)
10. What do you understand by intuition (S 01)
11. Draw a flow-chart showing different stages of engineering design. Explain why some
stages are repeated several times. (S.93.5M)
12. What feedback loops provide information for the redesign of products and the
productive systems. (W93)
13. The process of design by evolution adopted by craftsman is a .. Ans. Slow
process of design development (W94)
14. With suitable examples, compare Design by evolution and Design by innovation.
(S 96)
5. Enumerate the steps in Engg. Design process and explain (W96)
16. Justify the statement with reasons Modern design problems cannot be handled by
traditional methods. (S97, W98)
17. Good design requires both------ --------. Ans. Analysis and Synthesis. (S93)
18. Define creative design routes. What are the stages of these routes, Explain these in

brief. (S00)
19. Explain the process involved in creativity. What are the various qualities of creative
designer? Give the brief description of these. (S00).
20. What do you mean by creative design routes. Write down the different statements
about creativity and creative designers. (S01)
21. Compare the design synthesis and design analysis. Explain the basics procedure of
design synthesis giving suitable examples. (S 02).
22. What are the common features and differences between creative design activities and
Engg? Design activities. Explain briefly with the help of examples. (W94)
23. Discuss the divergence, transformation, and convergence phases in the design of a
new product. (S97)
24. What are the three different stages in the design process? Explain with example.
(W99)
25. What are the most important steps involved in the design process? Explain? (W00)
26. What are the methods currently being adopted for design process using advanced
technology? (W00)
27. Name various phases in design morphology. Explain these in brief. (S01)
28. Explain Engg. Design (S01)
29. What major steps are involved in design process? Briefly explain each one (W01).
30. What do you understand by the design process? List out the various phases involved
and explain them briefly. (S02)
31. Give the checklist for an engg. Design problem. (W98)
32. ___ is one of the most powerful aids to creativity in design.
(Use of analogy) (W 94).
33. What do you understand by the term creativity? What are its requirements? (03).
34. Discuss the stages in engineering design process with the help of example. (S 05)
35. Explain Design processes. Illustrate the steps followed with the help of a figure.
Also explain the flow of work during the design process. (W 05, 8M) 36. What do

you understand by morphology of design? Discuss the phases of feasibility

study, preliminary design and detailed design. (W 05. 8M)

----------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER 4
IDENTIFICATION OF NEED
4.1. What is a need?
A need can be defined as a personnel unfulfilled vacancy which determines and organizes
all psychological and behavioral activities in the direction of fulfilling the vacancy A
product can be product and marketed only if it is needed by the customer. A person buys
a pen because he needs to write. A patient needs something that can cure his illness.
These examples show that needs are nothing but a scarcity or problem or wants felt by a
person, device or a system. In fact a designers goal is to find solutions to such problems

4.2. Hierarchy of Human needs (W 96)

Maslow developed a hierarchy of human needs as given below
1. Physiological needs - These are the basic needs of the body- For example, thirst,
hunger, sex, sleep etc.
2. Safety and security needs For a person whose physiological needs are met, the new
emerging needs are safety needs. These include, protection against danger, threat etc.
3. Social needs Once the physiological and safety needs are met, the next dominant need
is social need. For example he/she want to love and be loved, he want to be in group,
etc.
4. Psychological needs These are the needs for self-respect and self- esteem, and for
recognition.
5. Self-fulfillment needs These are the needs for the realisation of ones full potential
through self-development, creativity, and self-expression.

4.3. Identification/Recognition of Needs (W 96)

The beginning of any design process is the recognition of need or problem. When a turner
hears an awkward noise from some part of the lathe he identifies/ recognises a need. i.e.
the lathe requires repair. When the sales personnel observes that their customers are
always complaining of poor performance of the products, a need to develop a better

product is identified.
Similarly, when the customers are unsatisfied with the present model, a new need is
recognised.
Needs can be identified from,
* Careful market analysis
* Statements made by politicians from their observations
* Interpretations of a communitys requirements
* Trends in other parts of the world

4.4. Variety of Needs [S00]

Following are the needs, which can generate ideas for the development of new products.
(i). Variation of an existing product. This could be a change in a single or a few
parameters of an existing product. Eg - Changing the length of a cylinder. -Changing the
power of a motor, etc.
(ii) Improvements in the existing product. This implies the need to redesign some of
the features of an existing product. Such needs can arise, when -Customers want a new
feature or better performance than existing features -A vendor can no longer supply
components or materials that had been used so far -Manufacturing or assembly
departments identifies a quality improvement -Invention of a new technology that can be
incorporated in the existing design.
(iii) A change in production model Whenever the production model changes from jobshop to mass, a corresponding change in product design may be demanded. For example,
there is more tendency to buy off-the shelf components for short-run products. Whatever
may be the situation, a company has to identify or locate a need before the production of
any device.
This crucial step is called Recognition/ Identification of need.
Examples:
1. With the free-entry of Chinese products to Indian market, manufacturers in India
recognize a need to sell their products at a lower price.
2. When a company observes that their products do not perform well, the company
recognizes a need to re-design it.

4.5 Need Statement

Once the need has recognized, the next step is to prepare the need statement. It is a
general statement specifying the problem for which a solution is required. In other wordsIt is the objective of design, expressed in the form of a statement.

Need Statement Examples [S 93]

Give one need statement for each of the following
Bicycle
Voltage stabilizers
Personnel Computer
i). Bicycle: - The need statement for a bicycle could be A device for a common person to
travel reasonable distance comfortably with least effort The initial cost should be lowand be as light as possible, have adequate life, be easy to maintain etc
(ii). Voltage stabilizer A solid state noiseless electrical device of adequate power rating
to provide continuously an output at constant voltage, accepting the input power at
varying voltage between the limits__and__volts . The indications for input and output
voltage levels may be provided.
iii). Personnel Computer A computing device to accept input data, manipulate it
according to a set of instructions and provide the desired output on CRT and printer

Questions
1. List hierarchy of human needs that motivate individuals. [W96]
2. Give one need statement for each of the following Bicycle (ii) Voltage stabilizer (iii)
Personnel Computer [S93]
3. Explain the steps involved in identification of a problem by a designer [S96]
4. Every product is made in response to.of individual or society. Ans. needs [S97]
5. Enumerate and explain variety of needs which can generate ideas for the Development
of new product. [S00]
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER 5

PRODUCT PLANNING
5.1 Introduction
Once the top management of an organisation recognized a need to develop a product, it
will go for product design, only if, - the purposed product will guarantee a handsome

profit - the market conditions are favorable in respect of competition. - the necessary
resources are available - the purposed design is worthwhile.
5.2 Feasibility Study.
The starting point of a design project is a need. Once the need has been identified, the
company has to ensure the worth of the project. Feasibility study is a preliminary analysis
for making a decision regarding the design project, to be forwarded or not. If the
feasibility study reveals that the proposed design project does not bring comfortable
revenue, or the design demands huge investments beyond the capacity of the
organisation, the project is dropped.
5.3 .Product Planning [S 01]
Planning is the process used to develop a scheme for scheduling and committing the
resources of time, money and people. A plan shows how a project will be initiated,
organized, co-coordinated and monitored.
A product plan is a decision-making as regards to the design and manufacture of a
product, by considering the revenues from different products.
For example assume that a company already manufacturing 3 products, say P1, P2 and P3
identifies a need to design a new product N. Owing to the design and manufacture of
the new product, the production volume, and hence revenue from products P1, P2,and P3
may be affected (due to re-allocation of company resources such as raw materials,
machineries).
In this situation, the company has to decide a time-schedule for the design and
manufacture of the new product. Such plan made by the management is called the
product plan. It must contain the time-as well as resource allocation for each of the
products. More over it will result in optimum and efficient use of resources. After the
product plan in made, the management begins a project for a new product design.

5.4. Organisation Of Design Group

The complexity of mechanical devices has grown rapidly over the last 200 years. For
example Boeing 747 aircraft (which has over 50,000 components) required over 10
thousand persons years of design time. Thousands of designers worked over a three-year
period on the project. These show that, design work is generally done by a team or group.
A design team may include thousands of design and manufacturing engineers, material
scientists, technicians, purchasing agents, drafters, and quality control specialists, all
working over many years. The first phase in any design process is identification of needs.
Needs may be identified by market survey, the desire to improve an existing product or
even by the development of a technology. Since any design activity consumes company
resources like money, people and equipments etc. the planning of these resources is the
next phase after need- identification. Planning means allocation of resources such as

money, people etc. The first step in planning is to form a design team.

5.5. Members of Design Team

Following is a list of individuals needed in a design team.
Their titles may vary from company to company.
1. Design Engineer. This person is responsible for suggesting ideas for the proposed
product. For that, he must clearly understand needs for the product as well as its
engineering requirements. Hence, he must posses both creative and analytical skills. He
must be an engineering graduate having vast experience in the particular product area.
2. Marketing Manager. He is responsible for success of the product in the market. He is
a link between the product and the customer. He always sees whether the customer like
this product?
3. Manufacturing Engineer. He knows the best manufacturing process suitable for the
production of the particular product. He can give advice on the various manufacturing
processes available in the industry.
4. Detailer In many companies the design engineer is responsible for specification
development, planning, conceptual design and the early stages of product design. The
project is then turned over to detailers who finishes the details, develops manufacturing
and assembly documents.
5. Drafter A drafter aids the design engineer and detailer by making drawing of the
product. In many companies the detailer and the drafter are the same individual.
6. Technician. The technicians aid the design engineer in developing test-apparatus,
performing experiments etc.
7. Materials Specialist. In some products, the choice of the material is based on
availability. In some other cases, a certain material is to be chosen according to some
features of the product. Material specialist can give advice on properties of different
materials.
8. Quality Control Specialist. A quality control specialist observes how well the product
meets specifications. This inspection is done on finished products as well as raw
materials purchased from vendors.
9. Industrial Engineer. Industrial designers are responsible for how a product looks and
how well it interacts with customers. They generally have background in fine arts and in
human factor analysis.
10. Assembly Manager. The assembly manager is responsible for putting the product

together. Note that assembly process is an important aspect of product design.

11. Suppliers Representative. As part of product development, the company may
purchase components or sub-assemblies from out-sources. In that case, the representative
of the supplier of the specified component must be included in the design team.

5.6 Organisational Structure of Design Teams

Since a design project requires individuals with different fields of expertise, they can be
organised into different structures. Listed below are the five organisational structures.
The number in the bracket shows the percentage of design projects that use that particular
organisation structure.
1. Project matrix, (28%) It is an organisation structure having the features of project and
matrix organisations.
2. Functional matrix (26%) It is another organisational structure obtained by combining
functional as well as matrix organisations.
3. Balanced Matrix (16%) Here the project manager and functional manager work
together. A project manager is assigned to oversee the project, and the responsibility and
authority for completing the project rests with functional managers.
4. Project Team (16%) A project manager is put in charge of a project team composed of
a core group of personnels from several functional areas or groups assigned on a full time
basis.
5. Functional Organisation (13%) Each project is assigned to a relevant functional area or
group within a functional area. A functional area focuses on a single discipline.

5.7. Task Clarification [S 01]

A project plan is a document that defines the tasks necessary to be completed during a
design process. A project plan is used to keep the project under control. It helps the
design team and management to know how the project is actually progressing.
There are five steps to establish a plan.
They are,
1. Identify the task
2. State the objective of each task
3. Estimate Personnels, time, resources required.
4. Develop a sequence for these tasks.

5. Estimate product development cost.

Step 1 Identify the tasks

In the first step of the planning of the design project, the different tasks needed to bring
the problem from its initial state to the final products are identified. The tasks are the
activities to be performed during the design process.
Given below is a list of tasks drafted by a design team, for the development of a certain
product.
a. Collect and evaluate customer requirements and competition scenario.
b. Establish two concepts for product development.
c. Develop final prototype.
d. Test prototype No1 and select one design for finalisation.
e. Redesign and produce proto type No2.
f. Field test prototype No2.
g. Complete production documentation.
h. Develop marketing plan.
i. Develop quality control procedures.
j. Prepare patent applications.
k. Establish product appearance.
l. Develop packaging.

Step .2. State the objective for each task.

Even though the tasks are initially identified, they need to be refined to ensure that the
results of the activities are the stated objectives.
For example, for the task No.
(a) above, the objective is to collect information required for developing specification.
Step 3: Estimate the Personnel, Time & other Resources Required.
Completion of each of the tasks listed above will consume resources such as personnel,
time etc. An estimate of the requirement of resources may look like: Task Personnel/time
Collecting data Two market surveyors, two months Concept generation Two designers,
two week.
Step 4 Develop a Sequence for the tasks
The next step is scheduling of tasks-the purpose is to ensure that each task is completed,
before its result is needed. CPM is the best method to accomplish this.
Step 5 Estimate Product Development Cost

On the basis of the above steps, the costs for developing the product can be estimated.
Normally design cost is only about 5% of manufacturing cost. The above plan developed
in the early stage of the design has to be refined as the project progresses.

Questions
1. Market research is necessary before starting the production of any product. (True) [S
'97]
2. Write a short note on Product planning and task classification. [S '01]
----------------------------------------------------------------------

Morphology of Design
Specification-standardization
Morphology of Design
Morphology
Morphology7phases

What is Design?
Engineering design is not an art or skill : it is a cognitive or intellectual
process based on knowledge---- by John R. Dixon.
Engineering design is an iterative decision-making and problem solving
activity to produce the plan to convert resoures optimally into systems or
devices to fulfill a specified task. In case of machine design, the resources
are material , machines and wquipments involved, and labour put into,
and system is the machine product.
The activity is subjected to certain constraints. Those are (1) Problemsolving constraints, designer's problem-solving capabilities, time available,
laboratory or computational facilities, and (2) the problem-solution
constrains, cost of the product, availability of raw materials , equipments
or manufacturing facilities.
Plan is a method, or scheme of actions , or a way proposed.

Design is that area of human experience, skill and knowledge

which is concerned with mans ability to mould his
environment to suit his material and spiritual needs.

Design is essentially a rational, logical, sequential process

intended to solve problems or initiate change in man-made
things

For the term design process, we can also read problem-solving process, which
in all but its abstract forms works by consultation and consensus.

The process begins with the identification and analysis of a problem or need and
proceeds through a structured sequence in which information is researched and
ideas explored and evaluated until the optimum solution to the problem or need is
devised.
Design was not a total process. The work of participants in the process was often
compartmentalised, each having little if any input in matters which fell outside the
boundaries of their specific expertise. Thus, participants explored their ideas unilaterally,
with one or another participant, through virtue of their expertise, imposing constraints
upon all others.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Morphology of Design:
Morphology7phases

Morphology, the study of pattern and form, is crucial to design

because it constitutes an essential part of its corpus of coherent
knowledge.
The collection of time phases of the followiing steps is usually called the
"Morphology of Design"
The phases are:
(1) Feasability study (evaluation of alternatives): The aim is to produce a
number of feasible and useful solutions.

The Design Process

Intoduction
In Design Process, we will have to look at techniques or best practices, that
help the egineer design quality products. To understand how to make the best
use of the techniques, it is omportant to look at them in the context of the
overall design process. Thus, the progress of a product from need to
production is explored by means of examples that demonstrate the flexibility
of the process. The emphasis is on the importence of design documentaion. A
design problem is introduced and is used as acase study.

Overview of the Design Process

The Design process varies from product to product and industry to indistry.
Nonethless, we can construct a generic diagram of the activities that must be
accomplished for all projects.
Before the design of a product can begin, the need for that prodict must be
established. There are two sources for design projects, the market or the
development of a new product idea without market demand. About 80 percent
of new product development is market-driven. Without a custumer for the
product, there is no way to recover the costes of design and manufacture. Thus,
the most important part inlunderstanding tyhe design problem lies in assessing
the market , that is , establishing what the custumer wants in the product. Even
if market-driven, new products must contain the latest technology if they are to
be perceived as being of high quality for what consumers means by "high
quality"
--------------

Product Design Specifications

1. What is a PDS and why write one?
A product design specification (PDS) is a document which sets out fully and
in detail exactly what will be required of a product, before it is designed.
Many companies do not work to such formal specifications , but as a result
they are not fully in control of what they produce. PDSs are essential.
A PDS does not just help the people who design and make the product.
Those who eventually use it also benefit. Consumers' judgements are all too
often overlooked by engineers, but people think critically about the products
they buy. They may take an interest in design or engineering for its own
sake. They certainly will not hesitate to criticise a product if it does not do,
efficiently and reliably, what they expect it to. A PDS is therefore also an
analysis of what the market will demand of the product.

2. Before you write a PDS

A PDS specifies a problem, not a solution. A PDS does not pre-empt the
design process by predicting its outcome. Rather, it defines the task by
listing all the conditions the product will have to meet. This can involve a
good deal of research, into market conditions, competing products, and the
relevant literature including patents.
When you write a PDS, you are defining something that does not yet exist.
But for practice at thinking this way, it can help to look at an existing
product and work out what its PDS was

3. Everybody is involved
Once a PDS has been written, it becomes the principal reference for all
those working on the design. The PDS must therefore be written in language
that all parties can understand.
A PDS must not become the exclusive property of one group. Everybody
concerned with the project must endorse the PDS and share responsibility

for observing it.

4. A PDS can change

A PDS has to be a written document, but it does not need to be engraved in
stone. It can be changed. As a rule, the design follows the PDS. But if the
emerging design departs from the PDS for some good reason, the PDS can
be revised to accommodate the change. The important thing is to keep the
PDS and the design in correspondence throughout the design process. In this
way, the PDS ends up specifying not just the design, but the product itself.

5. Points to cover in a PDS

This section give detailed advice on writing a PDS under the 29
headings listed below. It is therefore a good idea to write your PDS
under these headings, leaving out only those that clearly do not apply.
1 Performance
2 Economy
3 Target production cost
4 Quantity
5 Manufacturing facilities
6 Product life span
7 Customers

11 Size
12 Weight
13 Maintenance
14 Materials
15 Special processes
16 Ergonomics
17 Appearance

8 Competition

18 Finish

9 Service life
10 Environment

19 Quality and reliability

20 Packing

21 Shipping
22 Industry standards
23 Shelf life / storage life
24 Testing
25 Safety
26 Personnel
27 Market constraints
28 Political and social
factors
29 Design time

Reliability and robust design

Reliability Engineering and Robust Design
Reliability Engineering means considering tolerances in design parameters,
uncertainties in environments, uncertainties in application (e.g. usage scenarios),
and variations in manufacturing as the stochastic phenomena that they are.

Robust Design means factoring reliability into the development of the design
itself: designing for a target reliability and thereby avoiding either costly overdesign or dangerous under-design in the first place. Such an approach eliminates
a deterministic stack-up of tolerances, worst-case scenarios, safety factors, and
margins that have been the traditional approaches for treating uncertainties.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The reliability constraints deal with the probability

of failures, while the robustness minimizes the
product quality loss.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CLASSICAL APPROACH TO DESIGN FOR RELIABILITY

Although Taguchi sees product design as consisting of three phases [7]:
1. System design
2. Parameter design
3. Tolerance design, these terms are somewhat foreign to most mechanical and electrical
design engineers in the U.S.
So, we will use the traditional phases of 1. Conceptual design 2. Preliminary design 3.
Detail design when we discuss the classical approaches to design for reliability (DFR).
Reliability is generally not a consideration in conceptual design, which seeks to combine
technologies in new ways to determine if it is even feasible to meet the specified mission.
Below we identify a top five list of approaches to design for reliability in preliminary
and detail design.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------EXPERIMENT-BASED APPROACHES TO DESIGN FOR RELIABILITY

This section has four examples illustrating robust design for reliability.
The first is from Phadke [11], who states There are three fundamental ways of
improving the reliability of a product during the design stage: 1. Reduce the sensitivity of
the products function to the variation in the product parameters 2. Reduce the rate of
change of the product parameters 3. Include redundancy, and the most cost-effective
approach for reliability improvement is to find appropriate continuous quality
characteristics and reduce their sensitivity to all noise factors."
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

A Robust Design methodology is an organized and proven development

philosophy designed to improve system reliability.
The principles of Robust Design allow design teams to handle complex system
integration issues with repeatable processes. As shown below, a Robust Designbased system accepts input signals and produces an appropriate response. In a
typical environment, however, variations in the design can influence the
performance of the system. Design teams must implement control techniques to
compensate for the design variations.

The general Robust Design system diagram is based on Taguchi methods.

A Robust Design flow is focused on reducing the effect of variations on system

performance and reliability. These variations can come from sources internal or external
to the design and include changes in component tolerances, manufacturing processes, use
patterns, the environment, and those due to system aging. While these are broad
categories, each factor can have a major effect on the reliability of a system. The key
objective of a Robust Design process is to optimize the system design for performance,
reliability, and cost while accounting for these variations. In a typical design flow,
accounting for multiple variations requires extensive testing. This means that once a
system has been designed, it must be prototyped and tested.
A Robust Design process requires that multiple variations be tested, which means a new
prototype has to be built and tested for each variation. It is obvious that implementing
Robust Design methodologies using this design-prototype-test flow would soon become
too time consuming and expensive to be practical. The solution is to move the designprototype-test operations into the virtual world of simulation and analysis. This is often
referred to as virtual prototyping. With modern design tools like the Saber simulator,
design teams can design and build virtual prototypes of their systems and run many tests
within the time and budget allotted for the traditional design-prototype-test flow.
Simulation and modeling, therefore, are critical requirements to implementing a Robust
Design flow.

Design flow
A Robust Design flow based on modeling and simulation must follow a systematic
process. The key to this process is determining:
The critical performance metrics of the system
Modeling the system in a way that highlights these metrics
Then verifying the metrics at each stage of the system development process A Robust
Design flow has the fundamental development stages and requires the simulation
capabilities shown here.
An effective Robust Design process depends on a systematic development
flow and requires advanced simulation capabilities. This Robust Design flow can be
easily illustrated using the development process of a hybrid vehicle system.

STANDARDIZATION
standardization.

Standardization means: "the development and implementation of concepts doctrines,

products and designs to achieve and maintain the required levels of compatibility
intechangeability or commonality in the operational,procedural material, technical and
administrative fields to attain interoperability."
where it generally used? Common use of the word standard implies that it is a universally
agreed upon set of guidelines for interoperability.

Standardization techniques:
The Zero-Based Approach This is a very effective technique to reduce the number of
different parts (part types) by standardizing on certain preferred parts. This usually
applies to purchased parts but it could also apply to manufactured parts.
The methodology is based on a zero-based principle that asks the simple question: "What
is the minimum list of part types we need to design new products?"
Answering this question can be made easier by assuming that the company (or a new
competitor) has just entered this product line and is deciding which parts will be needed
for a whole new product line. One of the advantages of new competitors the ability to
"start fresh" without the old "baggage:" too many parts. Just image a competitor
simultaneously designed the entire product line around common parts. Now image doing
the same thing internally. This is called the zero based approach.
The zero based approach, literally, starts at zero and adds only what is needed, as opposed
to reducing parts from a overwhelming list. An analogous situation would be cleaning out
the most cluttered drawer in a desk, a purse, or a glove compartment; removing unwanted
pieces would take much effort, and still not be very effective.
The more effective zero-based approach would be to empty everything, and add back
only the items that are essential. Where the "clutter" ends up is the difference in the
approaches: in the drawer, purse or glove compartment or in the garbage can. Similarly,
parts reduction efforts have to work hard to remove the clutter (excess part variety) in the
system, whereas zero-based approaches exclude the clutter from the beginning.
The clutter is the unnecessary parts that would have not been needed if products were
designed around common parts. Not only do these excess parts incur overhead costs to
administer them, they also lower plant efficiency and machine utilization because of the
setup caused by product that are designed to have more parts than can be distributed at
every point of use.

This approach determines the minimum list of parts needed for new designs and is not
intended to eliminate parts used on existing products, except, when the common parts are
functionally equivalent in all respects. In this case the new common part may be
substituted as an equivalent part or a "better-than" substitution, where a common part
with a better tolerance can replace its lesser counterpart in existing products.
Even if part Standardization efforts only apply to new products, remember that in these
days of rapid product obsolescence and short product life cycles, all older products may
be phased out in a few years.

Tool Standardization.
A subject related to part Standardization is tool Standardization, which determines how
many different tools are required for assembly, alignment, calibration, testing, repair, and
service. Company-wide tool standardization can be determined as follows: Analyze tools
used for existing products. Prioritize usage histories to determine the most "common" of
existing tools. Work with people in manufacturing/service to determine tool preferences.
Coordinate common tool selection with common part selection. Issue common tool lists
with common parts lists.
Feature Standardization.
"Features" are any geometry that requires a separate tool like a drill, ream, hole punch,
bend radii, and cutting tool bit for machine tools. These tools need to be standardized
using the same procedures as parts.
Raw Materials Standardization.
If raw materials can be standardized, then the processes can be flexible enough to make
different products without any setup to change materials, fixturing mechanisms, or
cutting tools. Raw material Standardization can apply to bar stock/tubing, sheet-metal,
molding/casting, protective coatings, and programmable chips.
Process Standardization.
Standardization of processes results from the concurrent engineering of products and
processes to ensure that the processes are actually specified by the design team, rather
than being left to chance or "to be determined later." Processes must be coordinated and
common enough to ensure that all parts and products in the mass customization platform
can be built without the setup changes that would undermine flexible manufacturing.
Example: auto-feed screwdrivers.

EFFECT ON SUPPLIERS
Standardization of parts helps part suppliers rationalize their product lines and allow them
to:
C reduce their overhead costs and subsidies, which allows them to be more cost
competitive
C improve their operational flexibility, resulting in better delivery.
C simplify their supply chain management,
C free valuable resources to improve operations and quality, implement better product
development practices, and introduce new capabilities like build-to-order & mass
customization.

STANDARDIZATION BENEFITS
C Cost Reduction
Purchasing costs reduced through purchasing leverage
Inventory cost reduction
Floor space reduction
BOM/MRP/ordering expense avoided when common parts are simply drawn as
needed from kanban resupply systems
Overhead cost reduction
C Quality:
Product quality
Continuous Improvement
Vendor reduction
C Flexibility:
Eliminating setup
Inventory reduction
Simplify supply chain management
Internal material logistics
Breadtruck deliveries
Flexible manufacturing
C Responsiveness:
Build-to-Order
Parts availability
Quicker deliveries from vendors

------------------------------------------------------------------

Benefits of Standardization
The main criteria for international standardization are:
Improvement in universal technical communication and mutual understanding;
Facilitation of international exchange of goods and services;
Removal of technical barriers to trade;
Transfer of technology.
For product standardsthe benefits may be broadly summarized
under the headings:
1.Variety reduction,
the effects of variety reductionare well known and can mostly be
assessed in terms of hard cash, taking due account of the

additional cost reduction effects on associated parts and

operations;
2. Interchangeability:
Interchangeability as a result of standardization leads to higher
productivity and lower manufacturing costs. These benefits are
relayed to the users as a result of increased competition.
lnterchangeability is also very important to erection, installation,
maintenance, and repairs
3.Availability:
easy availabilityimplies that an adequate number of varieties are
always in stock. This means shorter lead times and less capital
tied up on the user side.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

Benefits of Standardization
To consumers:
A source of information
The application of the performance approach
Comparative analysis
Source for complaints
More balanced technical regulations

Standardization in Design
Introduction
The development of a Machine one the drawing board is part of the overall
task of design. If the designer's creation is to leave the drawing board and
become a physical peice of hardware, it must be manufacturable. In other
words, the design of all the parts if a machine should be such that they can be
produced by some manufacturing methods and then assembled at competitive
cost. The designer should have a thorough knowledge of the capabilities and
limitations of the manufacturing methods. Only then can be properly design
parts, select the materials and manufacturing methods, specify toelerences,
consider assembly procedures, specify the reliability of the machine and
incorporate human aspects in the design..

STANDARDIZATION:
Modern systems are increasingly becoming more and more complex. A large
number of mechanical components , controls, computers and communication
subsystems are found interconnected in a complex system. Such a complex
system can have many sources of errors. While some errors may be
predictable, others are not due to their randam nature. Predictable errors are
those which can be foreseen based on the mathemetucal description of the
system's dynamics. In order to minimise predictable errors, the use of
standards is advocated.
The main purpose of standardization is to establish mandatory or
obligatory norms for the design and production of machines so as to
reduce variations in their types and grades and to achieve quality
characteristics in raw materials, semi-finished and finished products.
Standardization , therefore, provides the following benefits.
(a). Better product quality , reliability, and longer life service.
(b) Mass production of components at low cost.
(c) Easy avalability of parts for replacement and maintenance.
(d) Less time and effort required to manufacture.
(e) reduction in variations in size and grades of an article.
The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has standardized a number of items for
the benefit of designers and users.

In the area of machine design, items of the following categories are

standardized and this process is on going one.
(1) Engineering materials, their compositions, properties and method of
testing.
(2) Rules of preparing drawings and use of symbols.
(3) Fits and tolerences for various parts frowm assembly considerations.
(4) Dimentions and preffered sizes for various machine components, namely
rivets, bolts, nuts, keys, couplings, ball and roller bearings and so on.
In standardization, the concept of preffered numbers helps to reduce
unnecessary variations in sizes and grades of an article. Experience has shown
that the general requirements of such a grading are mostly satisfied when it
follows a geometrical series.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------What is met by "engineering standards" in this criterion?
Why do we have standards and how did they come about?
Who enforces standards? How are standards established?
What general and field-specific guidance is there for engineering educators
wanting to include engineering standards in their courses?
Discussion of engineering standards is going to colored by the different
meaning standards will have to individual faculty. The interest in standards has
been fueled by the globalization of the world economy the need for
companies to compete internationally - and the rapid growth in
telecommunications and other high-tech areas.
Examples of product standards include fuel economy standards and airbag
requirements both effecting the design of automobiles. Examples of process
standards include standards for electronic data exchange. Standards are as
important to doing business internationally as any treaty might have been in
the past. Telecommunications companies are basically trying to take the
politics from issues such as privacy in the electronic area and emphasize
getting the benefits of the new economy into your communityand the only
way to do that is if you agree upon a standard in the truest sense of the word.

The product design specification (PDS)

Specifications:
Speciuficaations involve the formal statement of the required functions, features and
performance of the product or process to be designed.

The product design specification is the formal specification of the product to be

designed. It acts as the control for the total design activity because it sets the
boundaries for the subsequent design.
The purpose of the PDS is to ensure that your design actually addresses your
customer needs. This is essential if your product is to succeed.

The product design specification

(PDS) is a very important document in the design process as it contains all
the information necessary for a design team to successfully produce a
solution to the design problem.

A PDS splits the problem up into smaller categories to make it easier to

consider the problem. The final document should fully document as
unambiguously as possible all the requirements that a product must fulfil
together with any constraints that may affect the product.
The actual or intended customer should be consulted as fully as possible
while the PDS is being drawn up as their requirements are of paramount
importance.
Any numeric properties in the PDS should be specified as exactly as possible
together with any tolerances allowed on their value.

-----------------------------------

Product Design Specification

The Product Design Specification (PDS) comprises your quantitative statement of
what you want to design prior to starting to design it.
In other words, the specifications of the PDS should be largely independent of any

specific embodiment of your product, so multiple solution concepts are possible.

The purpose of the PDS is to ensure that your design actually addresses your
customer needs. This is essential if your product is to succeed.
Each specification consists of a metric, a weighting of importance, units, a marginal
value, and an ideal value. The metric is something that you can measure. The
weighting of importance is scaled from 1, for low importance, to 5, for essential.
Units correspond to your measurement; for example, mm for length or degrees C for
temperature.

The marginal value state the value, or range of values, for the metric that you feel
the customer would be able to tolerate. The ideal value states the target for the
metric that you hope your team can meet.
Most ME 4054W projects will have between 20 and 50 specifications.
Your customer needs should be stated so that they are independent of the way that
the final design is actually implemented. For example, if your product were a
roofing nailer, the needs should not constrain your nailer to be implemented with an
electric, a pneumatic, or an explosive power source. Strive to make your PDS
independent of implementation, also, wherever possible.
As you approach the end of the design process, the marginal and ideal values are
merged into a single column of known values.
The PDS provides the specifications for ranking different ways of implementing
your design in the selection chart.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------

A PDS checklist
The product design specification, or PDS, should contain all the facts relating to the
product. It should not lead the design by presupposing the outcome, but it must
contain the realistic constraints on the design.
This list is one attempt to cover the principal questions that need to be answered in
formulating a PDS. Inevitably, it isnt comprehensive; specific products will require
their own additional items.
1. Performance At what speed must it operate? How often will it be used
(continuous or discontinuous use)? How long must it last?

2. Environment (during manufacture, storage and use) All aspects of the

products likely environment should be considered: for example temperature,
humidity, risk of corrosion, vibration.
3. Target product cost This is strongly affected by the intended market.
4. Competition What is the nature and extent of existing or likely competition?
Does our specification differ from the competition? If so, why?
5. Quantity and manufacture Should it be made in bulk, in batches, or as
individual items made to order? Does it have to be a particular shape? Can we
make all the parts or must we buy some in?
6. Materials Are special materials needed? Do we have experience of working with
the likely candidate materials?
7. Quality and consistency What levels of quality and consistency does the market
expect for this product? Does every product have to be tested?
8. Standards Does the product need to conform to any local, international or
customer standards? Is the product safe?
9. Patents Are there any patents we may either infringe or register?
10. Packaging and shipping How will the product be packaged? How will the
product be distributed?
11. Aesthetics and ergonomics Is the product easy and fun to use? Is it attractive to
the right customer?
12. Market constraints Does a market already exist or must it be created? What is
the likely product lifetime? How long do we have to get the product to market?
What are the customers likes and dislikes?
13. Company constraints Does the product fit in with company image? Are we
constrained in material or process choice? Are there any political considerations?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Casting
Casting

Introduction
Casting is one of the easiest classes of process to understand. Casting is
simply a process where a mould is filled with a fluid, which then solidifies in
the shape of the mould cavity. Provided the liquid is capable of undergoing a
liquid-to-solid transition, by freezing or chemical reaction for instance, then
casting can be used.

Making ice cubes and jellies are useful analogies here. The production of the
mould is one of the most important stages in making a casting. The casting,
when solidified, must be of the right shape for the final product. In making
the mould, often a pattern made in the shape of the final component is
used. This might be a wooden mock-up, for example.
Complex 3D shapes can be made using casting processes. Casting can be
used to make a vast array of products, from gas-turbine blades to cheap
plastic toys. Cast parts can range in size from fractions of centimetres and
grams (such as the individual teeth on a zipper), to over 10 metres in length
and many tonnes (such as the propellers of ocean liners).

Using one of the available casting processes almost anything can be

manufactured. It is a matter of optimising materials to be cast, the mould
material and the pouring method (see Properties for processing casting).
Generally, during casting, the fluid flows into the mould under gravity, but
sometimes the fluid may need some extra force to push it into the cavity.
Casting is not restricted to metals (or jellies).

Glass and plastics can also be cast using a variety of processes, each being
dependent on the raw starting material, and the manner by which it can be
made to flow when it is in its liquid state. Casting processes can be
classified into three types depending on the nature of the mould used.

Properties for processing casting

The casting (or pouring) group of processes is one of the most convenient
for making three-dimensional shapes, especially if repeated copies are
required. However, you do have to be able to get your material into liquid
form, and it has then to be runny enough to be poured.

What do these conditions require?

To get a liquid, you have to either melt the material; or dissolve it in a
solvent which is subsequently evaporated off (the solution route); or pour
liquid precursors into a mould where they react chemically to form a solid
(the reaction route).
Some materials (e.g. thermosetting plastics) decompose rather than melt
on heating. Others react with oxygen when heated, so need to be melted in
inert atmospheres (which may prove expensive). Yet others have such high
melting points (see the database) that the energy costs of heating them is
only justified in special cases.
The solution route needs a suitable solvent, which you then have to be able
to evaporate safely (many coatings such as paints are applied this way), but
you can have shrinkage problems as the solvent is removed. The reaction
route is used for both thermosets and thermoplastics and for concrete, but
chemical reactions can produce considerable quantities of heat, so you must
allow for this in the design of the process.

Once you have the liquid, can you pour it?

The physical property that determines the runniness of liquid is called
viscosity. This varies with temperature and is not all that useful for
describing how well a mould will be filled if the temperature of the liquid is
falling as it runs into the cold mould. In the casting of metals a more useful
property is fluidity, which takes into account not only the viscosity changes
but also the effects of cooling rate, surface tension of oxide films and the
temperature range over which the alloy filling the mould actually freezes.
Eutectic alloys have a high fluidity as they melt at a single temperature.
Many of the alloys used for casting products are based on eutectic alloys.
Water and most liquids at room temperature have low viscosities, so can be
poured easily, as can thermoset precursors. Molten thermoplastics, freshlymixed concrete and clays have much higher viscosities. Although concrete
can be poured, the others generally need to be pushed into their moulds,
which is why injection-moulding machines for plastics are much beefier
than their pressure die-casting machine counterparts for metals.

Types of casting
Permanent pattern
This type of casting uses a model, or pattern, of the final product to make an
impression which forms the mould cavity. Each mould is destroyed after use
but the same pattern is used over and over again. Sand casting is a typical
example of a permanent pattern process, where a pattern is placed into a
special casting sand to form the right shape of cavity. Permanent pattern
processes are usually cheaper than other methods, especially for small
quantity production or one-offs, and are suitable for a wide range of sizes
of product.

Permanent mould

In this method the same mould is used for large numbers of castings. Each
casting is released by opening the mould rather than by destroying it.
Permanent moulds need to be made of a material which can withstand the
temperature fluctuations and wear associated with repeated casting. A good
example of a product made with methods such of this is the ubiquitous diecast childs toy (die is another word for mould).

Figure 18: Die-cast toy

Expendable mould and pattern

With this type of casting, a pattern is made from a low melting point
material and the mould is built around it. The pattern is then melted or
burnt out as the metal is poured in. The mould has to be destroyed to
retrieve the casting.

This method is used to make moulds for casting high melting-point alloys like those used

for jet engine turbine blades (Figure 19). A model (the pattern) of the blade is made in
wax. The pattern is then coated in a thick slurry containing ceramic particles. The slurry
dries, and is then fired in an oven: this hardens the ceramic (like firing a pot) and melts
out the wax, leaving a hollow ceramic mould. The metal is then poured in to the mould,
which is broken away after the metal has solidified and cooled.

Figure 19: A turbine blade

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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Investment casting :
Investment casting (lost-wax process) yields a finely detailed and accurate product,
but mechanical properties are not good since the process involves slow cooling.
Polystyrene foam is also used in investment castingsee lost-foam casting.
After a variable lead time, usually weeks, 11000 pieces/hour-mold can be produced
in the mass range 2.32.7 kg. Items up to 45 kg and as light as 30 g are possible for
unit production.
The process starts by creating an injection die to the desired specifications. This die
will be used to inject wax to create the patterns needed for investment casting. The
patterns are attached to a central wax sprue, creating an assembly, or mold. The sprue
contains the fill cup where the molten metal will be poured into the assembly.
The wax assembly is now dipped multiple times in a ceramic slurry, depending on the
shell thickness desired. A layer of fine sand (usually zircon) is added on top of each
ceramic layer. This process will be repeated until the desired shell is created.
After the shell is created to the specifications desired, the wax must be removed; this
is normally achieved using an autoclave. This is where the name "lost-wax process"
comes from. This leaves an impression of the desired castings, which will be filled
with metal. Before being cast, however, the shells must be heated in a furnace so they
do not break during the casting process.
Next, the desired metal is poured into the hot ceramic shell. The metal fills each part
on the assembly, and the central sprue cavity and fill cup. The individual parts will be
removed after the mold cools and the shell is removed. The shell is generally
removed with water-blasting, although alternate methods can be used. What remains
are the cast metal parts, but they are still attached to the sprue assembly. The
individual parts are removed by cold-break (dipping in liquid nitrogen and breaking
the parts off with hammer and chisel) or with large cutoff saws.
Most investment castings need some degree of post casting machining to remove the
sprue and runners, and improve surface finish. Grinding operations are perfomed to
remove the gate. Parts are also inspected to make sure they were cast properly, and if
not are either fixed or scrapped. Depending on the investment casting facility and

specifications, more finishing work can be done on-site, sub-contracted, or not done
at all.
Investment casting yields exceedingly fine quality products made of all types of
metals. It has special applications in fabricating very high-temperature metals such as
alloy steels or stainless steels, especially those which cannot be cast in metal or
plaster molds and those which are difficult to machine or work.
Investment casting is often used in the aerospace and power generation industries to
produce single crystal turbine blade, which exhibit superior creep resistance to
equiaxed castings. A combination of slow cooling rates, seed crystals, and an
elaborate sprue and runner system referred to as a "pigtail" are used to produce single
crystal castings.

Nonexpendable mold casting :

Nonexpendable mold casting differs from expendable processes in that the mold need
not be reformed after each production cycle. This technique includes at least four
different methods: permanent, die, centrifugal, and continuous casting.
Permanent mold casting :
Permanent mold casting (typically for non-ferrous metals) requires a set-up time on
the order of weeks to prepare a steel tool, after which production rates of 5-50
pieces/hr-mold are achieved with an upper mass limit of 9 kg per iron alloy item (cf.,
up to 135 kg for many nonferrous metal parts) and a lower limit of about 0.1 kg. Steel
cavities are coated with refractory wash of acetylene soot before processing to allow
easy removal of the workpiece and promote longer tool life. Permanent molds have a
life which varies depending on maintenance of after which they require refinishing or
replacement. Cast parts from a permanent mold generally show 20% increase in
tensile strength and 30% increase in elongation as compared to the products of sand
casting.
The only necessary input is the coating applied regularly. Typically, permanent mold
casting is used in forming iron-, aluminium-, magnesium-, and copper-based alloys.
The process is highly automated.
Die casting :
Die casting is the process of forcing molten metal under high pressure into the
cavities of steel moulds. The moulds are called dies. Dies range in complexity to
produce any non-ferrous metal parts (that need not be as strong, hard or heat-resistant
as steel) from sink faucets to engine blocks (including hardware, component parts of
machinery, toy cars, etc). In fact, the process lends itself to making any metal part
that:

must be precise (dimensions plus or minus as little as 50 m--over short distances),

must have a very smooth surface that can be bright plated without prior polishing
and buffing,
has very thin sections (like sheet metal--as little as 1.2 mm),
must be produced much more economically than parts primarily machined
(multicavity die casting moulds operating at high speed are much more productive
than machine tools or even stamping presses),
must be very flexible in design; a single die casting may have all the features of a
complex assembly.
If several machining operations would be required or assembly of several parts would
be required (to make a finished part), die casting is probably far more economical.
This level of versatility has placed die castings among the highest volume products
made in the metalworking industry.
Common metals used in die casting include zinc and aluminum. These are usually not
pure metals; rather are alloys which have better physical characteristics.
In recent years, injection-molded plastic parts have replaced some die castings
because they are usually cheaper (and lighter--important especially for automotive
parts since the fuel-economy standards). Plastic parts are practical (particularly now
that plating of plastics has become possible) if hardness is not required and if parts
can be redesigned to have the necessary strength.
Process :
There are four major steps in the die casting process. First, the mould is sprayed with
lubricant and closed. The lubricant both helps control the temperature of the die and it
also assists in the removal of the casting. Molten metal is then injected into the die
under high pressure. The high pressure assures a casting as precise and as smooth as
the mold. Typically it is around 100 MPa (1000 bar). Once the cavity is filled then the
pressure is maintained until the casting has become solid (though this period is
usually made short as possible by water cooling the mold). Finally, the die is opened
and the casting is ejected.
Equally important as high-pressure injection is high-speed injection--required so the
entire cavity fills before any part of the casting solidifies. In this way, discontinuities
(spoiling the finish and even weakening the casting) are avoided even if the design
requires difficult-to-fill very thin sections.
Before the cycle can be started the die must be installed in the die casting machine
(set up) and brought to operating temperature. This set-up requires 1-2 hours after
which a cycle can take anywhere between a few seconds to a few minutes depending
on the size of the casting. Maximum mass limits for magnesium, zinc, and aluminium
parts are roughly 4.5 kg, 18 kg, and 45 kg, respectively. A typical die set will last
500,000 shots during its lifetime with lifetime being heavily influenced by the
melting temperature of the metal or alloy being used. Aluminum and its alloys

typically shorten die life due to the high temperature of the liquid metal resulting in
deterioration of the steel mold cavities. Molds for die casting zinc last almost
indefinitely due to the lower temperature of the zinc. Molds for die casting brass are
the shortest-lived of all. This is despite, in all cases, making the mold cavities out of
the finest "hot work" alloy steel available.
A shot occurs every time the die is filled with metal. Shots are different from castings
because there can be multiple cavities in a die, yielding multiple castings per shot.
Also the shot consists not only of the individual castings but also the "scrap" (which,
unlike in the case of scrap from machining, is not sold cheaply; it is remelted) that
consists of the metal that has hardened in the channels leading into and out of the
cavities. This includes, for example, the sprue, runners and overflows. Also there is
usually some unplanned-for thin scrap called flash, the result of molds not fitting
together tightly.
Molding (process) : Molding is the process of manufacturing by shaping pliable raw
material using a rigid frame or model called a mold.
A mold or mould is a hollowed-out block that is filled with a liquid like plastic, glass,
metal, or ceramic raw materials. The liquid hardens or sets inside the mold, adopting
its shape. A mold is the opposite of a cast (see casting). The manufacturer who makes
the molds is called moldmaker or mouldmaker. A release agent is typically used to
make removal of the hardened/set substance from the mould easier.
Types of molding include:
Powder metallurgy and ceramics
Compaction plus sintering
Plastics

Injection molding

Compression molding

Transfer molding

Extrusion molding

Blow molding

Rotational molding

Thermoforming

Vacuum forming, a simplified version

of thermoforming

Reaction Injection Molding

Laminating

Expandable bead molding

Foam molding

Rotomolding

Vacuum plug assist molding

Pressure plug assist molding

Matched mold