1

CHAPTER 14: ECOSYSTEM

1.

INTRODUCTION
What is an ecosystem? (Memorise)
An ecosystem can be visualised as a functional unit of nature where
living organisms interact among themselves and also with the
surrounding physical environment.

2.

Many ecologists regard the entire biosphere as a global system, as a

composite of all local ecosystems on earth. Since this system is too
big and complex to be studied at one time, it is convenient to divide
it into two basic categories, namely the ____ and the ____.
terrestrial, aquatic

3.

Crop fields and an aquarium may also be considered as ____

ecosystems.
man-made

4.

Interaction of biotic and abiotic components results in a physical

structure that is ____ for each type of ecosystem.
characteristic

5.

How is the species composition of an ecosystem determined? ____

and _____ of plant and animal species of an ecosystem gives its
species composition.
Identification, enumeration

6.

Vertical distribution of different species occupying different levels

is called _____. For example, trees occupy top vertical strata of

layer of a forest, shrubs the second and herbs and grasses occupy
the bottom layers.
stratification
7.

What are the four basic components of an ecosystem to ascertain

whether an ecosystem is functioning as a unit?
Productivity, Decomposition, Energy flow and Nutrient cycling

8.

Read this paragraph:

9.

PRODUCTIVITY
What do you understand by primary production? (Memorise)
Primary production is defined as the amount of biomass or organic
matter produced per unit area over a time period by plants during
photosynthesis.

10.

How is primary production expressed?

Primary production is expressed in terms of weight (g -2) or energy

kcal/m2.
11.

What is productivity? (Memorise)

The rate of biomass production is called productivity.

12.

How is productivity expressed?

Productivity is expressed in terms of g-2 yr-1 or kcal m-2 yr-1

13.

Productivity is divided into ____ primary productivity and ____

primary productivity.
gross, net

14.

What is gross primary productivity? (Memorise)

Gross primary productivity (GPP) of an ecosystem is the rate of
production of organic matter during photosynthesis.

15.

What is the net primary productivity? (Memorise)

Gross primary productivity minus respiration losses (R) is the net
primary productivity (NPP).

16.

Express NPP mathematically.

NPP = GPP R

17.

____ (GPP/NPP) is the available biomass for the consumption of

heterotrophs (herbivores and decomposers).
NPP

18.

What do you understand by secondary productivity? (Memorise)

Secondary productivity is defined as the rate of formation of new
organic matter by consumers.

19.

Primary productivity varies in different types of ecosystems. What

are the factors on which primary productivity depends?
(i)
Plant species inhabiting the area.
(ii)

Environmental factors

20.

(iii)

Availability of nutrients

(iv)

Photosynthetic capacity of plants

The annual NPP of the whole biosphere is approximately ____

tonnes (dry weight) of organic matter.
170 billion

21.

The productivity of the oceans is only ____ tonnes despite

occupying 70% of the earths surface.
55

22.

23.

DECOMPOSERS
Why is the earthworm called the friend of the farmer?
Because:
(i)

They help in the breakdown of complex organic matter.

(ii)

Help in loosening the soil.

What is decomposition? (Memorise)

The process of breakdown of complex organic matter into organic
substances like carbon dioxide, water and nutrients is called
decomposition.

24.

Dead plant remains such as leaves, bark, flowers and dead remains
of animals, including faecal matter, constitute ____, which is the
____ material for decomposition.
detritus, raw

25.

What are the important steps in the process of decomposition?

Fragmentation, leaching, catabolism, humification and mineralization.

26.

____ (e.g. earthworm) break down detritus into smaller particles.

This process is called ____.
Detritivores, fragmentation

27.

What is leaching? By the process of leaching, ____ ____ nutrients

go down into the soil ____ and get precipitated as ____
(available/unavailable) salts.
water-soluble inorganic, horizon, unavailable

28.

What is catabolism?
Bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade detritus into simpler inorganic
substances. This process is called catabolism.

29.

TRUE OR FALSE? All steps in decomposition fragmentation,

leaching and catabolism occur simultaneously on the detritus.
True

30.

Humification and mineralization occur during ____ in the soil.

decomposition

31.

Humification leads to accumulation of dark coloured amorphous

substance called ____ that is highly resistant to microbial action
and undergoes decomposition at an extremely ____ (fast/slow) rate.
humus, slow

32.

Humus serves as a reservoir of nutrients. Why?

Because of its colloidal nature.

33.

The humus is further degraded by some microbes and the release

of inorganic nutrients occurs by the process known as ____.
mineralization

34.

Decomposition is largely an ____-requiring process.

oxygen

35.

What factors control the rate of decomposition?

(i)
Chemical composition of detritus.
(ii)

Climatic factors.

36.

How does detritus influence the rate of decomposition? In a

particular climatic condition, decomposition rate is slower if
detritus is rich in ____ and ____ and quicker if detritus is rich in
____ and water-soluble substances like ____.
lignin, chitin, nitrogen, sugars

37.

What climatic factors are most significant for the rate of

decomposition? How do they affect the decomposition rate?
____ and ____ ____ are the most important climatic factors that
regulate decomposition through their effects on the activities of soil
_____.
Temperature, soil moisture, microbes

38.

How do climatic factors affect the rate of decomposition?

(i)

____ and ____ environment favour decomposition.

(ii)

____ temperature and ____ inhibit decomposition resulting in

build up of organic materials.

Warm, moist, Low, anaerobiosis
39.

Look at the diagrammatic representation of the decomposition

cycle in a terrestrial ecosystem.

40.

ENERGY FLOW
Except for the deep sea _____ ecosystem, the sun is the only source
of energy for all ecosystems on Earth.
hydro-thermal (i.e. the source of energy in deep seas is hydro-thermal
solar energy does not reach there)

41.

Of the incident solar radiation, less than 50% of it is ____ ____ ___.
Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR)

42.

Plants capture only ____% of the PAR and this small amount of
energy sustains the entire world.
2

43.

Ecosystems

are

not

exempt

from

the

Second

Law

of

Thermodynamics. They need a constant supply of energy to

synthesise the molecules they require, to counteract the universal
tendency toward increasing ____.

disorderliness
44.

The green plants in the ecosystem-terminology are called ____.

producers

45.

In a terrestrial ecosystem, the major producers are ___ and ___

plants.
herbaceous, woody

46.

In an aquatic ecosystem, the major producers are various species

____, ____ and higher plants.
phytoplankton, algae

47.

No energy that is trapped into an organism remains in it for ever.

The energy trapped by the producer is either passed on to a
consumer or the organism dies.
---

48.

Death of an organism is the beginning of the ____ food chain/web.

detritus

49.

All animals depend on plants (directly or indirectly) for their food

needs. Hence, they are called ____ and also ____.
consumers, heterotrophs

50.

Consumers that feed on producers, the plants, are called ____

consumers. If the animals eat other animals, which in turn eat the
plants (or their produce), they are called ____ consumers. Likewise,
there are tertiary consumers.
primary, secondary

51.

The primary consumers are ____.

herbivores

52.

Some common herbivores are insects, birds and mammals in

terrestrial ecosystem and ____ in aquatic ecosystem.
molluscs

53.

Consumers that feed on herbivores are called ____ or more

correctly ____ ____ (though secondary consumers).
carnivores, primary carnivores

54.

Those animals that depend on the primary carnivores for food are
labelled ____ carnivores.
secondary

55.

Look below for the depiction of a simple grazing food chain (GFC).

56.

The detritus food chain (DFC) begins with dead organic matter. It
is made up of decomposers, which are ____ (trophic?) organisms,
mainly ____ and ____. They meet their energy and nutrient
requirements by degrading dead matter or detritus. These are
known as ____.
heterotrophic, fungi, bacteria, saprotrophs

57.

Decomposers secrete digestive ____ that breakdown dead and

waste materials into simple, inorganic material, which are
subsequently absorbed by them.
enzymes

58.

In an aquatic ecosystem ____ (DFC/GFC) is the major conduit for

energy flow.
GFC

59.

In a terrestrial ecosystem ____ (DFC/GFC) is the major conduit for

10

energy flow.
DFC
60.

DFC may be connected with the GFC at some levels: some of the
organisms of DFC are prey to GFC animals and in a natural
ecosystem, some animals like ____, ____, etc. are omnivores. These
natural interconnection of food chains make is a ____ ____.
cockroaches, crows, food web

61.

Organisms occupy a place in the natural surroundings or in a

community according to their ____ relationship with other
organisms. Based on the source of their nutrition or food,
organisms occupy a specific place in the food chain, which is known
as their ____ ____.
feeding, trophic level

62.

Producers belong to the ____ trophic level, herbivores (primary

consumers) to the ____ and carnivores (secondary consumers) to
the _____.
first, second, third

63.

Look below for a diagrammatic representation of trophic levels in

an ecosystem.

11

64.

The important point to note is that the amount of energy available

____ (decreases/increases) at successive trophic levels.
decreases

65.

Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a

particular time called the ____ ____.
standing crop

66.

The standing crop is measured as the mass of living organisms

(____) or the ____ in a unit area.
biomass, number

67.

The biomass of a species is expressed in terms of fresh or dry

weight. Measurement of biomass in terms of ____ (dry/fresh)
weight is more accurate.
dry

68.

Measurement of biomass in terms of dry weight is more accurate.

Why?
Answer yourself.

12

69.

The number of trophic levels in the GFC is restricted as the

transfer of energy follows the ____% law.
10

70.

Explain the 10% law.

Only 10% of the energy is transferred to each trophic level from the
lower trophic level.

71.

Look below for the schematic diagram of the energy flow through
different trophic levels.

72.

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
The ecological pyramid expresses the ____ or ____ relationship
between organisms at different trophic levels. Thus, relationship is
expressed in terms of ____, _____ or ____.
food, energy, number, biomass, energy

73.

The base of each pyramid represents the producers or the first

trophic level while the apex represents the tertiary or top level
consumer.
---

13

74.

Which are the three ecological pyramids that are usually studied?
(i)
Pyramid of number
(ii)

Pyramid of biomass

(iii)

Pyramid of energy

75.

Look below for the pyramid of numbers.

76.

Look below for the pyramid of biomass.

77.

Look below for the inverted pyramid of biomass.

78.

Look below for the ideal pyramid of energy.

14

79.

TRUE OR FALSE? Any calculations of energy content, biomass or

numbers has necessarily to include all organisms at that trophic
level. No generalisations we make will be true if we take only a few
individuals at any trophic level into account.
True

80.

TRUE OR FALSE? A given organism may occupy more than one

trophic level.
True

81.

The trophic level represents a ____ level and not a species as such.
functional

82.

In most ecosystems, all the pyramids (of biomass, energy or

number) are ____, i.e. producers are more in number and biomass
than the herbivores and herbivores are more in number and
biomass than the carnivores.
upright

83.

TRUE OR FALSE? Energy at a lower trophic level is always more

than at a higher level.
True

84.

In most ecosystems, the pyramids are upright. However, there are

15

exceptions. Explain.

85.

The pyramid of biomass in sea is also generally inverted. Why?

Because the biomass of fishes far exceeds that of phytoplankton.

86.

The pyramid of energy is always upright. Why?

Because when energy flows from a particular trophic level to the next
trophic level, some energy is always lost as heat at each step.

87.

Each bar in the energy pyramid indicates the amount of energy

present at each trophic level in a given time or annually per unit
____.
area

88.

What are the limitations of ecological pyramids?

(i)
It assumes a simple food chain, which almost never exists in
nature. It does not accommodate a food web.
(ii)

It does not take into account that the same species may belong to
two or more trophic levels.

(iii)

Saprophytes are not given any place in ecological pyramids even

though they play a vital role in the system.

89.

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
What do you mean by a climax community?
(i)
An important characteristic of all communities is that the
composition and structure constantly change in response to the
changing environmental conditions.
(ii)

This change is orderly and sequential, parallel with the changes

in the physical environment.

16
(iii)

These changes finally lead to a community that is near

equilibrium with the environment and that is called climax
community.

90.

What do you understand by ecological succession? (Memorise)

The gradual and fairly predictable change in the species composition of
a given area is called ecological succession.

91.

During _____, some species colonise an area and their populations

become more numerous, whereas populations of other species
decline and even disappear.
succession

92.

What do you understand by sere(s)? What are seral stages?

(Memorise)
The entire sequence of communities that successively change in a given
area are called sere(s).
The individual transitional communities are termed seral stages or
seral communities.

93.

In the successive seral stages, there is a change in the ____ of

species of organisms, ____ (decrease/increase) in the number of
species and organisms as well as an ____(decrease/increase) in the
total biomass.
diversity, increase, increase

94.

Read this:

95.

Succession is a process that starts where no living organisms are

17

there these could be areas where no living organism ever existed,

say bare rock. Such a succession is called ____ succession.
primary
96.

Succession could also start in an area that somehow lost all the
living organisms that once existed there. Such a succession is
termed ____ succession.
secondary

97.

Examples of areas where primary succession occurs are newly

cooled ____, bare rocks, newly created pond or reservoir.
lava

98.

The establishment of a new biotic community is generally ____

(fast/slow).
slow

99.

Before a biotic community of diverse organisms can become

established, there must be ____.
soil

100.

Depending mostly on the ____, it takes natural processes several

thousands to several thousand years to produce fertile soil on bare
rock.
climate

101.

Secondary succession begins in areas where natural biotic

communities have been destroyed such as in abandoned farm
lands, burned or cut forests, lands that have been ____, etc. Since
some soil or sediment is present, succession is ____ (faster/slower)
than primary succession.
flooded, faster

18

102.

As succession proceeds, the number and types of animals and

decomposers also change. Why?
(i)
Description of ecological succession usually focuses on changes
in vegetation. However, these vegetation changes, in turn, affect
food and shelter for various types of animals.
(ii)

Hence, as succession proceeds, the number and types of animals

and decomposers also change.

103.

At any time during primary or secondary succession, natural or

human induced disturbances (fire, deforestation, etc.) can convert a
particular seral stage of succession to an ____ stage. Also such
disturbances create new conditions that ____ some species and ____
or eliminate other species.
earlier, encourage, discourage

104.

SUCCESSION OF PLANTS
Based on the nature of the habitat whether it is water (or wet
areas) or it is on very dry areas succession of plants is called ____
or ____.
hydrarch, xerarch

105.

Hydrarch succession takes place in ____ (drier/wetter) areas and

the successional series progress from _____ to mesic conditions.
wetter, hydric

106.

Xerarch succession takes place in ____ (dry/wet) areas and the

series progress from ____ to mesic conditions.
dry, xeric

107.

Thus, both hydrarch and xerarch successions lead to medium water

(____) conditions neither too dry (xeric) nor too wet (hydric).
mesic

19

108.

The species that invade a bare area are called ____ species.
pioneer

109.

In primary succession on rocks, the pioneer species are usually

____, which are able to secrete ____ to dissolve the rock, thereby
helping in weathering and soil formation.
lichens, acids

110.

Later, lichens pave the way for some very small plants like ____,
which are able to take hold in the small amount of soil. They are
then succeeded by bigger plants after several more stages and
ultimately a stable ____ forest community is formed.
bryophytes, climax

111.

The climax community remains stable as long as the environment

remains ____. With time, the xerophytic habitat gets converted into
a ____ one.
unchanged, mesophytic

112.

In primary succession in water, the pioneers are the small ____.

They are replaced in due course by the free-floating ____, then by
rooted ____, ____, grasses and finally the trees. The climax again
would be a ____. With time, the water body is converted into ____.
phytoplanktons, angiosperms, hydrophytes, sedges, forest, land

113.

In secondary succession, the species that invade depend on the

condition of the _____, availability of ____, the ____ as also the
____ or other ____ present. Since soil is already there, the rate of
succession is much faster and, hence, climax is also reached more
quickly.
soil, water, environment, seeds, propagules

114.

TRUE OR FALSE? Succession, primarily primary succession is a

20

very slow process and it may take thousands of years for ____ to be
reached.
climax
115.

Another important fact about succession is that all succession,

whether taking place in water or on land, proceeds to a similar
climax community the ____.
mesic

116.

Look below for the diagrammatic view of primary succession.

117.

NUTRIENT CYCLING
What do you understand by standing state?

21

The amount of nutrients (carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, calcium, etc.)

present in the soil at any given time is called the standing state.
118.

The standing state varies in different ecosystems. It also varies on a

____ basis.
seasonal

119.

Nutrients, which are never lost from the ecosystems, are ____
indefinitely. The movement of nutrient elements through the
various components of an ecosystem is called ____ ____.
recycled, nutrient cycling

120.

Another name for nutrient cycling is _____ cycles.

biogeochemical (bio: living organism, geo: rocks, air, water)

121.

Nutrient cycles are of two types: ____ and ____.

gaseous, sedimentary

122.

The reservoir for the gaseous type of nutrient cycle is in the ____
while that for the sedimentary type is located in the ____ ____.
atmosphere, earths crust

123.

What factors regulate the rate of release of nutrients into the

atmosphere?
Environmental factors (e.g. soil, moisture, pH, temperature, etc.)
regulate the rate of release of nutrients into the atmosphere.

124.

What is the function of the reservoir?

The function of the reservoir is to meet the deficit, which occurs due to
imbalance in the rate of influx and efflux.

125.

CARBON CYCLE
Look at the diagram below to understand the carbon cycle.

22

126.

Carbon constitutes ____% of the dry weight of organisms and is

next only to water.
49

127.

___% of the total quantity of global carbon is found dissolved in

oceans.
71

128.

The ____ reservoir regulates the amount of carbon dioxide in the

atmosphere.
oceanic

129.

TRUE OR FALSE? Fossil fuel also represents a reservoir of

carbon.
True

130.

According to one estimate, ____ kg of carbon is fixed, annually, in

the biosphere through photosynthesis.
4 x 1013

23

131.

PHOSPHOROUS CYCLE
Look at the diagram below to understand the phosphorous cycle.

132.

Phosphorous is a major constituent of biological ____, ____ acids

and cellular ____ transfer systems.
membranes, nucleic, energy

133.

Many animals need large quantities of phosphorous to make ____,

____ and ____.
shells, bones, teeth

134.

The natural reservoir of phosphorous are the ____, which contain

phosphorous in the form of ____.
rocks, phosphates

135.

When rocks weather, minute amounts of phosphates dissolve in soil

solution and are absorbed by the roots of the plants.

24

--136.

The waste products and the dead organisms are decomposed by

____ bacteria releasing phosphorous.
phosphate-solubilising

137.

Unlike the carbon cycle, there is no ____ release of phosphorous

into the atmosphere.
respiratory

138.

Point out two differences between the carbon cycle and the
phosphorous cycle.
(i)
Atmospheric inputs of phosphorous through rainfall are much
smaller than carbon inputs.
(ii)

Gaseous exchanges of phosphorous between organism and the

environment are negligible.

139.

ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
What are ecosystem services? Explain with an example.
(i)
The products of ecosystem processes are called ecosystem
services.
(ii)

For example, healthy forest ecosystems purify air and water,

mitigate droughts and floods, etc. are ecosystem services.

140.

The economic value of ecosystem services of biodiversity is difficult

to determine. However, it can reasonably be said that they carry a
hefty price tag.
---

141.

____ ____ and his colleagues have tried to put price tags on
natures life support services.
Robert Constanza

25

142.

Researchers have put an average price tag of US $ ____ a year on

the fundamental ecosystem services, which are taken for granted
because they are free. This is nearly twice the value of the global
Gross National Product (GNP), which is US $ 18 trillion.
33 trillion

143.

Out of the total cost of various ecosystems services, soil formation

accounts for about ____% and contributions of other services like
recreation and nutrient cycling are less than ____% each. The cost
of climate regulation and habitat for wildlife are about _____%
each.
50, 10, 6