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ACOUSTICS
A
BY
Iowa
AND
ROBERT BRUCE
LIJJBSAY, PH.D.
Brown
University
LONDON
CHAPMAN & HALL, LTD.
ELEVEN HENRIETTA STREET, W.C.
1931
COPYRIGHT, 1930, BY
IX
INC.
and
PRINTED IN THE
U. S. A.
PREFACE
THE
correctness.
acoustics has
Moreover,
in
recent years,
the study of
become of greater
In general
practical importance.
the theory has not preceded application: speech and musical instruments have been developed by the experimental method and the
same
It
an outgrowth of special lectures given in a graduate course in Electrical Communications at Yale University by the first named author,
but its final form has been made possible largely through the efforts
of the second author, who has at the same time used the manu-
is
On
The
first
is
this
known
PREFACE
iv
and convincing.
is unique in its stress on the important researches of the past decade and in the useful combination of material
both from the theoretical and practical viewpoints. Attention may
be called to the emphasis placed on such topics as the general
problem of acoustic transmission through conduits, the effects of
branch lines, acoustic wave filters, acoustic coupling, submarine
In the
signalling, and physiological and atmospheric acoustics.
discussion of these and other topics every effort has been made
to bring the book up to date, so that the student and general reader
will obtain a broad as well as a detailed picture of the present
July, 1930.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
FUNDAMENTAL
PAGE
Wave
Definition of Acoustic
Velocity of Sound
Convective Refraction
.
to Practical Reflectors
Acoustic Image
4
6
9
10
1 1
Temperature Refraction
9 Scattering by Selective Reflection and Refraction
10 Diffraction.
Sound Shadows
ii Helmholtz Reciprocal Theorem and Application
12 Introduction to the Fundamental Theory of Acoustic Waves
8
General
Wave Equation
14
15
18
in Fluids.
20
Waves
Spherical Waves
13 Plane
14
13
24
28
Intensity
15 Energy Content of an Acoustic Wave.
16 Variation of Energy Content with Frequency and
Amplitude
Influence of Reflection on Phase
17 Phase of a Wave.
18 Normal Reflection at Boundaries in Gaseous Media
1-19 Influence of Surroundings on the Energy Emitted by a Vibrator
1-20 Sound Waves of Finite Amplitude
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER
30
32
33
36
38
39
40
II
Acoustic Elements
2-2
2-3
2-4
43
43
47
51
2-5
2-6
Electrical
Analogues
Resonance of Tubes
54
2-7
Compound Resonators
58
59
56
CONTENTS
vi
CHAPTER
CHANGE
TRANSMISSION
3-
III
IN
Wave
Wave
Medium
Transmission in a Plane
61
in a Spherical
3-2
Transmission
3-3
3-4
Absorption by the
Sound Transmission
3-5
Transmission
in Pipes.
63
67
Constantinesco System
Change of Area
in Pipes
Two
72
3-6
Change of Area
3-7
3 8
Conical Pipes
Conical and Exponential Connectors
at
69
at a Junction
Junctions.
75
79
83
89
3-9
91
93
CHAPTER
IV
CHANGES IN MEDIA
TRANSMISSION
4-1
Change of
94
4-2
Amount
96
4-3
100
4-4
The Stethoscope
103
4'5
Transmission
4-6
Special Stethoscopes
in Solids
105
108
1
12
CHAPTER V
TRANSMISSION THROUGH A CONDUIT WITH AN ATTACHED BRANCH
OR AN OPEN END
5-
5-2
5-3
5-4
5-5
114
116
6-3
123
127
131
CHAPTER
6-2
120
..
VI
HORN THEORY.
ACOUSTIC
132
Horn
The Cylinder and Cone
137
Amplification of a
135
.
CONTENTS
6-4
6-5
6-6
6-7
6-8
6-9
vii
144
147
Illustration
...
56
158
CHAPTER
VII
7-1
General Considerations.
7-2
Filter
7-3
Construction of Filters.
I.
7-4
Construction of Filters.
II.
7-5
Construction of Filters.
III. Single
7-6
7-7
7-8
Low Frequency
Pass
..
Band Type
171
175
178
181
182
Finite Filters
Acoustic
161
168
Wave
Filters in Liquids
7-10 Design of Acoustic Wave Filters
7-9
159
.
and
Solids.
186
..
189
1
CHAPTER
89
VIII
190
8-2
190
.
194
196
197
198
199
202
208
212
214
CHAPTER IX
PHYSIOLOGICAL ACOUSTICS
9- 1
9-2
9-3
216
216
216
CONTENTS
viii
221
9-4
9-5
Minimum
9-6
Limits of Audibility
9-7
Loudness
9-8
Minimum
224
Summation and
225
226
Audibility ...
221
222
.
9-9
9'io
9-
1 1
9-
Difference Tones
Theories of Audition
223
226
2 Binaural Effects
227
CHAPTER X
SUBAQUEOUS SOUND RANGING AND SIGNALLING
10-3
10-4
10-5
10-6
Sources of Sound.
Sources of Sound.
10-7
Practical
Vibrating Plate
Sources ...
10-8
io- 1
10-2
236
240
244
Low Frequency
248
250
10-9
Supersonics. The Piezo-electric Oscillator
lo-io Acoustic Detectors.
General Considerations
Acoustic Detectors.
231
233
ciple
io-
231
254
....
259
261
264
Subaqueous Reception
272
273
278
10-17
275
283
CHAPTER XI
ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS
I
Historical Introduction
287
1-2
Reverberation
287
11-3
11-4
11-5
Absorbing Materials
1-6
11-7
n-8
1 1
-9
Acoustic Adjustment of
293
Applications
295
300
Rooms
301
Sound Proofing
302
303
305
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
ix
XII
ATMOSPHERIC ACOUSTICS
1 1- 1
12-2
307
312
12-3
316
322
12-4
Details.
Shell
326
APPENDICES
Table of Values of Acoustical Data
327
328
334
I.
II.
III.
V. Graphical Method
VI.
The Asymmetrical
for
332
Vibrator
344
346
CHAPTER
i-i. Definition of
The name
Wave.
"
FUNDAMENTAL
wave "
is
given
density.
where/
point x
is
any
at the point x
ct$
has traveled to XQ
+ XQ.
ct$ in
x).
(ct
At the
#o)l
#o)
f(
In other words the disturbance at XQ
the time
corresponding to progression
be shown in Sections 1-12, 1-13, 1-14 (see Eqs. (1-23) and (1-42))
that for a simple harmonic plane wave travelling in the ^-direction
the excess pressure (i.e., the difference between the actual pressure
at a point at
its
kcp^A
equilibrium value)
sin k(ct
is
given by
x) y
sm
k(ct
r),
coordinates,.
ACOUSTICS
//,
k,
the
same dimensions
in the case
medium,
constant
27T
"
CO
,
Reflection
Acoustic
Image.
The
multitude of waves.
AE
The
what
question arises,
Draw the line through
waves?
1
is
is
Lamb, Hydrodynamics,
1916, p. 520.
is in front of it.
the point 0' on this line as far behind the wall as
a like source of sound placed at O' of the same frel
quency and phase as that at 0, and suppose the wall removed.
Then imagine
Now
at
ing
be produced
like source at
by the introduction of a
0' and the removal of the
p 1G
The
wall.
from an
seem like a complicated problem, for the effect of the reflection from every point of
the wall must be considered.
But the above reasoning simplifies
the whole matter to the computation of the effect of two spherical
waves. We shall call O the acoustic image of 0, by which we may
determine quantitatively the reflection of sound from the wall.
f
The
is,
is
called the
echo.
when
2
Two
the
maximum
See also the deSee, for example, Tyndall, Lectures on Sound, 1867, p. 17 ff.
"
same author's article on fog signals in Fragments of
Science."
ACOUSTICS
known
duce the
effect
moment
Huyghens' Principle and Application to Practical Reflecdiscuss reflection in a more general fashion we need the
of
wave front. The wave front is a surface so drawn that
concept
at all its points the wave has the same phase; 1 that is, the particles
of the medium on this surface reach their maximum positive or
negative displacements at the same instant. Thus, for example,
the wave fronts of the sound wave from a point source in a homo1-3.
To
tors.
If in
any
we
shall
statement.
From
optics
a hole in a wall
wavelets will reinforce each other, while for points outside this
beam, such as P y there will be destructive interference with conse-
quent
1
loss in intensity.
found in Section
2
Most
may
therefore
will
be
1-17.
Theory of Sound,
p. 179
ff.
II,
1926,
283.
Also Drude,
wave
front becomes
FIG. 1-2.
The above
FIG.
1-3.
ACOUSTICS
and
which
is
reflected.
Con-
we may make
is
More
mirror.
From
light.
Thus,
= n
is
ft.
approximately.
The
not occur.
struments
(i.e.,
section.
Consider the circular disc ACE in Fig. i -4 and suppoints of it are vibrating in the same phase. The total
will be that due to the superposition of the
effect at the pole
Draw about C as a
contributions from each point of the disc.
of reflectors.
pose that
all
OC
CD
OD
and
is
FIG. 1-4.
way
same area
This
will
as
least)
contributing
approxi-
at
its
The
length.
(Fig.
following
clear.
If
we represent
figure
make this
by Oa the
first
FlG
ACOUSTICS
will
annulus.
we reach
maximum now
tends to decrease as
CO and
its
distance
from
is
will
produce
maximum
effect
at
for
one definite
frequency.
As a practical example of this selective property the pinnae or
auricles of the ear suggest themselves.
Due to their relatively small
In the
effect
"
it
will
if
a source
is
From
greatly increased.
output
is observed that even if the reflector
is
is
loud speakers, both of the horn and cone type. The effect of such
a plate at a distant point
can be determined by a computation
in Fig. 1-4
The path
A.
A to
of the sound
The phase
must be considered
to be
from
to
and
O.
a screening effect.
1-5. Reflection at a
difference
Change
in
Area of a Conduit.
While we
FIG.
1-5.
The
cross sections
at
SiJ
This value, being independent of the sign of S%
for either direction of the wave.
Si, is the
same
ACOUSTICS
io
which
where 7
is
at constant volume.
where
change becomes
V denotes
The
volume,
T the
is
the
is
gas constant.
and by
we denote by
if
the velocity at
Ct
c*
m
the velocity of sound in air at
C, and apply
we
Therefore,
<r
Ji
+--
eq. (1*2),
we have
(1-3)
The
where
i/E
Now
is
is
instead,
both
we have
and p
pirical.
for
K=
low pressures
481
io~7
in sea
340
water we have:
io~ 9/
ii
io~ 9/ 2 ,
There is no
the temperature on the centigrade scale.
for the dependence of p on the temperature for
formula
empirical
a very wide range of temperature. A few selected values for disThus if the density at 4 C is taken as
tilled water will suffice.
2
at
C
is
that
i.oo,
15
.99913, at 30 C is .99567, at 60 C .98324,
where
/ is
and at 100
i -7.
it is
.95838.
Convective Refraction.
medium
The
refraction of
sound waves
in
a single
like the
convective refraction.
1*6, let
AE
We
shall discuss
it
first.
Consulting Fig.
Fio. 1-6.
air in the
is
u\
(supposed to be
where u% > i;
these velocities are relative to the stationary axes in Fig. i -6.
Let
a plane wave front
meet the boundary at A, with angle of
in the direction
it is
2,
AC
incidence
B\.
If there were
ACOUSTICS
12
of sound in
If the time
air.
from
to
be
r,
then r
CB' /c
AD
is the direction of
front in the upper region and
propagation.
It is interesting to note that in neither region is the direction of
propagation normal to the wave front, a fact due to the motion
of the
refraction,
AB +
A'B
A'D
that
2>
i.e.,
the law of
be readily obtained.
may
^_
B'B - AA'
cr
""
cr
is,
csc 6 2
= '^~~^
csc 0!
(1-5)
If the
"ray"
by
\l/\
DN normal
to
AB> Z
A'DN =
tan* 2
There
is
2,
tan0 2
and
it
follows that
all
(1-6)
which
esc
is
must be
2
no value of
total.
The
esc
critical
that
is
angle
less
is,
i.
It should be
means complete,
between
air
We
shall derive a
(Atmospheric Acoustics).
for
sound refraction
in
Chapter XII
13
and
due
as will be
of a beam of sound,
emphasized again, the production
a difficult matter.
length, is in general
strata of air with bountwo
Let
Refraction.
1-8. Temperature
at temperatures /i and
rest
and
at
assumed
be
AB'
wave
to its long
dary
(Fig. 1-7)
/2
where ci>c\.
front
is
AB
perature
dence
front
is
is
/i
0i.
The
in the
incident
wave
stratum of tem-
The
refracted
inci-
wave
refrac'
IC *
"
2.
sin0 2 /sin O l
c z /Ci,
(1-7)
Naturally, in practice
continuous variation
there is
in temperature with a corresponding continuous bending of the
wave front. Usually the effects of both wind and temperature
occur simultaneously.
From the discussion above it is seen that a negative temperature
which
is
less
obtains near
gradient (i.e., coldest air nearest the ground), such as
a clear
after
hours
in
the
the surface of the earth
early morning
the
toward
fronts
wave
of
sound
night, tends to produce a bending
The ordinary
earth, increasing the range of sound transmission.
day time condition is a positive gradient and in this case the wave
away from the earth, considerably reducing the
Here again wind introduces a complicating factor.
range.
ACOUSTICS
In view
1*9. Scattering by Selective Reflection and Refraction.
of the discUvSsion of the preceding two sections it is not surprising
that atmospheric conditions exercise an important influence on the
propagation of sound in the air. The various strata of the atmos-
by
reflection
should he selective,
and
i.e.,
refraction.
Moreover,
this scattering
for
experiments
sound wave
in a
homogeneous
fluid is
See G.
15
casts
postulation of the Heaviside layer). Esclangon (loc. cit.)
on
this
explanation.
grave doubt, however,
More recent investigations l seem to indicate that the most
of audibility is
probable single explanation for the abnormal zone
to be found in the reversal of the temperature gradient, producing
at heights above 30 km. temperatures which are of the same order
It is evident that such a state of affairs
as that at the surface.
would be
wave
producing the necessary bending of the
effective in
The
presence of
is in
the neighborhood of 45 to 50
km.
Sound Shadows.
Any change in the direction of propagation of sound waves, not caused by a variation in
of the medium but by the bending of the waves about
the
i-io. Diffraction.
properties
FIG. 1-8.
obstacles,
is
important acoustic
phenomenon.
On
its
is
thus an extremely
occurrence depends in
measure our
ability to hear
is
2i).
ACOUSTICS
i6
easily treated
79.0
I
.75
2 A=120 cm.
3 Jl=l20cm.
4 fel20cm.
r = 1910 cm.
r* 477cm.
r= 19.1cm"
10.6
15
8-
30
45
75
90
120
105
135
150
165
180
Degrees
FIG.
1-9.
The complete
work
theory has been presented by Stewart, following the initial
his
article
to
be
made
should
and
reference
and
of Rayleigh
others,
for details.
Briefly stated, the method of calculation consists in
1
setting
17
(d<0/d/)
and
may
be clearly
;>een
1-9
i-io.
30
15
15
t>0
73
90
105
120
U3
130
1(,5
IbO
= o.
maximum
9,
but
all
a distance of 477
from X
240
cm
to X
30 cm.
is
much
ACOUSTICS
more marked
notice
for short
maxima
at
Here again we
minimum
shadow
arises:
the head
cast
section.
in.
Helmholtz's
Reciprocal
Theorem with
Application
to
"If
in
present, provided only that these forces are proportional to the first
power of the particle velocity. Moreover, the fluid need not be
is
at A.
head.
said
it is
is
evident
at the point
We
wish then
is
the reciprocal theorem to intensity values as well as velocity potenHence to solve the above problem we have only to take the
tials.
intensity values directly from the Figures 1-9 and i-io, assuming that
the head
The
1
2
II,
I,
294, 1896.
107
ff.,
1926.
19
15
30
45
60
75
90
105
120
135
150
165
180
Degrees
FIG. I'll.
It
S. Ballantine,
ACOUSTICS
20
wave
analytically, but
of calculations
results
the
briefly
1
scattered
sound
it
was
to be raised
i -12.
Waves
in Fluids.
General
have in his possession the derivation of the most important fundamental equations. This is the purpose of the next five sections of
The reader need not digest them at once but may
this chapter.
with the assumptions and processes involved as
himself
acquaint
to the fundamental equations derived herein.
references
he finds
Whenever a disturbance
sible fluid there is a
the fluid.
For
tion.
We
this
medium,
density,
the
condensation,
where
defined
by
po is the constant
the
relation
Po
Po
py the velocity potential,
,
fiy
f , the
component
z axes.
21
Of
We
This
is
done
ment
fluid.
The
in this ele-
equal,
rate of
found to be:
is
dp
d( P v)
"
d(pu)
-
If in this equation
we make
the substitution p
p (i
j),
we
have:
du
Now
1
dv
dw\
In the definition of
as for example
Lamb
<f>
there
is
/
,
6V
ds
,
is
ds
,
no general agreement as
to sign,
(i.e.,
some authors,
d<p
-, etc.),
while others, including Rayleigh, use the positive sign as above. The former usage
serves merely to emphasize an analogy to the electrostatic and gravitational potentials,
which it does not seem necessary to the present authors to press unduly.
Naturally our use of ^ implies its existence, which in turn implies that the prinmotions of a fluid of concern in acoustics are irrotational. (See Rayleigh, Vol.
cipal
II,
Chap. XI.)
ACOUSTICS
22
it is
well
Hence
that dp I dp = 7/>/p, where for air 7
1.41.
It can also be shown that
of the order of icr7
, 0,
known
is
5p/po
are usually of the order of IO""1 to io~~2
cm
per sec.
Moreover,
equation becomes:
ds
du
^+d-X +
Substituting from (1-8)
dv
d-y
dw
+ Tz =
,
f
'
<
MO
>
we have:
ds
ay
e*y
""
a/^d^^a/"
ay
az2
'
or
(i-ii)
To
du
--
3u
L.
it
--
du L
--
fi
du
L_
1
:
vaj
df^dx^dy^dz
---dp
i
pdx*
and two similar equations for v and w, wherein the left-hand side
represents the acceleration of the medium in the x direction and the
right-hand side the force per unit mass, and there are no external
form:
See, for example, Lamb, Dynamical Theory of Sound, 2d Edition, p. aoi. We
have been discussing continuity. As will be noticed throughout this book, a useful
differential equation is obtained by considering not
only continuity but also motion.
Consistently, therefore, we will combine these two views of the state of affairs. This
1
is
illustrated
"
L%P
p to
dt
dv
__
d/
dtv
23
'
d/>
'
p dy
~ _
l^dp
p^z'
dt
If
we
d
-d
v =--dp,
,
or integrating:
in the
Now
of the
there
fluid.
2
is
c 8p.
dp
hence there follows the important relationship
(1-14)
Moreover
which
is
(i'i3)
now becomes
a general equation connecting velocity potential and conIf we substitute from (1-15) into (i-n) we have finally
densation.
(1-16)
ACOUSTICS
24
which
is
the familiar equation of wave motion. The general solushows l that the influence of any value of <p is propa-
tion of (1-16)
gated with velocity f, and that therefore the velocity of any type
In what follows it will be
of wave motion may be regarded as c.
shown
specifically
waves, but
it is
that this
to be
is
remembered that
stated.
I -13.
Plane Waves.
The equations
are perfectly general, their validity being limited only by the conwaves
tinuity of the medium and certain approximations requiring
the
medium
is
of small amplitude. Of course,
never, strictly
the case of
speaking, a continuous one, but a remark concerning
of
the
the
a gas will make clearer
assumption of
justification
of
kinetic
the
From
gases it follows
theory
practical continuity.
that for a diatomic gas the velocity c of sound is 0.68 of the root
2
For a monatomic gas the factor
velocity, #.
This is true irrespective of temperature and density.
is 0.74.
Since c and u are of the same order of magnitude, the condition of
is
sufficiently well
met
in gases. 3
we
between the translational movement of the molecules and their internal degrees of
freedom. This has been done by some recent investigators. (K. F. Herzfeld.and
F. O. Rice, Phys. Rev., 31, 691, 1928; D. G. Bourgin, Phil. Mag., 7, 821, 1929; Phys.
It is shown that for very high frequencies the velocity of propaRev., 34, 521, 1929.)
gation in gases should increase slightly with the frequency. Earlier experimental
work by G. W. Pierce (Am. Acad. Sci., 60, 271, 1929) indicated the existence of such
an effect but more recent work by the same investigator shows that in air at least
the effect is not measurable. Bourgin states that this conclusion is not in conflict
with his kinetic theory for the propagation of sound in mixed gases. Theoretical
with supersonics
investigations of this kind may prove of importance in connection
(see Sec. 10-9).
4
i.e.,
=
wherein
and
cfo
= /(
(1-17)
is
F(ct
x) y
The
wave moving
term at x
That
#o).
<*>
f(ct-x)
is,
25
= XQ
= /
(1-18)
first
term on the
x direction.
in the positive
for /
o, is/(
XQ),
and
at
+ #0)]
+ r/o
be f[cto
,
(ct Q
the disturbance at #o has travelled to XQ
will
in the time
/o-
c.
To
fore
and
= dp I dp. Theredp/dp
get equation (1*16) we placed r
see that independently of the functional relationship of p
^dp/dp gives the velocity of a plane wave in a fluid medium.
we
p,
the fact that d<p/dy and d<p/dz are both zero we see also that
is a longitudinal wave, i.e., the displacements of the
medium are in the direction of propagation.
From
this
wave
= J(ct
or
<p
x) =f
~
A cos 27T
(^
A
-T-"
= A cos k(ct
x),
v )>
(i'i9)
27T/X
= w/r.)
the "speed."
(Obviously k
The spatial variation of ^ is controlled
and
(1*19)
--
==
CfX
The
kA sin
k(ct
the amplitude of ^.
From the eqs. (i*/8)
It
differential equations.
(1-20)
x),
any text on
p. 233.
is
kx.
we have
u
A
by
ACOUSTICS
26
and from
(1-15)
<P
= -
cz s
= -
Akc
sin k(ct
O'Si)
#),
so that
j
Moreover
A sin
Whence
8p
kcp Q
(<:/
O' 22 )
*)
we have dp
A sin
(**
c pos (eq.
(1-14)).
(i- 2 3)
#)>
one another; that is, when the particle velocity is positive, the
excess pressure and condensation are likewise positive.
That this
is not true of the particle
displacement, f, may be seen from the
We have from (1-20)
following.
=
whence, since
= kA sin
-- cos k(ct
x)
k(ct
(1-24)
#),
-- sin k
( ct
+~
(1-25)
(1-22),
we note that
will
be of use later.
Physically
it
means that
if
to a condensation.
It should be
noted that
if
is
measured always
(1-26) will
sign
negative x direction.
Since any function of
equation,
(ct
i.e.,
/-
#),
say f(ct
x),
27
follows that not only does <p satisfy eq. (1-17) but that we may
we choose (recalling that here
<p therein
, u y p, s, as
means excess pressure). Fiom the fact that F(x
cf) is a solution
substitute for
of the
wave equation,
x direction, and hence for the sum of any number of waves in the
positive and negative directions, assuming that the displacement
and particle velocity are measured in the same direction for all.
We have already mentioned the change in sign introduced into
in the direction of
eq. (1-26) by the measurement of positive
This
will
occur
in
only
propagation.
equations containing disand
placement
particle velocity.
We have seen that the general expression for the velocity of
In texts on heat it is shown that
a wave in a fluid is c = ^p/dp.
= p/p
if in a gas we assume isothermal change, we have
dp/dp
(i.e., Boyle's law holds), whence
c
But
if
the change
is
is
specific
ume.
For
<
(" a8 >
VP
&V
is
A/>,
stant
is
called the
here denoted
AF/F=
"volume
by E.
From
if A/> is
not large.
This con-
VdpjdV = -
dV/V =
we have
dp
=-E
"2
ACOUSTICS
28
compressional wave in
the liquid
(1-30)
1-14. Spherical
Waves.
(1-16),
IP
convenience the pole of polar coordinates r, 6 and ^. The disturbance in such a case is propagated as a spherical wave. In
1
polar coordinates it may be shown that vV takes the form:
where x
of
r sin 6 cos
\f/;
symmetry assumed,
r sin 6 sin ^; z
r cos
0.
In the case
V "*
==
d 2 <p
2 dip
W + ~rdr>
or
d-33)
From the solution of eq. (1-17) for the case of plane waves
that the solution of (1-33) for the case of spherical waves
it
follows
is
or
r
1
See, for
"-
r)
F(ct
r)].
(i -34)
29
of these waves
is c
expressions for s y
if that for <p is
^C*poS
To
Thus
*
where
A denotes
7^
(c '- r)
(i-35)
>
From
this:
(1-36)
Since
'*)
it
7'
lt<c
"
" 37)
" 38)
r)
'
follows that
= -
is
[ cos k(ct
r)
+ ^sin k(ct -
r) 1
wherein
ed., p. 53.
ACOUSTICS
30
Since
p=
c*pos,
we have
is
p =
PO
sin k(ct
(1*42)
r).
From eqs. (1*39) and (1-42) we see that p and $ are no longer
The addidifferent in phase by 90 as in the case of plane waves.
tional phase difference 6 increases with the wave length for constant
r
for constant X.
However,
p and
s are in
phase as before.
These last three sections have presented the derivation of the
general equations which will be used constantly in the text that
serted.
If we
1-15. Energy Content of an Acoustic Wave.
Intensity.
denote the excess pressure by/>, from Section 1-13 we have the relation p = poA, where p is the mean equilibrium density, c the velocity
of sound and s the condensation. It is now desired to find the
kinetic
K.E.
is
= \Poff f?dV,
The
(i-43)
this contracts to
if
An amount
quently the
A^(i
of work
ds) for a
is then done
Conseequivalent to p*&V*ds.
work done on the element while the condensation
is
31
given by:
'
f p&Vds =
Wf
p^sds
= AJW A
2
/0
t/0
Hence the
total potential
Mffffdr.
(1-44)
Now
= f(ct -
it
follows
(eq.
1-13
wave
|
cs.
(i-45)
Comparison of (1-43) and (1-44) in this case shows that for plane
waves the energy content is half potential and half kinetic. We
must take care to note that this is not a general condition. For
example,
it is
The
intensity of a
sound wave
(in
unit area, and for a plane wave is obviously the same as the average
energy content per unit volume (i.e., energy density) multiplied
by the velocity of sound. For a plane harmonic wave where
= A cos k(ct
#)>
we have
A?&<?
sin2 k(ct
#),
nX
'
sin k(ct
whence
is
x)dx
..
where X
is
the
integer.
(1-46)
Carrying through
of
ACOUSTICS
32
W = JpoA^ma*.
W terms of the maximum excess
more common form
(i'4 8 )
A still
pressure, viz.,
p m&x
p<>c
for
is in
s maK .
/-**=
0-50)
Now
expression
Thus if /i
we may say
logio/i//o.
97).
Energy Content with Frequency and AmpliIn the case of plane waves it was shown in Section 1-13 that
tude.
=
for a displacement given by
x) the corred/c-cos k(ct
=
Since k
x}.
kptfA sin k(ct
sponding excess pressure is p
1-16. Variation of
that
follows
it
2?r/X,
p =
27rp
^/X-sin
#).
k(ct
33
Hence the
frequency.
Phase
It will be
ment written
in
complex form,
= Ae ^ ~ kx) =
l
where k
viz.
kx)
^/[cos (w/
sin
(co/
&*)],
iarize himself
since
it is
the subject.
is called the
is real.
form
the form
in the
"phase"
If the
A=
is
now
If
the
co/
ments
e2 .
They
at the
The quantity
kx
61
in the
co/
kx
e2 ,
maximum
same
site directions
will
or
e is sometimes
waves of
harmonic
we have two plane
kx
co/
time.
displacetraveling in oppo-
Nevertheless we
ACOUSTICS
34
can say that at any given point two such waves are in the same
phase if they attain their maximum displacements there at the same
time, these displacements being measured, of course, in opposite
directions, in accordance with our initial convention.
effect
reflection
We shall here
of sound at the boundary between two fluid media.
assume normal incidence, for simplicity. The incident wave (from
left to right)
may have
displacement denoted by
its
fa= &'"-**>.
The
wave displacement
reflected
"steady
state'*
after
(1-51)
the
establishment of a
is
{r
$,*'<"*+>,
(I-52)
which leads to
o
*r
o,
(i-53)
(i'S4)
$i<?' ,
o.
the boundary is taken at x
Separating the real and imaginary parts, the above equation yields
if
fisine
o
From
we
effectively
infer
that
But
nw where n
TT
o or
any
I.
integer;
(i'5 6
For
1,
we should have
this is inconsistent
and
;;
is
(1-55^),
fo=
are real
(i'55<*)
(i'55#)
we are here concerned only with
we have, from
while for e
o,
cose.
positive.
Hence
medium.
will
35
excess
d% /dx and s r
t
= +
Proceeding as above
d% r /dx
and hence at x
this yields
fo
&**
o,
(1-58)
& =
fr=
where
o'
Then
whence
if
'
+ /V =
o'
(*/
the displacement at x
(1-59)
(I'60)
(<
and
to
taf)
fc'
is
ifc"
fc.
7/
/> to"
ti
We
is
a complex
I
fo
in the
form
= A*P,
(1-62)
where AQ
i.e.,
reflection
without
ACOUSTICS
36
in phase.
change
zero,
we have
and
is
at the
boundary
(#
A =
leading to
is
o)
TT,
o>
whence A$e
lt
corresponding to reflection
fluid
media.
Normal Reflection
where
k\
co/ci, k*
first
Sr)
pwtfst, at x
(1-630)
o,
where
sr
and
s t are
is
(l
'^)
{o
On
eliminating
finally reduce to
37
boundary
(I
It
is
fluids in general.
the substitution c\
It
as
is
(1-64)
becomes
\7iPoi
c*
po
po2
amplitude
Then
^"Yip/poi, etc.
The equation
may
V 72P02
If,
+^
For setting
ratio.
e is
whence
-r
and AQ
<
sin e
Port i.
o,
so
that
if
2^2
>
POI^I,
while
TT
if
In each case
This analysis makes clear the interesting fact that the change of
phase on normal reflection of a compressional wave in either a
always either zero or TT. It will be shown later
(Sec. 4-5) that this statement is also true for the normal reflection
of a compressional wave at the interface of a fluid and a solid and
liquid or a gas
of two solicHi
is
ACOUSTICS
38
illustrations.
Saturated air at 20 C is
dry air at this temperature by about one part in 120.
Consequently the reflected amplitude is only about 1/480 part of
the incident. Since, as has been shown in Section 1-15, the inten-
lighter than
sity
is
when sound
the reflected intensity is only 1/230,000 part of the incident intenTo take another example, for dry air at 100 C, 7
1.41
sity.
and
tities
are 1.33
amplitude
the
same quan-
is very slight.
Influence
of Surroundings on the Energy Emitted by a
1*19.
Vibrator.
A point sinusoidal source of sound is said to be a " con-
stant" source
if,
it
causes the
39
image are now opposite in phase and if they are very near together
very much less sound energy will be radiated into the hemisphere
to the right of
than if there were no boundary. In both cases
the effect obviously depends on the distance of the source from the
boundary, being
sized in Chapter
this
is
surprising.
Veloci-
"normal"
pated.
of
this,
the
in velocity
u.
this
ACOUSTICS
40
waves have not been made. The nose wave of a fast moving
must travel faster than the normal velocity of sound. Lord
in such
bullet
What would
3.
At about
zontal) large reflector over an open air speaker's stand?
what elevation above the speaker should this reflector be placed
and why?
What
4.
ing"
difficulties will
sound shadows
in
in air?
500 cycles/sec. Find also the diameters for the first minimum
and second maximum respectively.
6. Referring again to Fig. 1-4, suppose that a constant source
is
of sound
screen
is
CD
located at 0.
which
CO =
will give
first
maximum
intensity at C,
if
alluded to in the
same
section.
9.
Deduce
Section 1-12.
dt
10.
That
du
is
4i
Show by
du
du
+ u--+v+
dx
,
dy
du
dz
= -- dp
-/-
p dx
<p
etc.
f(ct
x)
F(ct
+ x)
a solution of the
F(ct
11.
is reflected normally
from a rare to a dense medium the condensation and excess
pressure are reflected without change in phase. Prove that when
the passage is from dense to rare the condensation and excess
in passing
front?
15. Stipulate the conditions and sketch the path of sound in a
case where it is not reversible, as stated in Section 1-7.
16.
Give the
17.
The
may
three ways:
<P
(A' cos kx
B' sin
Show
that the last two are special cases of the first for simple harmonic waves of one frequency. Discuss the evidence in them for
two waves and the differences in significance of A and A*
1 8.
Starting with the expressions for the kinetic and potential
energies as given in eqs. (1-43) and (1-44), apply the fundamental
equations of this chapter to show that the time rate of change of
the total acoustic energy in a given volume may be expressed in
.
42
ACOUSTICS
the form
CHAPTER
II
Acoustic Elements.
The
reader
is
presumably familiar
and capacitance.
behaves
manner
in
medium.
is
equal to
its
actual
parts of the diaphragm are equally free to vibrate. This is, in effect,
the ideal case discussed in this section, which is thus immediately applicable to the
oscillations of any mechanical system of one degree of freedom characterized by the
mass only
if all
appropriate
m,f and
diaphragm which
size
is
of the diaphragm.
43
ACOUSTICS
44
by an
ml
wherein KI
is
the
damping
If p
stiffness coefficient.
wi into
(2-1).
p\e
are not functions of /.
(2-1)
S>,
and
p =
+/ =
A'i{
is
Here
The
by substituting
and p\
result
__+
/A>
is
arc, in general,
(/-
;//co
^e'
complex and
)'
Spe~
[*,
where tan a
we have
lot
'
(2 4)
(;-//);]''*'
how
trigonometric equation:
t
Wl
The
^^ +
plex quantities
will
and denoted by Z.
now
That
its real
KI and
is
i(mu
/-x
^ 5;
'
-//).
and imaginary
Z=
where Zi
y/ w )2]l/2
(;;/w
and the velocity both considered as combe defined as the mechanical impedance
is, from (2-3),
Z = Ki +
Separating this into
called
Zi
the
/Z2 ,
parts,
(2-6)
we have
(27)
//,
suitable single
From
eq. (2-5)
45
maximum
value of
occurs
and
oscillating circuit
at
KW + (mrf -/)
a
minimum.
This value
is
2m 2
If the effective mass is great and the dissipation or mechanical
resistance relatively small, the frequency defined in (2-9) closely
The latter may also
approximates the resonance frequency (2-8)
.
be called the free oscillation frequency of the system, for it represents the frequency with which the diaphragm would vibrate if
its equilibrium position and allowed to oscillate
(assuming no dissipation). It can be shown that if dis1
is
sipation be taken into account the free oscillation frequency
disturbed from
freely
/ITT V//0*
KJfam*.
if
/<
wco2
o,
IT
>
>
TT/Z.
When
co
= V/A,
o and
is
in
ACOUSTICS
46
- --
Jr
- ^.
cos
SW
- ~
a
(2-10)
It
is
when the
the force
(i.e.,
is
velocity
maximum
a.
in
phase with
energy dissipation.
The
when the
velocity is a
maximum and
may
resonance value of
we have, from
by
co
rr
co ,
~ is r is
2Ai|_Ai^co
9
2
be seen as follows.
9/9z
Denoting the
(2'io),
2\2T
a?o ;
;7r(co
which reduces to
where x = w/co
WQ/W. Then the
for x = o, i.e., the resonance case.
Now we have
dx
For x
>
(i.e.,
a?
>
But
A"i
falls
summarize the
is
W occurs
V
negative, whence as x
off at a rate
We may
value of
;;;W*2 ) 2
the derivative
co ),
(AY
maximum
for large
is
lower.
electric oscillations.
it
is
customary at
this point
to
47
And indeed the vibrating string itself furnishes a satisfactory introduction to the theory of vibrating systems. It will suffice here
to refer to the many excellent treatments of this topic in the standard texts. 1
The
is
directed, however, to
FIG. 2-1.
Helmholtz Resonator and Acoustic Impedance. The Helmis an enclosure communicating with the external
medium through an opening of small area (see Fig. 2-2). The open2-3.
hoi tz resonator
may
ing
FIG. 2-2.
is
Sound, 1925,
I,
ACOUSTICS
48
element.
To
resonator
the
write
down
is poSl.
It is customary and convenient to write this
another form by introducing the quantity
the opening
in
cQ
S/l,
(2-13)
which
is
becomes po 2 Ao- It is to be noted that this reppossible whether the opening is in the form of a neck
whence the
latter
resentation
is
or
is flat.
To
culate
get the expression for the dissipative force we need to calthe amount of acoustical energy radiated from a hemi-
We
*'
Tir
is
-y
for
by
mass
is
constant, d(Vp)
o and
.PO
Now dV
is
49
/>,
is
Putting
driven by an external
we have
2
v
-,-A=p.
p
<r
(2-14)
Mathematically,
if
is
= ~~
"
.
27T
/ pQCO
\
__ po^
C
I
\ CQ
'
where, as usual,
-^^2
tan
(2-17)
The maximum
that
is,
The more
is
'-
//
r
co,
is
^\y
< <
X, as a rule.
We now
ACOUSTICS
50
Thus, we write
pressure
7 __
rate of
pressure
volume displacement
volume current
"
J:
= Z +
l
iZ 2y
where
Zi
Z2
acoustic resistance
=~
(2*19)
V
J/
>
27T
27T
and
acoustic reactance
PO
Vo
r>
(2-20)
e**V
It
is
customary to
mass
4
a minimum.
*2
7T
maximum
dis-
/s_!V
V CQ
V)
i=
'
A/7?'
'
..
C2 21 )
'
than co , as a rule.
constant
of the resonator is the ratio of the
amplification
of
maximum
excess
the
pressure in the resonator and the
squares
This
is
The
but slightly
less
__
/>max
Hence
after
is
simply pi.
Now we
some reduction we
Amplification
PQC Jmax
51
-T?
>
have
arrive at
p2
conductivity.
Following Rayleigh
we
of a mass of fluid:
(2-23)
ACOUSTICS
l
this volume integral can be transformed into a surface integral over a surface including this whole
*
volume. This theorem states that
value.
By
Green's theorem
fffKVv? +
v^v~\dxdydz
= /yVn-V^W,
(2-24)
dS.
(where s
moving
is
fluid
vV
is
zero.
The
1-12).
Therefore in the
energy
then reduces to
K.E.
Now on
(2-25)
therefore have a
constant value.
dn
=
since
the
*\JC
volume
r^f)\
( r>
X=
current
To
definition.
ff(d<p/dri)dS by
a first approximation
X should
^2-
be
Hence
we assume
FIG. 2-3.
We
X=
CO(<PI
<pz).
(2
'
2 7)
currents,
p. 349.
name
acoustic conductivity to
terms of it, we obtain
CQ.
is
= \^X\
CQ
K.E.
53
effective
(2-28)
fluid in
the opening.
K.E.
where
V is
is
l*x*
(2-29)
-X*,
CQ
(2-30)
defined in (2-27)
equal to zero). For the case of the ellipse this computation has
been carried out 1 and for the special .case in which the ellipse degenerates into a circle
we have
*o
where a
is
20,
(2-32)
the radius.
Now
and
it is
mass of the
(2-28)
1
is
fluid in the
poTrVy^o-
See Rayleigh,
The
channel
is irrfpol
and the
306.
may
effective
mass by
be thought of as
ACOUSTICS
54
channel.
mass divided by S2
or
ira?
It is seen that
we may consider
It
is
'-'
(2>34)
<^
<
8#
,
3*
a > .7850 and a < .849*2, and the correct value of CQ lies
between the converging limits.
The connection between conductivity and the end correction of
a cylindrical tube is further discussed from the standpoint of impedance theory in Section 6-6 and it is there shown that the correction to the end can be expressed in the form S/c$, where S is the
or
from
(2-34),
where
2-5. Electrical
Analogues.
The comparison of
whole channel.
acoustical
wave
The equation
Helmholtz resonator
is
(2-35)
1
See Rayleigh,
55
The impedance
is
M
'
(2>36)
The
absolute value
is
in
The phase
angle
is
a point impedance.
is
given by
The power
factor, cos 6
L- u
tan
is
R/\Z\,
Resonance occurs
electrical case.
(2-37)
'
(2 38)
The
damping
wide divergences
in
down
define
it
as
-?-=
pedance.
r
A. G. Webster
used
in
particle velocity
here.
analogy
0/ with mechanical im-
*--p
volume displacement
Academy
For
Sci., 5, 275,
1919;
H.
Brillie,
while Brillie
Le Genie
Civil,
ACOUSTICS
56
prefers
1
-PI
This confusion
particle velocity
is
it
- still
now
Incidentally
we
frequencies.
Let the tube be chosen with cross section
S and
let
the distance
of any point from one end be denoted by x. Assuming the possibility of motion in the x direction only and neglecting damping,
the equation of motion (Sec. 1-13, eq. (1-17)) is
wherein we use
The
tial.
{ ^
j<?
<p y
wave
<+*>,
(2-40)
where k
u/c as usual and the two terms refer to waves going
forward and backward directions through the tube, respecNow if the tube is open at both ends there will be (approxitively.
1
From
mately at least) no change in pressure at the two ends.
=o
(1-14) and (1-26) it is seen that this condition means that d/6\v
=
=
at the two ends, for x
o and x
/, if the length of the tube is /.
Applying this condition to (2*40), it is found that we must have
sin kl = o, whence / = #X/2, where n is any integer.
The resonance
in the
wave lengths
This assumption neglects the acoustic radiation at the openings, and hence the
approximate only. The magnitude of the error is estimated in Sec. 5-5.
result will be
57
any
integer,
Similarly it
= 2//# as in the first case above. In the case of forced oscillations of a cylindrical tube it is of interest to note that the condition for resonance,
at one end,
is
4//(2#
i) if
To understand
Since d%/dx
is
is
given by
^.-_jW
dx~ POT"
f2
(
p
p =
..n
4J
of tube
p G c dt;/dx.
is
.
*
(2 42)
The corresponding
electrical
problem
is
that governed
by the
equation
which represents
inductance per unit length and the capacitance per unit length are
and C respectively. In the transmission line the capacitance is
between the
line
and
its
surroundings.
The analogous
acoustic
and
the fluid
tance
1
is
is
thereby increased.
ACOUSTICS
58
2-7.
Compound Resonators.
same
as those of the
that this
is
not
so.
FIG. 2-4.
compound
v\
and
v^
are equal)
is
given by
(2-45)
J/J
end
to a
59
equation:
FIG. 2-5.
m\
show that
+ K +ft =
27T
For a system
1.6
/"==
io
in
which
m=
100 gm., KI
dynes/cm, calculate
PI
and
VQ (
i/27rV//w), and
ACOUSTICS
60
in this case
In particular solve the differential equation to find
how
in
calculate
Problem
the
data
I,
and, using
long it will take
the system to have its amplitude reduced to i/e of its original value
i/e
is
about 5900.
w/coo, in
which
maximum
made concerning the retention of indiwhen two systems are (i) closely and
coupled?
for a
Helmholtz resonator of
= 13 cm,
= 3.02 cm,
opening
Volume of resonator chamber =
"
Compute
"
the conductivity
theoretical
resonator at
value.
its
fre-
CQ
Compute
1053
cc.
resonance frequency.
maximum
(a)
One end
(b)
Both ends
is
61
X and
values.
for a cylindrical
tube of
of length
/,
if
if
2//X
= A cos
w/ at one
is
open
(?/
is
is
13. Justify the statement preceding eq. (2-27) to the effect that
is a linear function of <pi
<p z
.
each end.
CHAPTER
CHANGES
TRANSMISSION.
III
IN
velocity.
The
p = fopo^sin
k(ct
x)
(3-1)
and
= kA sin
k(ct
x).
(3-2)
be noted that the phase difference between these two quanIn the electrical analogue the power factor (the
zero.
cosine of the phase difference between the electromotive force and
the current see Sec. 2-5) is thus unity.
Consequently the average
unit
area
is
transmission
per
simply
power
It is to
tities
is
P-i^Vpo,
(3-3)
= I/2. 1 An
that the time average of sin 2 k(ct
x)
examination of (3'i) in the light of the latter fact shows at once that
if
we
1
recall
ifyc.,1
T JQ
where the time interval r
is
large
is
TRANSMISSION
p==
63
'
i>
(3 4)
The
- P -
is
!*
given by
ti. f \
The impedance
It
is
is thus a real
quantity and represents a resistance.
often denoted as the radiation resistance of the medium.
It is
The quantity
diverging spherical
p = -
velocity in a
- r)
and
Let us
first
have
__
p~
ip ck
__
"
ACOUSTICS
64
this
quantity
is
'*'
where
is
(37)
and
is
of such magnitude
that
tan
'
( 3* 8 )
r
jIt
is
its real
and imaginary
Z,
= Z + *Z,
(3-9)
where
Zal==
and
^2
==
PoCK
\3*^
TT~2
'
Obviously
The
total acoustic
impedance
is
given by
AVT
which
in absolute value
is
\z\
So
far
only.
We
next
investigate the case of the converging wave, for which the velocity
potential
Then
is
TRANSMISSION
65
and
Consequently
in
case
this
we have
for
and
Z =
pock
82
-f-
/0
R~1
(3*19)
.,
"
The
specific inertance.
The power
factor
cos &
From
is
and
cos
is
kr
it is
_/>
max
and
f max are
velocity, respectively.
given by
P=
where
is
'
value
its
the
-pinoxSmax COS
maximum
0,
and
But we have
.
(3-22)
and
*- =
i
Hence
P=
It
by
of
Ak
f
'
T^Tt
.
'
(3 23)
(3-4)
is
p and
The
shows
Indeed
ACOUSTICS
66
the square of the distance from the source. This important fact
has already been used in an earlier portion of the book. Incidentally it is seen that the eq. (3-4) derived in Section 3-1 for plane
waves also holds for spherical wave transmission (note that for p
in the
The
(3*10)
is
sufficiently small in
f.
(3-25)
of surface
*$"
whence the
2
ZifS
is
equal to
^t
which
is
given by
0-7)
which
is the
expression which has already been used in the case of
the opening to the Helmholtz resonator (Sec. 2-3). Strictly speaking, the above derivation applies only to the case of a vibrating
It can be shown (see Sec. 10*5) that the impedance expressions in the case of a
source emitting spherical waves are, at any distance from the center of the source
greater than the radius, the same as for a similar point source located at the center.
finite
TRANSMISSION
67
waves as
We
(3-28)
where R' is the damping coefficient per unit area. Careful analysis
of the vibrations of a viscous fluid 2 shows that (3-28) will be the
wave equation in such a fluid if we have
R'
=
\
(3-29)
vy
The
quantities,
^-<2/3
)(M*/p
ovw-*>
(3.30)
Attention
See H.
It will
is
is
ACOUSTICS
68
|(/i
/po<:),
for
may
same form
as (3*30),
namely
<?-
o/
x/
>
<
N
U3
(
and
k'
/*'.
(3 33)
UJJ'
.
c'
which agrees
1
2
3
4
5
fairly well
Rayleigh,
loc. cit., I, p.
318.
Crandall,
Science,
loc. cit., p.
LXVI, No.
01
H. Lamb,
Lamb,
c(
V
237.
1712, 1927.
It
is,
at
any
rate,
TRANSMISSION
69
l
Rayleigh has shown that the solution may still be put into the
general form (3*31); or more specifically we have
itself.
The damping
factor
#" =
which
is
the well
known
R"
dis-
in this case is
(3'34)
^>
Poiseuille coefficient,
commonly
associated
sound
in
Constantinesco System of
3-4. Sound Transmission in Pipes.
Hydraulic Power Transmission. We can utilize the material of
the preceding section to discuss briefly the hydraulic transmission
of energy through a pipe line, first developed by M. Constantinesco 2
during the late war. If we have a rigid pipe and vibrations are
communicated
1
Rayleigh,
2
M.
by the
alter-
ACOUSTICS
7o
=
where
and /3.
moment we
for the
The
is
fc^-yC"*-*),
(3.35)
((at
- ftx
(3.36)
<<-^.
To
we must
a.
=
=
W&tf-*
1*
Sin
(/
(/
0#),
0#)
(3-37)
sin
(a)/
jftv)].
Hence
P=
frealjOreal
po*W*-*~.
(3*38)
is /,
Pr
r.
(3-39)
sin
/3/
or
/
where n
is
any
integer.
It
maximum
is
0T//J,
(3-40)
is
likewise
See Crandall,
TRANSMISSION
71
comparison with the frictional forces. For the larger tubes actually
use, it would appear more satisfactory, therefore, to use the
in
somewhat
is
The
ACOUSTICS
72
where 7
is
The measurements
<x
defined as follows
sample
results
will
be noted here.
For
50% greater than those for brass, a result understandable on the basis of the assumption of absorption by the walls.
Sweeps consisting of bends of 90 and 10 feet in over all length
were also investigated. Thus for a 2 inch brass bend the average
to be 0.030, decreasing to 0.018 for a 4 inch bend.
Flexible tubes show much higher attenuation.
The article referred
to contains the results of measurements on the effects of various
fittings, including cone terminals and inserted diaphragms.
Many
of the values given are unfortunately probably in considerable error
due to the difficulty of avoiding resonance effects.
a comes out
The same investigators also report measurements on the articulation (see Sec. 11-4) in sound transmitted through voice tubes.
3-5. Transmission in Pipes.
Change of Area at a Junction.
Consider two pipes joined as in the accompanying figure (Fig. 3-1)
with sound traveling from the pipe of cross section Si to that of
The problem is to find the power transmission
cross section
2
*S'
(3-40
It
all
is
implied.
TRANSMISSION
From
73
latter,
eqs. (1-14)
we may
and
(1-26)
write
is
We
wave
then have
T
\
J
i
FIG. 3-1.
for
example)
sponding expressions:
= iwR^loe"*',
=
iuRiA^ "
p
=
iuRidte'"',
pi
pi
(3-42)
continuity of pressure,
continuity of discharge rate or volume displacement.
we must have
at x
That
o
/>t
and
S'i(*.
+ pr =
-
*r)
ft
Sifc,
(3-43)
(3-44)
where the minus sign in eq. (3-44) recalls that f r is measured in the
negative x direction. These two conditions yield respectively
A,
and
A,
A*
(3.45)
(3-46)
ACOUSTICS
74
If
we
call
.S' 2
/.S'i
;,
we have
therefore
~-Al ~ m
An
;/7+ j\
or, solving for
A\ and
y/2 in
'
terms of Jo,
^ "- ^ (I mm '+l \)
.
(3-47)
and
(3.48)
(2)
incident
(3)
is
real,
If ;w
<
i,
must be real.
same phase as the
pressure and displacement (from
(1)
y/i
is
to
A>i
always
in the
sign
incident and reflected waves are in the same phase for both displacement and pressure. But if m > i, the incident and reflected
The average
Transmitted flow
Sttkt
Incident flow
It
is
Szptt-t-
We
wave
i,
given
by
have therefore
for
is
~~
<?2^2 ~~
-^o
4?
(m
i)
/-
T'i8,
is
(350)
This
is
is
TRANSMISSION
75
dense medium.
large
is
We
medium.
shall
this
analogy
in
Two
Change
3*6.
pansion.
of
Area
at
s,
FIG. 3-2.
/.
The cross sectional areas are *9,,
The boundary between ?i and S z is
and
2,
<V 3
respectively.
;{
and
(3-51)
Bit"',
respectively.
tions (at /) in
The displacements
2
are
all
Much
phase differences.
two displacements
of the material in this and the following sections of this chapter follows
Brillie,
Le Genie
Civil, 75,
223 (1919).
ACOUSTICS
76
at
in
2,
Lastly we
in
may
wave displacement
at //
3,
Again x need not appear, for A$ is complex and contains the phase.
At each surface we have the two necessary conditions:
(1)
(2)
On
for
continuity of pressure,
continuity of volume displacement or of volume current.
substitution we have therefore the corresponding equations
boundary
/:
At
S,(A,
+B = ^ +5
2
2,
'
Bi)
St(A*
(3 54)
2 ).
In the above it should be noted that the minus signs in the displacement condition are due to the fact that the displacements
1
ia)t
B\e** and Btf
are, because of the definition of positive displacement in this text, measured in the negative x direction. At the
boundary // we have
A*-*
Calling 82/81
mi and 83/82
B^
Wz,
= A*
it
(3-56)
B =
l
-\_( mi
i)B t
(an
it
follows that
(3-57)
finally
have on
reduction
/fi
[(mim*
i)
cos kl
i(mi
(3-58)
TRANSMISSION
Similarly,
--j
Bi
Now we
[(wi7722
cos kl
i)
77
mz) sin
i(m\
/].
is
(3-59)
the ratio
=
|,
A\&* and,
real
rtiCO
= ~
/>, real
since pi
Sin
CO/
Po^[#lCO sin
CO/
p ci
^iCO
(eq. (1-45)),
COS
CO/,
^ X CO COS
CO/].
Therefore
(3-60')
It therefore follows at
But from
|^i
once that
i-|//3!
[(wiw 2
we have
i)
cos 2 */
ratio
+^
(ii
2
2)
sin 2
becomes
,.
i)
cos 2 kl
(;i
+w
2)
sin 2 kl
i)
the above:
very small, the transmission is independent of
the cross sectional area of the channel or mid section.
It will
(1)
When
kl
(2) If sin kl
is
i,
we have
for the
power transmission
1.
2
(
62)
vo
ACOUSTICS
78
= m
z
interesting to notice, becomes equal to unity if m\
the
is
of
channel
cross
section
the
if
the
SiSa, i.e.,
geometrical mean of those of the two conduits.
which,
or
(3)
it is
If sin kl
o,
we have
for
m\m^
or Si
3.
Under
these con-
wave
most
lengths X
intensely.
wave lengths
channel.
is a difference in
phase between the incident wave
that
of
and
the
displacement
finally transmitted wave is seen at
once from eq. (3'58). We can get its magnitude by writing
That
there
; tan *'
(3-64)
is
damping
in
the
above discussion.
TRANSMISSION
79
Section 3-3 assures us that this effect will be small unless the cross
and channel are very small.
sections of tube
The accompanying
of
FIG. 3-3.
end be
r\
and the
where
A and B
excess
Ct
and
(3.67)
Now
if
is
ACOUSTICS
8o
will
be approximately zero at r
Recognizing that
A=
ai
/0 2
and
parts,
(0i
(^i
and
B =
and r
r\
+ ^0 cos kn +
+ ^i) cos kri +
we
2,
(02
values of
kn
real
o,
n)
/.
sin
2)
(0 2
kfa
r% for all
are in general
o.
or
rz
r,
WX
(3-69)
j
^
^=
dr
If neither
_ /i+
r
\
nor
r\
tt)^^(rl-r)
r
r2 is zero,
Ae~^{\
_ /i_ #
\ r
we have
i*n]
5^+7fcr ii
/*n]
o,
(i + ^i)
(cos
^ri+^i
r2+r2
sin ^rj)
sin kr%)
+
+
(02
kr\ cos
(02
kr^ cos
kr z
relation
(3'7 2 )
between n,
r%
tan kr.
(3-73)
TRANSMISSION
81
the
power
transmis-
the
sion
through
system.
Let the distance from 0\ to
the boundary
and that from
be
circle
2
be r 2
r\
Then
The
Fio. 3-4-
are
(375)
rz
The boundary
continuity of pressure,
(2) continuity of volume displacement or current.
(1)
ACOUSTICS
82
That
is,
we have
and
By
eliminating
the equation
arrive at
V>'2
ia-*)-
becomes
5 =
'
whence we have
^TH^F'
(3>8o)
(3'80
Now
Here we have
S, t
ri
is
p and
we
(3
3)
*=
where
We
|^/i|
U.I
^f 2 respectively.
TRANSMISSION
By
83
(3-85)
1
"t~ "7
~_
...
terms of the wave length and the radii. It is worth noting that
in this kind of transmission for a given system the yield increases
1
greatly as the frequency increases, and there is otherwise no selecin
Section
as
When r 2 = ri, there
we
found
tive effect such
3-6.
no
in
the
and
100% yield results
is, of course,
conicality,
change
in
is
change in cross
not at all on the wave length of the sound. In eq. (3-85) there is
evident a dependence both on the dimensions of the tube and on
wave
length.
This
is
shown
in
ACOUSTICS
84
incident
and
reflected plane
waves
to the left,
much
like that
FIG. 3-5.
/ in the conduit
us take respectively A&* and Be** , while the corresponding
quantities at / in the connector are (see eq. (3-74) and note that the
ik is included in
factor
\ and E\ here)
1
let
and
The corresponding
pv.
pQcAe
and
p^cBe^^y
ESE^lg^t
an d
r\
es*!*2 e it.
r\
in the
connector
(i) Velocities:
and
_,^v*v,
TRANSMISSION
(2)
85
Pressures:
P OC
<?-'
and
'V""
At //
in the
M 'e wt
t*2
conduit we have:
(1)
Transmitted velocity:
(2)
Transmitted pressure:
We now
e~
>c
r%
At
7, these
become
A + B=-(Ai +
r\
I
50,
(3-86)
I+ f)5..
_f)^_(
krij n
krij
At
^ "
.
(3 87)
r\
(A,e"^
is
= A*
(3-88)
to eliminate 5,
+ B^
kl/
in
terms of
A<L.
A^ we
Adding the
get
Substitution into eq. (3-90) then yields, after separation into real
and imaginary
parts,
ACOUSTICS
86
X m/(m
of m and
r 2 2 /n 2
and
calling
ikl' y
whereby r\
i), we can express the
Thus
cr.
(7
cos
(;;/
T)
V^V^i =
a/lk(m
#*>
and
i)
coefficient of
and further
r%
At wholly
in
(<r/2-k)
terms
(7
-
sin
77/(7
(3-94)
Now
flr
is
Uii 1
,
7;;
Hence we have
^ ma
li.
i
. \
""
/'
..._<:i
-sin 2 _
2
i
i
i
-I)
This can be contracted into the somewhat simpler form
*
==
7~T
~f
i
(;;/
\,,i,
T\9~I
2
i)
*,
T7~
cos
^wc.
'"1^
r (~~
\w
\ 2>
i)
/cr
TfTI
sin
\1"lo2
\
\3"97/
/J
made computations
is
taken, has
summarized
in
See
Brillie,
Le Gcnic
The curves
are a result of
TRANSMISSION
made by one
87
by a method somewhat
from that used by Brillie* (see below).
In Section 3-6 we saw (eq. (3-62)) that if a pipe has an intermediate channel and if the channel length is such that sin kl =
i,
calculations
of the authors
different
a:
VF
Pr'080
095
0999
099
080
0.06
FIG. 3-6.
is
unity,
if
mean
ACOUSTICS
88
will
500
1000
Frequency
FIG.
Ill,
m =
m
== 10
2, /
3, /
cm;
10 cm;
000
y6a.
I,
1500
II,
IV,
conical connector.
m = 2, / =
m = 3, / =
50 cm.
50 cm.
expect then that the exponential connector will always give perfect
transmission, but this is actually not true, and the trouble is that
we are not logically justified in pushing the argument in the case
of the discontinuous change in cross section to the continuous case.
As a matter of
fact, if
we
treat the
wave motion
in the expo-
nential connector as
Pr
if
+
m
'
sm z
where
2
is
TRANSMISSION
this, particularly as
89
in Section 6-4.
l
only approximate.
The results of the application of horn theory to acoustical
connectors may be briefly summarized here. 2 Application to the
case of the conical connector yields very simply essentially the
In addition, the general case, where
results of the present section.
S = $QX a
measured along the axis) approaches a value approximately independent of a. It is shown that the exponential connector is the
limiting case of the above with increasing a and has a transmission
ratio differing little from that of the former.
Finally even in the
case of a connector whose generating curve has a point of inflection,
2
such as, for example, S = *$V~~* for large /, the transmission
shows little difference from that of the others. As kl decreases all
,
with the experimental data obtained by one of the authors,3 according to which little if any difference could be detected between the
transmission for actual models of the various types of connectors
here discussed. Hence we may conclude that the exact shape of
the connector is under usual conditions relatively unimportant.
3-9. Application of the Reciprocal Relation to Transmission in
Conduits. There is an important general principle about the
transmission of sound through a conduit which we can establish
by the use of the Helmholtz reciprocal theorem discussed in SecConsider the tube of cross sectional area Si, joined by
tion I'll.
a connector of arbitrary character with the tube of cross sectional
is a
plane wave in S\ of a displacement
to
rise
a
A\
giving
plane wave in S* of displacement
amplitude
the
Then
transmission ratio for a wave going
A*.
power
amplitude
area *$V
from
left to right is
Brillie,
Le Genie
See R. B. Lindsay,
G.
W.
loc. cit.
Stewart, unpublished.
ACOUSTICS
9o
\
FIG. 37.
to the reciprocal
theorem the
same
produce the
6* 2
will
produced
same
A^
is
in
true of
Therefore
be to
left is
</:
(3-100)
Hence
Pr =
tion
made
is
Pry and we conclude that no matter how the connecthe yield is the same in either direction.
this
close
such a
(1)
SV
plane wave
way
Volume displacement
in
(2)
At
in Si
displacement
Pressure in Si = Pressure in
let
Vol. displacement in
+ Vol.
<9 3)
Pressure in 5V
displacements:
TRANSMISSION
(a)
in Si
(li)
in ^2
(c)
in
91
<9 3
Then
(referring
tions at C:
back to Sec.
A,
Bi
3-6)
A*
we have
+B =
2
for the
A,
boundary condi-
5,,
If
six
1)
by
A^
J5 2 , A*>
to eliminate the five quantities Bi,
The
in
of
terms
A\.
and
A*
power transBz>
eventually express
mission will then be given at once by
matical problem
By
is
carrying through
the
somewhat tedious
finally arrive at
i6sin
Pr
=
[1-2
cos
cos*
(/,-/)
elimination,
we
ACOUSTICS
92
From
k(k
(2)
/a)
/2)
=
=
(in
be noted that
it will
l)?r
inir
or
73
or
73
/2
/2
P =
=
=
(in
\
1}
(3'
10 4)
w\,
are
^2) 5^ ^WXTT at the same time, where n and
provided (/3
cases
of
These
course,
zero).
(including,
integers
independent
l
include the well known special case originally discussed by Quincke
in which the difference in length between the two tubes is one half
wave
length.
FIG. 3-9.
This
is relatively sharp.
will
which
be
of
sound
the
filtration,
possibility
already suggests
tube
is
the
later discussed in Chapter VII.
Moreover,
parallel
to note that the selectivity of such a tube
and
this
incorrect theory
was
is
TRANSMISSION
93
1.
in a viscous fluid
medium
(take water)
Solve
Work
the
if
the
the
same
diameter?
in
fluid
will it
P = -/Wxfmax COS
for the average transmission per unit area.
cannot a discussion similar to that in Section 3-5 be
4.
used to determine the reflection at the open end of a conduit, i.e.,
Why
where S\
<
in Fig. 3-1
is
assumed
to travel
from
right to left?
What
conclusion
may
to the case of a flat disc with a very minute hole inserted across
an acoustic conduit?
6.
the large end and open at the small end and compare with eqs.
and (373).
Carry through the calculation of the power transmission
(3-69)
7.
ratio
9.
than
is
it
will a
10 meters per second and that the sound wave of 500 cycles has
tive in
in the other.
CHAPTER
IV
CHANGES
TRANSMISSION.
MEDIA
IN
Change
This section
is
it
proves to be
0'
FIG. 4-1.
plane wave
traveling from
wave
velocity.
left to right
Assume that
from medium
there
to
is
medium
II.
wave
in I at the
boundary be respectively
Atf**
and
in II
Bie*"'
be
are, as usual,
continuity of pressure,
(2) continuity of volume displacement or of volume current.
(1)
94
have
for these
two conditions
Ri(Ai
we
3-5,
we
Bi
= RtJ*
= A*
R\
5,)
,A
Solving,
95
(4-1)
(4-2)
find
D
Bi
__
y/2
RI
A, p
KZ
*
rr-h /vi
2
'*i
b~v
-A
^
*
-777,
ri2 -r I
-*i-;
>
ri2
7*12
T'
(4-3)
>
'4'4J
medium
(Note the analogy with the reciprocal of the relative index of refractwo media.)
tion of
The energy
(1-47)
and
(3*60')
wave
is
R#>* ^2
|
2
.
1
is
Referring to eq. (4*3) it is seen that the reflected wave is /;/ phase
with the incident wave (both as regards displacement and pressure)
if 7*12 > 1 3 while the two waves are
opposite in phase if rj2 < i.
Incidentally these facts have already been deduced previously in
Section 1-18, where the problem of reflection at a boundary was
ACOUSTICS
96
The reader
identical in
lytical
An
this chapter.
extensive table of values of specific acoustic resistance will
be found in Appendix I.
4-2. Amount of Reflection at a Boundary for Oblique Incidence.
In the preceding work the passage from one medium to another
has been assumed of such a character that the incident wave front
It will be of interest to examine briefly
which the incidence is not normal but
where the glancing angle, 0i, differs from zero. The construction
of the refracted wave front has already been given in Section 1-8
= c\/c^ y
(Fig. 1-7), and the law of refraction, namely, sin 0i/sin 2
where c\ and c* are the velocities of sound in the two media respecIf the incident medium is a fluid, we need to
tively, still holds.
consider only the longitudinal wave in the second medium, because
the liquid can exert no shearing stress.
is
parallel to the
the
boundary.
The boundary
in
same type
as those
we
are
AE
XY
on the
on
whose
trace
plane
YZ
the
axis.
The direction of travel is
plane is of course the
indicated by the arrows and the angle of incidence is 0i. The
reflected wave front is CD and the refracted wave front in the
second medium
is
CE
02-
Strictly speaking
taken perpendicular
to the
Let the original wave front passing through the
plane.
fixed origin be denoted by
wave
XY
tfi*
We may
front, which
b\y
o.
b^y
is
AE
by
K,
The
initial position is
97
thus
wave must
be in the form
where
k\
w/ri
27r/Xi.
Hence on substitution
this
becomes
Now
Vi +
FIG. 4-2.
V^i
b\
l
y
2
<Pt'A
Incidentally, substitution into the wave equation vVt
2
2
be given the
shows that this is indeed a solution if V#i
^i
above value.
We
then have
a\
Now
if
we
k\
cos
0i,
b\
ki sin 0],
ACOUSTICS
98
is
it
ciple,
potential
by
<p r
= ^'M+'n-M].
wave
wherein
h =
& and
b^ cos
b?
62
sin
kz cos 62
sin
2.
<p r .
slipping of the
that if we had
__
\W +
2
v^2
also
as in
represented by
in
#2
and
is
<>
assumed
we snould have
tf 2
=
=
&2 COS 02 5
kz sin
02.
Now
Hence
b^
b\.
ditions.
Since
condition
is
We now
p
p =
<
^t
Since
k\ sin 0i.
c)<
c2
>h
k\
pozpt
at
o.
(4-6)
becomes
-r
fi
+ poi^r =
d<p/dx, the
+ dp, =
1
dpt
at ^
o.
(4-7)
99
respectively.
S =
A
whence
~
=
But
a\
k\
u/c\ and
k\
cos
0\
kz
and
#2
M/CI.
have
B\
Po2/poi
^l
Now
P02/P01
^i
61
may
be
to be
4-
,iT
and
kc
if
shown
For
cot ^2/cot
COt 6^ 2 /COt
we denote
directions
by
.1
respectively.
kc
the
and
ij t ,
that
CO
CO
Hence the
is
+
It therefore follows that the ratio
Similarly for the reflected wave.
B\l AI in eq. (4*12) is also the ratio of the reflected and incident
displacement amplitudes.
reflected is simply
1
[pog/PQi
[P02/POJ
""
,
^
'
ACOUSTICS
IOO
It
is
important to note that the frequency does not enter the above
Bi
__ P02/PU1
""
C\/Ci
^i~p M /poi+*i~Ai'
4;
Po2^2,
then there
is
no reflected wave at
all for
normal incidence.
__ P02
0i
r~-
Po2~/Por
Q\
1~7-r,
(4-1 5)
is
with the
given by
'
(4'
cr i cz"
j6 )
The
that
we have
P02/P01
>
Ci/C2
>
Or
P02/POJ
<
C\/C2
<
I,
that
See also Chapter XII, Sections 12*1 and 12-3, for a dis270.
cussion of total reflection in atmospheric acoustics.
4*3.
We now
consider
FIG. 4-3.
I,
II
and
will
respectively.
reflected
and
Atf^
and
we have
Btf
"'.
Aner**
*^
if / is
;*i2
have
shall
and
At
101
Rz/Ri and
;* 2 s
medium
II
B z e^ e^
and
in
medium
III
is
medium and
Rz/Ri> we have
co/r 2 , etc.
at the first
Calling
boundary the
following:
(i)
Pressure condition:
(2)
Displacement condition:
A*
5,
= ^ - B
2
(4-18)
2.
Pressure condition:
(4-19)
(2)
Displacement condition:
r**
It is
- B
is
2e
lk * 1
A*.
(4-20)
the elimination of
JBi,
A^ 5
2,
Hence the
it is
to
is
formally
ACOUSTICS
io2
therefore,
m\
n2, ^2
4^2^23
^23,
2.
We
have,
/-
sm^
sin
(i)
nearly zero (where X 2 is the
the
in
the
second
medium),
length
power transmission is
If sin kit
27r(//X 2 ) is
wave
4T13
is
in a pipe.
If sin
k>i/
7^ o, the yield
2
i}(r\^
i) and we see that the presence
only in the term (r 23
of this medium will increase the transmission only if (r J2 2
i)
X (r 23 2 i) > o. This means that R 3 > R 2 > RI or R 3 < R 2 < Ri,
i.e., that the specific acoustic resistance of the intervening medium
must
lie
transmission
('])
is
If sin kj,
i,
this is unity if
also follows that for
or a
minimum
the
(see
eq.
2
or R\R*
/? 2
The general statement
any three given media the yield is a maximum
for sin kj = i or / = (in
i)\2/4, where n is any
n2
and
Otherwise, the
decreased.
r<w
we have a
a
minimum
to
otherwise.
by H.
Eq. (4-22) and the essential equations of Sections 4*4 and 4-6 have been deduced
Brillie, Le Genie Civil, 75, pp. 194, 218, 1919.
103
while Ra = 42.6 in the same units for air. Hence ris = 42.67(1.43
X io 5 ) = 29.8 X icr 5 Hence without any intermediate medium
.
the transmission
is
using an intervening
By
medium
shows that
if
medium.
If
it
does not, as
it
true approximately.
the rubber vibrates
would not
if it
were short
of application.
For the statement made above
o the transmission is independent of the properties of the intervening medium will be no longer true.
above method
that
when
sin
fails
kj
The problem
media
4-4.
this
tion
is
The
Stethoscope.
The
__ __
FIG. 4-4.
The
stethoscope
is
medium
ACOUSTICS
ro4
medium
Boundary
(i)
Continuity of pressure:
+5
(2)
Continuity of displacement:
A -B =
l
Boundary
(1)
A*
- 5
2.
(4-26)
A*.
(4*27)
2:
Continuity of pressure:
Aie~
(2)
+5
ik * 1
<?^
Continuity of displacement:
Atf'^
52
'*2*
-TT
01
A^
p
*r
where m\
(4*28)
27r/X 2 ,
\J*\*
There
*$V^i as usual.
A =
1
we have
(4-^5)
2 ).
Thus
P
C
is
at once
/,
tan 6
^1^12
tan
k*l.
(4*30)
kj
is
made very
we have
small,
for the
ratio
in
~
p _
'
_
~
'
Then
is air.
'
power transmission
i.
Let us examine
I,
105
this
U3Un
numerically
medium
^2
jr-
v
X
10
4
,
listening tube
As a more
eters of base
icr3 .
io~J
diam-
4*44
ri2
.3
P,
.024,
to air without
transmission ratio
is
change
only about
in
0.12% (see
stethoscope makes an
in
sound
above described
Mason.
4-5.
It
is
often desirable to
W.
larly part
P. Mason,
1927.
See particu-
ACOUSTICS
io6
for example, the passage of sound from water to the hull of a ship.
This demands some consideration of transmission in solid sub-
FIG. 4-5-
the rod of length dx at the distance x from 0, and let the stress
x and
(force/area) in the x direction on the two faces be
x
The
then
(dX
respectively.
(dXx /dx)dx> and the total unbalanced force on
x direction is (dXx /dx)dxdydz.
The equation of motion of the slab is then
x /dx)dx,
is
dx
Y,
dx
where
Y is
in this case
Young's Modulus.
of motion becomes
ri= Y ^>
(4*33)
107
or the usual
importance
as
in
we defined the
just treated
r
<
dx 2
dx
or
The
form
is
wave
in the
tCw| - fa
>,
whence
ik
and
ico{.
(-X,)/SS=pc/S
(4-33*)
(- X,)/t =
R=
pc
(4-330
wave
in the
waves
longitudinal
elasticity
is
If the
is n,
modulus of volume
ACOUSTICS
io8
tudinal
wave
in a large
mass of the
solid
is
found to be
CL =
p
On
the other hand the purely transverse waves set up by the torsion
of a cylinder, for example, travel with the velocity
(4-35)
* I*
when
a compressional
wave
is
reflected
For a
Section
in
acoustic
is V^po.
In connection with the above
it is
interesting to note that the
seismic waves which occur in the earth are both longitudinal and
At the earth's surface these two types have velocities
transverse.
Lamb,
Science, Vol.
and
i
reflected
and
waves
and R*.
in I at
Consulting
boundary
in II at the
same boundary
Ae
let the
Btf'.
medium
^^
3e
III be
lut
.
and
Then
and
ltat
Also
let
109
III
may
be written
Boundary
A +
i
B\
(A\
2:
Boundary
5 3 )r23
(4-37)
Boundary 3
where A\e wi
is
+
the transmitted
wave through
the tube
and m\
S*/Si 9 the ratio of tube cross section to that of the base of the
stethoscope.
2,
5 we
3,
have
as usual,
is
A^ 5 A^ 5
3,
ACOUSTICS
io
set,
we have
(4-40)
-\_At(r
i)
+ B (rM +
i)]-*-*
i,) (r23
*.
Whence
^2
= -e**
i(mi
V'*'[(wi
i)
(m +
)**'
(i
- )-*.]
i
and
52 =
4
i) (r 23
first
two
Ai
Bi
= i[^
i)*
for
i[//(ri,
2 (r 12
** 1 '
(i
mi)
(r 23
i)*-*'.].
A\ and B\,
+
-
i)
+5
2 (ri 2
i)],
(4-4 1 )
i)
+5
2 (r 12
i)],
or
A,
-j-
<?-*'.[(;!
l)(r 23
(4-42)
iV'*'"'
~ |i(rn
(4-43)
Then on
further reduction
~ /[(win +
2
r23 ) cos
>& 3 /3
i(ru
Wjr23 )
sin kj{\.
(4-44)
transmission ratio
r 23 ) 2
Now if sin
3 /3 is
is
(i
^i' )(ri 2
r 23 2 )
TTJ
2
SIFT2
3/3
r 23 )
^in 2 =
27*23
r 23 , or
mi
TV"
si
If for
?*!
and
in
I, II,
and
air respec-
tively,
S2
(14)
(.004)
2
(5)
io8
io
is
is
not so pronounced.
It will be of interest to examine the value of
how great
the selectivity introduced by this assumption.
If we keep e** *,
etc., in the expression above, we finally obtain after considerable
where we do not assume
sin
2 /2
is
reduction
^i
f[C+/D],
(4-47)
where
C=
(ri 2r 2 a
Tflj)
cos
2 /2
cos kj*
(n 2
m\r^
sin
2 /2
sin
3/3 ,
and
D=
(^1^12
+r
23 )
sin
2 /2
cos
3 /3
(^iri 2 r23
i) sin
3 /3
cos
2 /2 .
ACOUSTICS
ii2
The power
We
then obtain
=
COS 2
tf 2*2
=
j
2
T^rirn*
L
COS
.
_j
(4>4 9>
2
2 /2
47*12"
Now
in this case
we have
ri2
Rz/Ri
.036,
whence
*
pr==
1
2
192 cos
2/2
cos 2
of 750 cycles unit transmission occurs, for 600 cycles the transmission drops to about 5%.
It is clear that the special stethoscope described in the section
advantage where a broad range of response is necthe other hand, where fairly sharp and selective response
essary.
it
is desirable
may prove extremely valuable. This point will be
further emphasized in Chapter X in connection with submarine
will
be of
little
On
signalling.
2.
is
Can
very thin?
medium
II
fail
if
which
when
rare
113
a sound
is
approximately twice
is
By means
CHAPTER V
TRANSMISSION THROUGH A CONDUIT WITH AN ATTACHED BRANCH
OR AN OPEN END
General Theory of a Side Branch. We now consider the
general theory of the influence of a side branch on the transmission
of sound through a conduit. In the figure (Fig. 5-1) there is rep5-1.
FIG. 5-1.
resented a conduit
and
is
S with a
side
arbitrary in nature.
branch
We have
Quincke tube
left at
the
same
which
is
the
as
j& <*****,
(5-0
115
pi
Xi
+ pr = pb = ft,
X = Xb + X
r
,.
ty
-p =
pi
which, since pb
pt>
pb/Zb
r)
Sp
/poc y
(5-3)
becomes
S/p QC-(pi
pr)
pt(l/Zb
Zbi
iZbZ)
i/(i
poc/*SZb ).
will in general
/> t
pr =
(5-4)
(5-4).
for
Z6i + Z
xv
*>2
For a branch
in
which Z&i
poV/4^
(i.e.,
no acoustic
resistance), the
transmission reduces to
P =
r
while, if Z&2
i/(i
262
(5-6)
),
P =
r
i/(i
+ poc/SZbi +
poV
/4^i
).
(57)
n6
The
ACOUSTICS
general theory
is
illustrated
by
sections. 1
panying
There
is
FIG. 5-2.
Mco
where
vis-
2-3
Z2
wherein
length
CQ is
and
i/coC,
is
cross section
e,
S/l.
(5-9)
But the actual mass of the moving fluid in the opening is never
wholly included in the length /, and hence in general O must be
expressed as described in Section 2-4 (eq. (2*34) and accompanying
This means that we shall have
discussion).
<T
(5-10)
1
The theory of this section is a modification of that used by G. W. Stewart.
See Phys. Rev., 26, 688, 1925. Equation 5 in this paper is algebraically equivalent
to our more simple formula (5-5).
117
number which is usually between ?r/4 and TT/I dependFor an end opening into an infinite plane (/ = o), ft
== 2a for a circular orifice.
V 'po^ 2
Since C
approaches ?r/2 and Co
where V is the volume of the chamber, we have for the power
where
ing on
is
/.
'/
>
poXdx
wherein the
first
(l
i)/a-^1iJLpouXSx
term on the
left
Sdp/dx-dx
(5*12)
the fluid in a layer of thickness dx y the second term denotes the viscous drag on the fluid and the right hand side denotes the ordinary
and
is
length
/ is
short,
The quantity
S = wa 2 Now if the
error
assume that
X and
We now
have
+
-
//W-(i
/dp/dx
+
=
i)\
/> b
2^X =
Idp/dx.
- pc*x/r,
for
(5-13)
(5-14)
p^X/V
(5-15)
ACOUSTICS
n8
Substitution into eq.
(5* 13)
then yields
(5-16)
Whence we have
Zi
Z2
we
for the
impedance components
acoustic resistance
l/ira*
Vs/ipow,
(5*
?)
acoustic reactance
the conductivity of the orifice of the resoFrom (5*13) and (5*18) we see that the acoustic resistance
nator.
arises entirely from the viscosity and vanishes for ju = o, or for a
sufficiently wide orifice in comparison with /, the length of the
if
substitute
<r
*$Y/,
To
calculate
original capaci-
the effect on
the actual
it
is
ductivity of the orifice, and in any particular case the actual value
of j8 to use in eq. (5-10) must be chosen with a certain unfortunate
degree of arbitrariness.
The comparison of theoretical with experimental results has
been made 1 in two cases with results indicated in Figs. 5-3 and 5-4.
The first figure applies to the case of a conduit of cross sectional area
2
1.59 cm with a branch resonator having an orifice 0.4 cm in diameter with a chamber volume of 35.7 cc.
To calculate the conduc-
CQ
= 0.015 cm
7r/2 is used, whence with /
curve in
the
of
The
full
0.382 by
(5io).
application
on
since
it
is
examination
found
plotted using (5-11),
we
ft
get
the figure is
that the additional viscosity terms in the impedance will not alter
the results materially for a fairly wide range of values of / in the
The
orifice
circles
Pr
in
both
1-15).
The agreement
is
119
it
db
2000-
1.0
.9
.8
.7
-1
\
\
1000
.5
.4
.3
-5
.2
.1
-10
Frequency
FIG. 5-3.
both
To show
orifice
much smaller
The chamber
ACOUSTICS
120
= 0.00018 has
In the computation the value
been used and / has been taken as 0.09 cm or six times the actual
length of the orifice. This seemed to be the value which best
fitted the experimental results and a change of 10% results in a
In any case the effect of
noticeable inferiority in the agreement.
the viscosity is well marked, particularly in the increased minimum
(5-18)
inserted.
JJL
transmission.
The
due
Orifice as a Branch.
to the radiation
(2-13)).
we have
If
now we
finally
=p
whence
for the
b,
121
are
summarized
005
01
0.015
0.2
03
OS
in
the
accompanying
Fig.
5-5.
Four
c
o
Exp. Points
s
0.08Jt
0183
JM
J.VJ
0.74
-1
-2
C/)
.5
-10
-20
SSS8
Frequency
FIG. 5-5.
orifices
were used
components
little
reasonably small
But
from
tivity
1
G.
orifices the
An
ACOUSTICS
122
is
shown
dotted curve.
Frequency
FIG. 5-6.
This
is,
< <
27T
123
control orifice (such as, for example, a clarinet with but one key
lifted) much more of the energy in a single wave passing through
the tube will emerge from the bell than from the orifice.
But, of
Also we
course, there will always be waves in both directions.
must not press the case too far, for a clarinet with several keys
is
The
tively analyzed.
5-4.
The
Cylindrical
Tube as a Branch.
It
is
the purpose of
Z\ and
Z2
B
FIG. 57.
for
side branch,
open or
closed.
Substitution
into eq. (5-5) of Section 5-1 will then enable us to compute the
influence of such a tube on the transmission through the conduit.
wherein
X=
is,
*$*.
as usual,
Since
is
harmonic
in the time
with frequency
ACOUSTICS
i2 4
CO/27T,
and a steady
state
is
V"
r)2
|^ + * *=o,
2
where k
The
u/c as usual.
X=
(5-23)
(Ae**
may
+ Ee-^e^
be
(5-24)
and
corresponding to waves in both directions along the tube.
B are the arbitrary constants, to be evaluated by the boundary
complex quantities. From eqs. (1*14)
(dX/dx) and we have, omitting the varia-
conditions,
and are
in general
and
poc /S-
(i'26) 5
p = -
ikptf*/S-Ae**
ik PQc*/S-Be- ik *.
(5-25)
X
X
= A+B
= Ae^ +
PQ/XQ.
That
are to solve
transmission
etc.,
at the conduit
at the other
Z
Z Q may
to express
is
= -
fl
Z =
Be-*
known,
we have from
the
first
and third of
Z = - kp*/
S-
Since
(5-27)
(/f/R-/> )kl
**'
(
whence we solve
for
A/B
/D =
AIE
.
and
kl
find
"^(-
e~*
eqs. (5-26)
Z = - W/co J-
X =
results
/>-'*'}
>
(5>28)
Zv =
2/0
kpoC /S-
now
iuZiCos k/
-rr
L twkptf
upon reduction
yields
kpoC~/S'sin kl 1
T/
z
u~^7
Zi sin kl ]
LT
/S'COS kl
.77-7;
2
125
'
(5'30)
D
hand
this
is
where
tube
CQ is
is
where
infinite flange,
pouk/ZTr
we
distinguish
have simply
(S'3 1 )
ipow/Coi,
opening, and
shall
CQI is
it
now we
ZQ
we have
Zoi
Zoi
and write
lZu2j
PoCo/27rD,
(5-32)
os
2/
(5-33)
where
D=
cos 2 kl
+ k*S*(k /47r* +
2
If the tube
sin 2 */
kS/c or sin
co.
2*7.
(5-34)
From our
it
Z = whence
is
expression (5*30)
i/fo*
ipoc/S-cot kl
/pow/Vo,
(5'35)
in this case
Zoi
With the
and
Z2=
Poco/r
(5-36)
ACOUSTICS
126
is
T*/ 4 ),
(5-37)
In this case L
here the length of the orifice channel.
be
a
as
to
is so small compared with
usually quite negligible. Hence
=
the
As
\a.
open end our only ultimate
regards
practically CQ
where
is
resource
is
-20
is
First, the
down
G.
W.
computed points
are dis-
minimum
127
applying
it
The
due to
frequency.
In the second figure (Fig. 5*9) are presented the results of an
investigation of an open tube 17-1 cm long with the remaining data
as in the previous example.
Due to the greater length the viscosity
--53
-20
Frequency
FIG. 5-9.
effect
end
will
indicate.
The dotted
in the
conduit
expected
of the resonating tube.
line
if /
cases.
it
at the
remains constantly zero, that is, that we have there a loop. This
is never exactly true because of the radiation of sound energy from
ACOUSTICS
128
the opening.
The presence of this radiation involves the existence
of excess pressure, which therefore means that there can really be no
It is our present problem to discuss the amount
loop at the end.
of this radiation. Consider the pipe in Fig. 5-10 with diameter la
\
t
i
i
FIG. 5-10.
small compared with the wave length and with the open end fitted
with a theoretically infinite flange to insure radiation only in the
as
we note by consulting
(5-38)
L'=
dr
J'/f*.
It therefore
is
ikr).
(5-39)
Let us now consider the mass of gas in the region bounded by the
plane section through O (to the left of which the waves are plane),
and a hemispherical surface with center at O' and radius r', where
la < r' < < X. Within this space, which is much less than X in
extent, the gas will
move more
current
X across
129
lkct
(5-40)
direction
may
waves
for
in the
backward
We
direction.
therefore write
c*i ei +*\
The volume
if
(J
(5-41)
we
let
o there,
B),
is
(5-42)
iSk(A
B)
this region
coefficient of proportionality
is
proportional to the
is
Hence
is,
(S'43)
difference
where
2*v*'.
<p c is
making
dirA'e tkct
* (*.
r and
<p t is
*0,
(5*44)
o.
That
the substitution,
ivA'
c,(A
+ B-
A'/r'-r**).
(5-45)
Now
- _
.0
[^0 (I
7T
,.
o
"
/27r)
+ JV]
(
^5
The
is
ACOUSTICS
130
I
J3|
Vl-^l
Hence the
2
-
dissipation ratio, as
we may
call it, is
(5-47)
venient form
<T
since a
< <
X,
2
'
^5
(1/2
But
27TVVX
Dr
87T
fl
/X
all
practical purposes to
(5-49)
D =
r
2/100 we get
4/100 we
3.2%, while if a/\
12.8%. We must be careful to apply neither eq. (5-48)
nor eq. (5*49) to cases where a is too large a fraction of X. For
under the latter conditions the reasoning leading to formula (5-4?)
Thus
get
if tf/X
D =
r
breaks down.
if the flange be removed we get
get the approximate value of the dissipation without the flange if we neglect the influence of the flange
on the value of CQ. For in the absence of the flange, the flow from
It
is
less dissipation.
0'
will
We may
will
then be
approximately
instead of
value
D =
r
corresponding to
87r
^ /X
4T
(5-5)
is
the
would
may
be established that
if
131
we have a source
the
in
the pipe.
is
the limits of our assumption that a/\ is very small, it is easily seen
that an increase in a increases the radiation and that if one desired
to get radiation out of a pipe one should increase the diameter
of the opening.
But if this is done suddenly a reflection ensues.
The result of such qualitative considerations would lead one to
if
radiation
is
desired.
The
trans-
is
this
the frequency.
2. Estimate from
physical considerations the effect of (a) a pinhole orifice, (b) a very narrow short cylindrical tube.
Using the
material of Sections 5*1 and 5*3, carry through the calculation in
the case
3.
tubes ?
(b) to find
What
the transmission.
CHAPTER
VI
Impedance Theory
of
HORN THEORY.
From this
length of the sound supposed to be passing through it.
it follows that the
will
remain
phase
assumption
approximately
constant over every plane perpendicular to the axis. Consider a
FIG. 6-1.
pvSdx
hand
if
the
mean
po.
density
p; that at
The
S.
Its
mass
is
the right is p
(dp/dx)dx 9
the net excess pressure in the x direction is
(dp/dx)dx,
S(dp/dx)Jx. The equation of motion
corresponding to a force of
boundary
is
Whence
of the layer
is
then given by
*
~- dx
dx
or
:_
if
<>P
(6-1)
desirable,
It is
in the x direction by , as usual.
however, to get an equation involving p alone and
per second
is
The amount of
inside.
Whence
may
is
be written
^P.
Now
133
(6-2)
s (see Sec.
1-12),
we
6 '3)
have
P
since/)
(eq. (1-14)).
PO
"2
Therefore we get
(6-4)
>.
= p (i s) by the definition of
Expanding and substituting p
condensation, we have, neglecting po$t;(ds/dx) as compared with
dx) and pos(dS/dx) as compared with
PO^(^)=-^.
But from the equation of motion we have
i=
5
-L,
Pod*
^.
+ !.
S dx
dx^
= 2.
dx
(6-6)
ACOUSTICS
134
If p
i.e.,
is
Pp +
,
d(lagS)
dp
j.--+kp-
(6-8)
We
II.
are applicable.
are
everywhere analytic functions of time and
p
so
that
we
can interchange the x and / derivatives.
space
walls of the tube are rigid; there is no displacement in a
III.
Both
IV.
The
and
and
V.
It
is
apt
bXi,
(6-9)
(6.10)
1
In connection with the use of the equation of motion (6-1) it might at first be
=
d($p)/dx,
thought more correct to write (using force instead of pressure) po$
In
which yields a result differing from (6-1) by the term
general, the
p/S-dS/dx.
absolute value of this term will be small compared with \dp/dx\. But in any case this
"extra" pressure really acts on the walls of the tube and hence gives rise to transverse
motions. Our fundamental approximations have neglected these motions.
Hence we
should be inconsistent in introducing this term without at the same time revising
completely the original assumptions to take account of the components ^ and f . For
this reason we fail to agree with the method of M. O'Day (Phys. Rev., 32, 328, 1928).
2
The above theory is that of A. G. Webster, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 5, 275, 1919.
'35
where 0, ,/, g are functions of the x values for the two ends of the
horn and the areas of cross section at the two ends. Exact general
formulae for these quantities, whose special values depend on the
kind of horn used, are to be found in the Appendix just quoted.
That is, let
Let the terminal impedances be Z\ and Z 2
.
y2
Z2
7
Zl
Now
But
since
p2/X%
(6-1 1)
or vice versa.
For
if
we
/<*>Z 2 ,
(6-13)
Similarly we obtain
/WZi
b
(6-14)
Whence
if
we know
The theory
of
the
that
preceding section tells us
if
For example,
the horn
excited at the
if
is
FIG. 6-2.
opening
ACOUSTICS
136
~l
7T
<T
which
The
will
/2>
we have
AY =
2
as follows:
is
- -~
Z,iX<L
p3 =
/>()
p3
?
^2
r,
Noting
that p2/X%
,f>
'
xx
(6-16)
^0
we
also
have
X*=fpi+gXi
or
A'8
1
The
i<*ffl
+ p,
^i
at the
(6-17)
impedance
whether emitting or receiving) and on the attachment to this
end, while the latter refers strictly to the end considered as an orifice. In the present
case as /> 3 = 0,^2 = Zo. It should be pointed out that Webster, to whom the above
behavior of the horn
(i.e.,
theory in its original form is due, considered Z as a two-point impedance rather than
the usual point impedance of acoustics. As a matter of fact it is given the latter
significance in all applications of the resulting formulae and hence the theory has here
in Section 6-I. 1
We may
137
We
This
in
a,
/,/ and g)
and
Zi.
the
By
form 2
method indicated
in
Appendix
III,
we
of the cylinder
a
b
cos k(%2
KI)
#2
#1
is
(6-2
/>3
However, even
there as well.
in this case,
we
kc 2 p
due to
its
it
be safely neglected.
Since in eq. (6-20)
is
and
/,
pressure
may
kl>
| sin*/,
/ = ~ ^ sin
g = cos kl,
where
cos
(6-33).
is
we might
better use
ACOUSTICS
138
- --
Z 2 --~sin
cos kl
/co
= _____
--
(6-13)
Q
kl
sin
Z +
/co
(6
M)
cos kl
we have
deduced a formula
(eq.
in
terms of that at the other end, which is identical with our eq. (6*22)
except that we used previously Z and Z_ in place of Z\ and Z 2
Of course Section 5-4 is really a special case of our
respectively.
Substitution of Z 2 from eq. (6-23) into eq.
treatment.
general
(6*22) then yields an expression which is identical with the second
term in eq. (5-33) (i.e., all except the term pooo/Vo). We refer to Section 5-4 for the details.
and the
eq. (68)
The fundamental
III)
constants,
are,
p
*
placing kxi
x\
sin /\
~
=
(
I cos
-T^- sia
Six*
o.
(6-25)
J
- +-
xi sin k(l
^-~
1)
'-
sin
t,
*/,
^,^
(6-26)
sn
sin kei
__
x2 \
We now
have
calculated
simplicity,
We
becomes
+ -x
Appendix
3-7.
sin k(I
sin ^c 2
sin
e 2)
139
fm
tuZi*
-(4)
sin
sin
(/+6j
sin
Z2 =
have
>
is
ei
2)
sin
and hence
sin kei --
sm
is,
sin k(l
i<*&
2)
sin ^62
*S\
i&
that
e2
sin k(l
c 2)
#2,
we
On
the impedance of the other end is now a pure reactance.
if the large end is an orifice, we may set, as before,
~r~
27T
The
resulting Zi
is
and reactance components, and will not be set down here. In any
case we are usually more interested in the amplification produced by
__
eq. (6*19)
l3
aZi
6/i<*
ZoO'w/Zi
,/,
Z2
has disappeared.
+ g)
g from
'
eqs. (6-26)
must be
inserted.
(6-29)
P
-r-^-
A
g
and
it
appears to be most simple to consider a conical horn with the
small end closed, so that Zi = <*>
Incidentally, we note that if the
horn is used to amplify sound for the ear so that the small end is
.
sn
sin kei
1)
/oy Zo
ft
sin kei
Under
sin ke z
(---Y
cm )
\ 2T
(6-30)
140
ACOUSTICS
for a
and/ and
horn
which then takes the form
is
using
"
~T~
27T
141
closed,
CQI
we must put
Xi
o in (6-30),
FIG. 6-4.
sin kxz
(6-30
sn
^Lt'lL- JL\
sin ke<2
The
(i.e.,
\27T
CQI)
amplification
is
shown
in the
diagram
ACOUSTICS
42
eq.
(6'3o).
|/>i|
/|/>3|
.)
The
length of the horn and the diameter at the large end) on the ampliis well illustrated by the
above diagram (Fig. 6-4) in
fication
cm.
Horn Length
FIG. 6-5.
2
which
|/>i|
/|/>3|
different ratios.
is
As
eq. (6-30), the horns with greater ratio show a greater amplification
throughout almost the whole range of lengths and in particular in
the neighborhood of the lengths corresponding to resonance at the
when
results
values of
meters.
a conical horn
2
is
used as a receiver.
The
ordinates are
horns of constant horn ratio cut off with a very small vertex
(radius 0.25 cm), the intensity measurements being made with a
Rayleigh disc (see Sec. 8-4, Chap. VIII). The dotted curve repre-
ical
G.
W.
computed from
eq. (6-31),
which
strictly
is
the same.
-10
-20
70
T30
60
-40
50
c/J
Conical
-50
Horn
J
o
40 .2
7
L-23.5"
-60
30 |
20
10
1
^
N*
1.0
g"
20
\
Power
\ s^
10
Frequency
Fio. 6-6.
Reference should be
made
fact
details, but we ought to call attention here to the important
indicated by the experiments that actually there exists an optimum
horn ratio or horn angle for a horn designed to resonate at a certain
all confrequency. That is, if conical horns of various angles,
structed to resonate at a given frequency, are used successively as
receivers of a given train of sound waves of this frequency, one horn
of
or an overtone.
It will be
and
ACOUSTICS
44
and
that
is
when a steady
established
state
the energy
optimum
x angle.
FIG. 67.
In
connection the accompanying figure (Fig. 6-6), showing the result of measuring both the
real and imaginary impedance components at the throat of the
horn, is interesting. The method by which the measurements were
made is described in Section 8-2.
this
We
J=
1
(6-32)
since log
log
Sa
2
w 2/4 an d / = #2 #1, we have
7 = V>&
Appendix III) for the constants of the horn
e~ (mI/2)
I
equation becomes
If
27
sin yl
145
in the usual
cos yl
way
(see
>
-<
AS
17
(6-34)
/=
sin
[--'"si
27
L
7/
cos 7/
Evponential Horn
r . 303 cm
<X*.120 cm.'
L-257
cm.
200 E
150
too
I 09
I
Frequency
FIG. 6-8.
we deduce
i
isjsi
m
27
sin 7/
+
,
cos 7/ H
^ 2 /^ 2
7
/ /*
\
)
\27T
CQlJ
(6-35)
-
sin yl
ACOUSTICS
146
There
given
is
rise to
is
p = ,-</2)[^<i+74
j&,-7*)]
(6.36)
2
;
where 7 = V^ 2
That is, there are two pressure
/4 as above.
waves in opposite directions, each travelling with the phase velocity
where k
Now
as k
and
for k
mji
m/i there
is
it is
this peculiarity.
It is difficult to
which S
for
Sox
which
is
the limiting
2
3
This contains
much
in the
way
of
The
is
essentially equivalent to
Fio. 6-9.
shown
diagrammatic form
in Fig. 6*9
has
The
hyperbolic horn
area
its cross-sectional
Jo*-*,
(6-37)
SQX
H
.
The
dp
Ic'Tx
(6-38)
ACOUSTICS
148
tf
sin Kl
kl
,
,
#2
^2
kxi
= -
j~r
COS
77
kly
Xi
[sin kl
kl cos kl
sn
(6-39)
ri
kx] cos ^/
sin
FIG. 6-10.
The
of Zi
pressure amplification calculated on the assumption
and
+
,
27T
sin*/
-- CQS
.v 2
-|_
-T\
--- --*.V B
x*xi
Xi
sin*/
this
(Tk
\'27r
149
'
(6 4o)
CM/
superior to the conical horn of similar dimensions. However, it should be emphasized here that experiment
does not indicate much choice between flaring horns. As long as
the hyperbolic horn
there
is
is
seem
pared with the corresponding curves for the conical and exponential horns (Figs. 6-6 and 6-8).
The Z i values afford a measure of
horn
the
efficiency.
1
Very recently Olson and Wolff have examined on the basis of
the theory of this chapter the -parabolic horn for which
S = S&.
They have
ment with
We
1930.
H. F. Olson and
I.
i,
410,
ACOUSTICS
150
Referring to Section 6-3,
we have
(eq. (6.21))
cos
k/y
k/y
-Tjsin
cos kl
+
+
---
27T
CQI
the expression
sin kl
S being
the cross-sectional area of the tube, / its length and CQI the
conductivity of the opening. Now for an ordinary circular orifice,
But one
CQI is of the order of la, where a is the radius (see Sec. 2-4).
whence
/ 2?r
may
kS
--
cos kl
have a
will
sin kl
maximum
o.
for
that
(6-43)
CQI
kS
cos kl
cos
kS
sin kl
sin
CQI
is
very small, we
CQI
or
cos
(/
\
o,
CQI/
where n
This
is
is
any integer or
zero.
That
is,
recall
151
is
The quantity
Thus,
TT
QI
-- -
End
'
correction
CQI
Theorem
experimentally.
to
Receivers and
may
X at
the source.
is
P=
%pmax-Xm*x COS
6,
(6-46)
maximum
is the
phase difference between
pressure and volume current, and
the two. Now the maximum velocity potential and consequently
the maximum excess pressure at a point distant from the horn will
^Xm&K cos
proportional to ^^p m
source is constant the
maximum
by
II, para.
294,
and
(3-23) of Section
ACOUSTICS
152
3-2 for the verification, noting that |Z| means the absolute value of
But |Z| cos 6
Z i (Sec. 3*2), where
the impedance at the vertex.
is the real part of the impedance at the vertex.
i
Hence, the
maximum
This
will
be studied
in
in
the
diaphragm
is
made much
6-11.
incident on
is
and determinable
solid angle of
sending per unit solid angle in the direction of the source. That is,
while the ratio between the reception and emission efficiencies is the
same
for
the
than
153
emitted,
Schottky
may
Acoustic
6-8.
cap of a
problem
We
in greater detail.
shall
area
cross
of the dia-
section
FIG. 6-12.
will be /.
This layer will be cylindrical in form. Let Zi
be the impedance at the diaphragm and Z 2 that at the opening
into the attachment.
Using now the theory of Section 6-1, we
phragm
/coZ 2 cos kl
sin kl
(6-47)
Now
sin kl
/co
cos kl
set
= Z +
/Z 2 "
- Z/ +
/,".
'
and
On making
finally
have
Zi
_
~
'
where
D = AL [z
'2
+ z " ] sin
2
+ 5S
Oj
CO s 2
U - Z " sin
2
a*/.
we
ACOUSTICS
54
Now
the
P=
is
COS 6
COS
(6-49)
since
Z/
is
If the
~~
where
/? is
r>
/C.A max
(6-50)
27T
ratio of the
output with the attachment to that without the attachin cross-sectional area, becomes
27rZ/
27rZ 2
'
(6-51)
on employing
____
Coming now
ment
is
an
infinitely
long cylindrical
tube, as in the
(Fig. 6-13).
accompanying figure
We have Z 2 " = o, since
is no inertia
component at 2
of
air
no
which moves as
(i.e.,
body
FIG. 6-13.
a whole).
Moreover Z 2 ', the resistance component at 2, is that due to a plane wave at 2. There is no
opening in the air at 2, and we are neglecting viscous resistance.
there
Hence
where
latter
27T
(6-52)
i
sin 2 */-
smaller
/,
and
for kl
155
extremely
With the
orifice
open to the
air as in
Fig. 6' 14
we
have
n
-
-- ------,
lir
where
Co is
Co
Substitution
p IG
Po~
we suppose that
cos kl = i, we get
If
/ is
sn 2 k+
cos 2
so small that
kl~
-- cos */
we can put
sin kl
sin
kl
and
> S^P
.
;;
Co
C ?
(
is
horn we can yet understand the amplifying action of the horn when
we recall that for a horn Z 2 7 will be relatively large, as has been
indicated in the results of impedance measurements discussed in
Then the amplification ratio for / very
Sections 6*3, 6-4 and 6*5.
small will be practically proportional to Z%
(See eq. (6-51) and
'.
note that
phragm
is
those described.
ACOUSTICS
56
6-9.
it is
This necessity
is
schematically
indicated
in
the
6- 15),*
"
as
mechanical capacitance or "compliance
the above authors call it.
The letter T
denotes the coupling of one type of oscillation with another; in the case of TI the
FIG. 6-15.
tn acoustical.
The aim
is
to
deduce an
equivalent electrical network for every mechanical-acoustical system present. It is not our purpose here to follow this procedure in
But
detail.
it will
phragm and
=
=
f =
Ci =
6
1
2
J. P.
the horn.
mz
A\
AI
ZA
we
=
=
We
acoustic capacitance in
impedance of horn.
Taken from
is
Fig. 6-16.
latter
is
defined
by the authors
as
--
=
=
-.
particle velocity
instead of
157
this text.
section.)
displacement of diaphragm,
displacement of air in the horn throat,
force applied to
diaphragm,
of the
diaphragm involving the inertia force, the restoring force due to the
compliance of the diaphragm and the restoring force due to the
compliance of the air chamber. Next the force equation of the air
in the chamber is written down.
This is strictly only the equation
After some reductions and assuming harmonic
defining Z/< as above.
displacements, these equations become respectively
where
i
Zi
/ o>;;/ 3
Y
I
--'
CO^;
COAi
0*7
Now
/TEffOWflff
Ii
istics
identical
tions
above
//"
o,
where
-'(*--
^U
Ar
Jbc-L*,/2
ACOUSTICS
158
now very
trical
familiar to electrical engineers, renders the use of the elecequations rather more efficient in practical computation. It
becomes immediately
clear.
is
in
in the
CHAPTER
VII
two
is an odd
multiple of X/2 and those for which
of the two branch lengths is equal to any integral multiple of
X (subject to a certain subsidiary condition which may be referred
the
parallel branches
sum
filter
Frequency
FIG. 7-1.
In Section 3*6
it
insertion of a channel in
an
ACOUSTICS
i6o
Frequency
FIG. 7
2.
and hollows.
ments on an
cm
For a few
apart.
indicated in curves
//,
about a
to eight brought
fairly
161
phenomenon
is
Freauency
FIG. 7-3.
somewhat
different
hitherto
employed
in dis-
by
wave
filter,
experiments.
7-2.
Theory
will
be
1
We shall begin
developed a formal theory of acoustic filtration.
with certain definitions and assumptions. An acoustic line is
only.
(Fig.
7-4)
is
schematic
impedances Zj.
At
IV.
The
ACOUSTICS
62
H
These are the only general conditions imposed. The impedances Zi
and Z 2 are thus far arbitrary, and we have to investigate the specific
conditions they must satisfy in order that the line may possess
filtering properties.
We make
(1)
The volume
expressed by
Xe*, where
is
complex.
will be defined as usual by
(2)
The
acoustic impedance
(3)
The
algebraic
etc., is
sum
zero.
point Ay Cy Ey
(4) The excess pressure at each junction point is the same for
both main line and branch (i.e., continuity is assumed).
(5) The direction of positive current is from left to right.
Let us
fix
current into
Consequently by
n.
current out of
at
in
Zz(Xn
at
to
terms of
X +i).
n
D X
is
is
Zz(Xn ~i
But the
Similarly that at
n ).
difference
is
equation
A'n-i
O.
(7-2)
163
We now assume for convenience that the filter is an infinite one and
denote the impedance of the infinite network to the right of any
section by Z>.
This implies that all Z*, are identical. We then
have in terms of the main line impedance for the excess pressures
at
and
X (Zi + Z^),
pc =
PE It should be recalled that
we
X+
i(Z,
Zoo).
(7
Now
if
we substitute
is
4)
pc = Z 2 (AV_i
n)
and
PE
we have
A n+ i;,
>2(A n
Xn
This constant complex ratio
(7-5)
will
be called
Y where
,
Y is
complex.
or
cosh
Now
if
X +i
and Xnj
Y=
a pure imaginary,
is
Y
e
JZ,/Z,.
(7-6)
is
etc., differ
complex number of
by
(which
is,
is
the cosine of
/Y)
shall lie
between
we have
i
>(i
|Z,/Z,)
> -
i.
and
I.
That
(77)
is
ACOUSTICS
164
bounded by the
limits
Z;/Z 2
Zj/Z 2
and
O
(7-8)
4.
The question
that
arises
is,
lel.
second
cases
7
the
5.
glected.
ranged
Sa and
in parallel, so that
wt
pressure, viz., Pe'
are then respectively
.
The
is
damping
Let
the
&.
ne-
effective
are ar-
T)
~it.*t
i<at
"}
1
IO
(7-9)
"J
and
&.
Using
(7-10)
c
06
The volume
current in the branch containing the inelastic diaobtained by simple integration (making the integrathen
phragm
tion constant zero) and is given by
is
(yi
i)
is
-^AiNow
165
given by
/W><?".
(7-12)
hence
X +X
a
A'
(7T3)
O,
where
is the current in the line (with the positive direction
measured away from the junction). On substitution we have
m a /Sa
is
the
and i/C=fb/Sb2
inertance of the inelastic system and C is the capacitance of the
For
elastic system, as we recall from the definitions of Section 2-3.
the impedance of the two in parallel we have
Let us now suppose that the impedances Z\ and Z 2 of the filter line
are each composed of such a parallel arrangement of inertance and
capacitance. Then of the conditions (7-8) the first can be satisfied
=
(if we disregard very high frequencies and do not
only by Z 2
allow
to
become
quency
negligible).
fre-
(7 " 6)
impedance
2.
4)
2 and
up the
leads to a
frequency
fC )'
v/x/ '
We
series.
ACOUSTICS
166
i.e.,
17*13
M and C
iwCA =
or
p
(7-19)
5c
whence the impedance of the two
in series will
be
'
(7 20)
in this
The frequency
limits given
by
(7-8) are
I
I
" = ^:\/Tr7r
way,
i.e.,
(7-20
and
4
The Helmholtz
S)
in series
capacitance
not allowed to take place). From our previous work (Sec. 2-3)
we recall that the inertance of the resonator (which is due to the
mass of vibrating
air in the
opening)
is
po/^o,
while the capacitance, which arises from the stiffness of the air
chamber,
is
c=
V is
chamber and
CQ is
167
the conductivity of
is
put
Since
it is
essential to
it
is
seems simple enough, being equal to the mass of the air in the tube
(or section thereof) divided by the square of the cross-sectional area
(Sec. 2-3). In Section 2-6 we saw that a tube has capacitance which,
indeed, is of magnitude SJ PQC* per unit length, where S is the area of
cross section.
But this capacitance is not localized but distributed.
Hence there
Z\.
It will be sufficient to
remark that
if
strictly limited
each section moves as a whole, since the length of each one is short
compared with the wave length. It is obvious that independently
of the choice of Z] and Z 2) we can not expect the theory to work for
high frequencies. And of course we have neglected viscosity
dissipation.
more accurate theory of filtration would not lump the impedances as is done in the foregoing, but would consider the wave
transmission through the main line as affected by the presence of the
branches, in the way in which the problems of Chapter V have been
solved.
Mason
1
For further
details see
G.
W.
ACOUSTICS
168
found
in
The
Appendix IV.
here.
If
section of an infinite
by Xm
filter
Xm+1 /Xm
mth
*-* w ,
(7-22*)
where
cos
W=
cos k/i
+ 2^2
^ sin
k/i.
(7-22^)
<
cos k/i
+ -~-sin
2^2
k/i
< +
i.
mth
(7-22^)
section is/> w ,
we
have
pm-l/Xm-i
Z may
where
= pm/Xm =
COttSt.
= Z
filter.
Zo
- Z
/i
iZ/2Z,-tan(*/i/2)
V i-/Z/2Z
filter
(
(
.cot(*A/2)
theories will be
made
in con-
no greater advantage
in
practice
7-3.
Pass.
in the
sections are
Z2
is
169
FIG. 7-6.
this case
C]
Zi
be assumed to be
will
Thus
o.
Z'
made up
and
(referring to (7-15)
of inertance only,
(7-20))
i.e.,
we have
= !-LM. --L-1
1
-.J'J
whence
Z,/Z 2
Since
can not be
infinite
co
M,C2
Mi
nor
(7-4)
Zi/Z 2
can be
be
The
Mi _
,
mass of air
is
given by
(7-25)
'
A/2
where
in
Po/i
Si
where A
is
The
is
(7-26)
po/^o,
we
eq. (2-33))
ira
C2 =
JVpor
Finally
2
,
(7-28)
ACOUSTICS
in
which
wherein Si
An
Making
is
substitution,
to
the
(7-29)
is
presented in Fig. 7-7.
has the following constants: A = 1.67 cm,
radius of the main line = 0.75 cm, r 2 = radius of surrounding
r\
The conchamber = 1.30 cm, a = 0.126 cm, V% = 4.36 cm 3
This particular
filter
Frequency
FIG. 77.
ductivity
<r
computed by
The
mental curve shows good agreement between the theory and the
After the cut-off there is no audible frequency until
actual cut-off.
and even here the transmission is negligible.
is
reached,
5200 cycles
The whole range of inaudibility is found to be 66% of the cut-off
frequency, and the average percentage transmission in the nonattenuation region is 65%. This transmission seems to depend for a
171
will
transmission
not the
is
optimum condition
for
a given
at
frequency.
increasing the number of apertures into the side chamber increases
the range of inaudibility. As one would expect, it also increases the
cut-off frequency.
Although there are a number of factors involved,
it is
possible to
make
filter.
The
and characteristics, and may prove of help in interpreting the dimensions given for the model just discussed.
According to the theory of Mason (Appendix IV) the transmission region is given by the condition (see eq. (7-22^))
different size
ry
i
^-
= -
<
cos kli H
7/-sin kl\
cot (M/2),
< +
i.
(7*290)
~=
tan (*/i/2),
(7-29/5)
analogous to eqs.
is
so small that
(7-8)
we can
But this
Hence we see that
Mi
is
as above.
section.
is
just
for the
result.
7-4.
Pass.
1
See G.
W.
II.
High Frequency
filter
construction.
172
ACOUSTICS
I
<L>
5
<
I
5
173
The question
section
what
arises,
shall
sumption here
will lead to
capacitance in the
nothing.
main conduit.
FIG. 7-9.
The
orifices
lines are
very
orifices.
line
we then have
7
Zl
Zj/Z 2
My>
-MiCW/'
*\i
and consequently
A/j/Af,(i
A/iCW).
(7-30)
2
p /r , and Ci
V\/poC
po/i/,
Introducing Mi
=
of
volume
one
section
of
the
V\
line, eq. (7*30) becomes
This
CQ
(i.e.,
equal to
*>)
oo
where
(7-30
for this
tan
= -
2(1
**/,)/*/
only
if
(7-33)
ACOUSTICS
174
is
capacitance only
assumption.
=
4//Cico, i.e.,
suggestion of the more accurate theory, we let Z\
as given
section
the
total
one
capacitance per
assign only
quarter
above. The upper frequency limit is then still v = <x> y while the
lower limit
is
Mi/*,
(7-34)
which agrees to within 10% with (7-32) if k!\fi < 0.50. The
percentage error in the frequency obtained by using (7*34) will be
about half this. The lower limit is then
The
and
frequencies on the
*>2
success even
if
still
^=00
are then
can be used with reasonable
as in eq. (7*35).
The
latter
by the more
accurate theory.
It may be well to note here that, while we have assumed consistently that #2 is a pure reactance, there may arise cases in which
this
is
simple
not true.
orifice,
Such
loc. cit.,
p. 264).
illustration of the
An
high frequency pass type of filter is presented in the following figure, together with the transmission curve.
This particular filter is composed of six sections. The other constants are
orifice
/i
(7-27) to be CQ
off frequency
results.
10.0 cm, r\
channel
This
=
i> 2
0.5 cm.
0.485 cm, a
.139 cm,
The conductivity
is
length of
computed from
filter
and others of
like construction
with different
The success with which G. W. Stewart (loc. cit., p. 547) used (7-30) in treating
high pass filters is due just to the fact that, in the examples he gives, kti/2 approximates
the above value.
See R. B. Lindsay, Phys. Rev., 34, 652, 1929.
1
175
dimensions give good transmission for all frequencies (so far tested)
above the cut-off. In the case here cited the average transmission
from the cut-off to 7000 cycles is about 80%. The results for a
great number of high frequency pass filters studied by one of the
Frequency
FIG. 7-10.
authors
It
Type.
By
sections,
construct
it
Band
possible
to
which
al-
filters
low
\'<z
fr
M M M M M LJ
,
\*t
S \NOLC
FIG. 7-11.
sented in the following figure (Fig. 7-11). Theoretically Zi is an inertance only, while Z 2 is made up of C2 and
But in
2 in parallel.
the practical construction it is necessary to have an orifice leading
G.
W.
Stewart,
This
will
loc. cit.
ACOUSTICS
176
2 '.
This
eq. (7-23)
will
be in series with
we can
C2
write as
-= Z '^Z
+ "'
Z2
whence
while
Z =
x
In the usual
way we
iwA/i.
(7-39)
non-attenuation region
A/i
\Ct (MiMt
(7'4)
+ MiMj + 4A/2M2')
we use
Mi =
=
M* =
wherein S\ and
main
line respectively.
177
ft)'
(7-42)
As an
Frequency
FIG. 7-12.
r\
Co
v\
=
=
=
0.243 cm;
0.455.
295,
mission.
vz
/2
2.40
cm and
The computed
The
V^
22.7
values of
v\
cm s
and
The conductivity
v^
another
is
ACOUSTICS
178
first
comparatively small.
Concerning the bearing of the theory of Mason, already previously discussed (see also Appendix IV), on the single band type filter,
it is sufficient to remark that if kl\ is small the comments at the end
of Section 7-3 apply here also and there
the two points of view.
is little
to choose
between
We may now
write
Y in the
general
e
form
e -.+ 9
(7
43 )
where a and $ are both real; a is the attenuation constant and ^ the
change in phase from section to section. Now reference to the
previous sections will indicate that in all cases there discussed the
impedances have been pure imaginaries. Hence Zi/Z 2 has always
Y has
/ sinh a sin
cosh a cos
in the cases discussed
\l/
\fs,
sinh
it
been
also
follows that
sin
\[/
real.
Since cosh
(7'44)
and
cosh
Now
in
cosh a
cosh a cos
\l/
~
+ -2 /^2
(?'45)
we have a
o,
whence
=I+ i|l.
2,
(7
4 6)
Z>2
Substitution of the values of the ratio Zi/Z 2 for the limits of the nonI and for the
attenuation region yields for the first limit cos ^ =
=
i.
Hence at one limit of the non-attenusecond limit cos
ation region the change of phase from one section to the next is
\f/
it is IT*
Within these limits
must
for
the
functions
the
the
from
one
value
to
other,
vary continuously
employed are all continuous. Now in the attenuated region we have
= o. Thus
a. 5* o.
Hence from (7-44) it follows that sin
\l/
\l/
\l/
179
either o or
attenuation
cosh a
= -
+i ~
(7-47)
Peacock. 1
The agreement
is
as
indicates
2,
\f/
no attenuation.
sample curve
for a
low
fre-
G.
W.
ACOUSTICS
i8o
(7-46)
and
it is
reasonably satisfactory.
It is of interest to note that
^/co
Now
is
(i
|Z]/Z 2 )
+
arc
if
it
is
cos
approxim-
range,
we
ter in
tion time
have a
shall
fil-
is
approximately
over this fre-
constant
is
obvious.
same
the
Essentially
results as the
obtained
above are
Mason's
from
theory.
Thus
recalling
and (7-22^)
(7-220)
also
Appendix IV)
000
800
1000
and
where
the phase factor and b
= a
placing W
1200
Frequency
is
(see
ib^
FIG. 7-13.
we have
rTf
cos a cosh b
sin
a sinh b
cos kl\
-\
-=-
2Z 2
sin kl\.
is
cos a
L7
cos kli
-\
&^-sm
and
L7
kli.
o, so that
n
cosh b
cos k/i
+ 2Z^-sin
2
kli.
o or
W
b.
i,
still
when cosh
181
becomes
infinite.
= o.
equal to X/2, we shall have resonance in the line and hence Z\
this means that there will be a region where Z\ and Z 2 are
But
opposite in sign and \Z\\ < 4|Z 2 again, and so we shall have
transmission. This is clearly shown in the following figure (Fig.
|
The
7*14).
in,**
z,
i(Mt <*
-sfi
FIG. 7-14.
ditional
The
1
bands
illustrated in
general theory of
See G.
G.
is
W.
W.
an
article
Mason
by one of the
also handles
authors.
the existence of
ACOUSTICS
82
It
W = cos
cos
is
rr sin kl\,
kl\-\
2Z2
i
which
< cos
< + I, which
For
an
see
Mason, loc.
example,
represent transmission bands.
in
will
cit.,
The theory
of course, finite.
filters, whereas all the filters constructed are,
in
the
theory to a finite
applying
However, all that is necessary
the
conduit
at
the two ends of a
of
filter is to have the impedance
finite
number
of sections what
it
would be
for
an
infinite filter.
As
teristic
filter
frequencies.
impedance.
all
Consider the
will
this
pedances
The
idea
are
denoted by Z^.
is this:
we want the
re-
sult of
-
pIG
left.
Then
again Z^, etc., so that our procedure in Section 7-2 will then be justiIn order to have this it clearly suffices that
fied.
r
oo
^1
As a matter of
either the line
symmetrically.
(Fig. 7-16, I
fact
and
somewhat more
satisfactory to arrange
or
the
branch impedance
impedance
In this way we get the two following diagrams
(i.e.,
it is
series)
is
divided into two equal parts in series and in the second of which the
branch impedance Zi is divided into two equal parts in parallel.
In each case the resulting filter network is exactly equivalent to the
183
previous one presented in Fig. 7-4 of Section 7-2 but has the advantage of greater symmetry. In Fig. 7-16, 1, the points A'B' y C'D' y
E'F' y
etc.,
AE^ CD,
We are now
mid-branchpoints.
in a position to give a more accurate definition of the term section.
By a mid-series section of a filter we shall mean the portion between
EF,
any two
same
in
either
filter
we
i.e.,
shall
mean
direction
We
B'
j)'
FIG. 7-17.
Z S.
(
i.e.,
By
the
ACOUSTICS
84
Z<?
Z;/2
+
+
Z~
2
we
(7-48)
^-j
Z,/2
+ Z>
arrive at
zs>=VZiZ,
jz,.
(7.49)
The
calculation of
This will be called the mid-series impedance.
at
follows
once
from
the following
the mid-branch impedance Z2
The usual
Fig. 7* 1 8, in which one mid-branch section is depicted.
}
r^"""1
Z w=
zz
^^==.(7.50)
w 3 '
Vz z2 + iz 2
x
As a matter of
(bj
'
filter
FIG. 7-18.
the
fact
termination of an acoustic
is
mid-branch point
at a
practically
Hence here
theoretical
We
shall
impossible.
eq. (7-50) is of
interest only.
concentrate on
we have
the
filter is
tion
is
inserted
or mid-branch
made
(i.e.,
is
how
the
filter
terminates).
In the theory of Section 7-2 the transmission in the non-attenuation region of the filter was 100%.
But the actual experimental
tests
It
is
reason for most of the difference between the theoretical and actual
values
to be
found
in the
All
filter.
i
Pof^ / Z
7
1
j
JZ 2 +--Z
1
2
1
7 ci)
V75U
.
185
Neverthe above relation can hold exactly for but one frequency.
theless, for low-frequency pass filters it can be shown that the radical
remains fairly constant over a range of frequencies from zero up to
half the cut-off frequency.
The results of an actual test are indicated in the diagram (Fig,
The "old curve" shows the transmission obtained when the
7-19).
Frequency
FTC. 7-19.
low-frequency pass
the
same
filter
in a conduit of
curves indicate the result of inserting the filter into conduits with
cross-sectional areas calculated from the above eq. (7-51) for the two
The effect on the transfrequencies 1150 cycles and 100 cycles.
mission is very marked and the increase, particularly in the case
where the matching was at TOO cycles, rather surprising. It
becomes all the more so when it is recalled that in the latter case
we have sound traveling from a tube of cross-sectional area 2.43 cm2
to one of cross-sectional area 0.718 cm 2 with actually relatively
increased transmission over a wide range of frequencies. It might
But
is
it
the
simple tube.
ACOUSTICS
86
will
filters for
pass
VZiZ 2
radical
Z =
Now
if k/i is
7,
small, this
V + *^/ 2 ^2-t
-C
\1 - /Z/2Z 2 -COt
may
be written
2
Ofc/,/2)
ik/iZj %
(l
Ztfik
ZiV
is
ZifZ l9
and we have already noted in Section 7-3 that for the low-frequency
= ik/iZ
pass and single-band cases to which the above applies Zi
= ik/ipoc/S. Hence to the approximation noted the mid-series
impedance of the lumped impedance theory is identical with the
characteristic impedance of the transmission theory.
Naturally the
Nevertheless the
characteristic impedance is of greater generality.
simpler form of Zoo makes it preferable where it is possible to use
with the actually
it.
Experimental comparison of Z and Z
measured impedances will be found in an article by G. W. Stewart
and C. W. Sharp. 1 As might have been expected from the above
}
prevent
its
It is to
be
which would
media instead of
liquid filters
in
submarine signalling.
The
G.
W.
Stewart, unpublished.
187
filtering properties.
The rod
itself
as the branches.
The design
is
shown
in
Such arrangements
FIG. 7-20.
have been
built
and
their
The
2.
frequency.
Increase in the length of the neck (i.e., the part of the branch
where contact is made with the line) decreases the cut-off
3.
4.
5.
frequency.
Increase in the distance between adjacent branches decreases the
cut-off frequency.
Additional bands appear at the resonance frequency of the rod
between branches.
When only one branch is used (i.e., a one-section filter), resonance
Acoustic
ACOUSTICS
88
Any
hopelessly complicated.
understood by employing
filter
would probably be
But
if
W. Stewart, unpublished.
Elmer, Bell Laboratories Record,
G.
7, p. 446, 192.9.
189
If
in a
it is
it
is
first
and (7-4))-
1.
beads.
1926, Vol. I, p. 172; also Crandall, p. 64), find the natural frequencies
of vibration and show that the string acts as a low pass filter.
2. Make a careful comparison of the lumped impedance theory
inside diameter.
To what
must
be attached
if
an
size conduit
this
there
is
infinite
to be
no
number of
sections?
6.
may
1
Stewart,
Jl.
in a
low-pass
filter
CHAPTER
VIII
use
summarized as
follows:
The
total
impedance of the
is
air in front
measured.
It
of the diaphragm.
if the frequency of
Thus
This in turn
electrical,
so-called motional
range of frequencies.
8*2.
Measurement
Another method
1
of Acoustic
for the
A. E. Kennelly and K. Kurokawa, Proc. Am. Ac. Arts and Sci., 56, I, 1921. See
extended treatment in Kennelly, Electrical- Vibration Instruments, N. Y.,
also the
1923, p. 167.
190
191
been devised by one of the authors. 1 This does not involve the
measurement of any other mechanical impedance and is strictly
acoustical.
Moreover the method is absolute in that all measureto units of mass, length and time directly, for
of
the
sound, the density of the medium and certain
only
velocity
are
involved.
lengths
relation
pt
where S
is
p*
pocXb/i$,
(8-1)
The
and p
between pi and />.
pi
l<at
foe
jp
is,
by
V M~
definition,
Z=
where
is
e)
,
acoustic
Let us have
ptjXi,.
the phase
difference
Now
write
Z = Z +
t
PQ
*-, (cos
+
i
sin
PQ
P c
TO
20
Z\
'
72.72 =
Zi*
iZ,i
-j-
fQ
(8
/j<
'3)
Separating the real and imaginary parts and making the substitutions
A=
B
we have
for the
po/po 'CO&
pofpo'-sm
I,
e,
impedance components
2
'
4;
G.
W.
ACOUSTICS
192
At C
there
is
To
secure effective
damping of the
reflected
wave.
FIG. 8-1.
The
tufts of hair felt are introduced throughout the tube lengths.
non-inductive resistances RI and jR 3 are high in comparison with the
value.
The
telephone impedances. R% is fixed at a convenient
resistance
/? 5
sound is
from E and
attached at
F under
is given by the
hence by the ratio of the two values
This will also be the ratio of the two pressure amplitudes
of R 5
The phase difference e can be computed from the
at C, i.e., po/pQ.
That is, let d be the
difference between the two settings of F.
amplitudes in
T^ and
193
the sound used. This method has proved very satisfactory for the
middle range of frequencies. To get the same order of accuracy for
very high and very low frequencies, a more powerful source of sound
For further details and a discussion of sources of error,
is needed.
reference may be made to the article mentioned at the beginning of
the section.
We
and
8-3.
measurement
These are given in Figs.
Helmholtz resonator.
Frequency
FIG. 8-2.
is
The
"power"
is
the
ACOUSTICS
194
2
+ Z^)>
It
is
Measurement
8-3.
of Acoustic
Impedance.
main conduit
is
Other Methods.
From
by
resonators.
microphone
in the resonator
3
capsule
1
This
is
is
chamber
and
8-3.
But
If the radiation
6-12.
Z =
0.31 as
0.25 from
pow/Vo,
is
<r
made.
A method
of measuring
materials
in
is
Thus
in
phragm
is
at
O and
of the cylinder
The length
We
7 7
cos kl
7j t
~
where XQ
Pof
cos kx
cos kl
sin
kx
(8-6)
i%i sin kl
at 0, S
the area of cross section of
at
that
0',
is, the impedance to be
impedance
volume current
'
sin kl
measured.
E. C.
Wente and
E.
H.
Bedell, Bell
is
neglected.
i,
1928.
ACOUSTICS
196
the
The results
the source, while the length of the tube is varied.
are
the
article
obtained
method.
in
their
third
actually
by
quoted
e.g.,
They
which
Measurement
method
Sound
Resonance Methods.
Intensity.
measurement of sound intensity is
1
The fundamental
undoubtedly that employing the Rayleigh disc.
in
a
tube
a
disc
that
fact is
through which sound
light
suspended
itself
so
that its plane is perpendicular
waves are passing tends to set
8-4.
The
classical
of
for the
It is further
to the direction of particle displacement in the wave.
if the disc is suspended so as to lie in equilibrium at a
found that
definite angle with the axis of the unexcited tube, the angle
through
which
tube
it
is
and
velocity, the
is
j? is
moment
given by
Af
if
is
clear
(87)
that this
optimum
its
setting.
sensitivity
is
resonance instrument.
and
The jrioment
is
may
be called a
at once a
steady deflection in a steady sound field, he modulates the sound amplitude with a
frequency equal to that of the free vibration of the suspended disc and then measures
197
i.e.,
mechanically, optically,
Measurement
of Sound Intensity.
Comparison Methods.
desired to measure the intensity of sound produced in the
neighborhood of a given source, say an electrically operated loud
8-5.
If
it is
is
circuit
is
also arranged to
measure the
e.m.f.
induced in a telephone
Sci., 5, 173,
1919.
In
many
ACOUSTICS
198
when the
receiver
is
in the circuit,
coils, so
is
pro-
mutual
is
receiver is adjusted until the sound from it appears (to the ear) to be
of equal intensity to the sound from the source. The intensity is
then proportional to the square of the current in the receiver.
arm of a
(e.g.,
1
as
sensitive
much
manometer, a measurable
as 3
io~ 4 atmosphere)
is
this
method
see J. C.
For a good resume consult the Handbuch der Physik, Berlin, 1927, Vol. VIII.
ff.
The approximate equivalent in English will be found in the recent
book Sound by E. G. Richardson, London, 1927, p. 218 ff.
4
Also: Acoustic Experiments with the PinScience, 53, 489, 1921; 65, 329, 1927.
Hole Probe and The Interferometer U-gauge. Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1927.
Akustik, p. 572
is
199
direct experimental
in a
sound
field.
in
diaphragm remains
at rest
effects.
The magnitude
about
is
idea
where
is
F=
diagram (Fig.
s.
is
also to be
found
ACOUSTICS
2OO
The diagram
8*5).
MM'
is
membrane which
a thin stretched
by means of a
"damping" plate
The form assumed by the membrane is
charge.
is
at-
static
nearly paraboloidal.
thereby producing a
MM'
are a part.
be amplified to be measurable.
V///////////I
Q
FIG. 8-5.
the
first
natural frequency
is
which it
very high, leaving a wide range of frequencies throughout
A' is a very
The region
will vibrate in its fundamental mode.
3
thin film (of order icr cm thick), contributing materially to the
stiffness
vi-
diaphragm
The same
is
Now
Ra
(*
is
-**
where
From
/?
the
and
are
the
it is
found that
This
is
dyne per
in Fig. S'6.
cm2
decreases
with
priately
system
is
it
quency,
is
sessing a
approthe
0.7
60
^06
5T05
202
fre10
pos-
The use of
is
in potential in millivolts
per
reasonably uniform over a range of
is
seen that a
available
20 1
essential.
FIG. 8-6.
amplification
more elaborate diagram showing the actual construction of a condenser transmitter is
shown
in Fig. 8-7.
An
aluminum)
from
its
ence
in
FIG. 87.
'
8-7 arc
W.
ACOUSTICS
202
wave.
it is
these
membrane
will
be found in Rayleigh
and
will
We
membranes
is
therefore desirable
to
Considering
well
known
first
membrane,
it is
vibration displacement
which
V2
is
^,
(8-8)
= AJ n (kr)
cos n(0
a) cos
(/
e),
is
(8-10)
where k
Jn(ka)
and
o,
#,
(8-1 1)
frequencies of the
(8-9) will
1
203
For example,
ka
o,
we
1-757^
.76661:,
.766
1
I.7C7
n/
,
'
2.7CC
*
'
(8-12)'
^
As above
stated, the velocity c is a constant quantity and is dependent solely on the tension in the surface of the membrane
(tension per unit length on the surface) and the surface density
where/ and
explained that
denote
however,
is,
stiffness
and mass,
from
first
By
was there
mass of the
It
viz.,
=
and substituting for
n = o and using the
respectively.
which
approximation whereby
(8-14)
i.e.,
the
membrane
it is
found that
where
It
is
is
See Rayleigh,
194.
ACOUSTICS
204
27rT.
is
And
indeed
if
we now
de-
we
find
1.22
ira
which
equation
7(*r)
(8.19)
(a
"+
l)r
.
(8-20)
The
significance of s
seen
is
when we consider
/(**)
are arranged in order as
Jn(z)
205
The presence of
W--0
FIG. 8-8.
(8-19).
for n
On
See Rayleigh,
loc. cit.
ACOUSTICS
206
waves
On
all
The number
lines associated
membrane
differential equation of
V4
'4
o,
(8-22)
where
and
4
k'
coVf
where
See
Handbuch
Rayleigh,
loc. cit.,
217.
See also
214.
(8-2 4 )
207
in
elongation),
(8-22)
may
-*'
)(V
/2
The
=o,
eq.
(8-26)
and
most general solution is obtained by adding together with
arbitrary constants prefixed the general solutions of the equations
its
(V
*'
and
(V
'2
(8-27)
o.
(8-28)
Now the second of the above equations, for the case where is a
harmonic function of the time, is of the same form as the eq. (8-8)
for the vibrations of a membrane in which the velocity is given by
e =
/*'
is
all.
Now the complete solution is the sum of the two separate solutions of
Hence we are forbidden to think of the presence
(8-27) and (8-28).
of waves in the circular plate moving with definite velocity. Nevertheless there is a formal solution of (8-26) as given by Rayleigh l
which can be put into the form
= A
cos (nO
a)|/ w (*r)
X/ B (#r)}
cos
(f -
e),
(8-29)
a)
o,
Jn(kr)
\J n (ikr)
by
o.
showed
ka
l
Loc.
cit.,
218.
See Rayleigh,
loc. cit.,
219.
%w(n
in'),
ACOUSTICS
208
where n
is
the
number of nodal
circles.
that the actual vibrations in the plate are far more complicated
than the simple nodal lines would indicate. Moreover even
plate.
mode
of vibration
the center.
o>
receiver
oscillations into
electrical
oscillations
all
Within the past century the stethoscope principle was applied in the
sound box of the telephone receiver and finally in the phonograph
and similar instruments. Elsewhere we have discussed (see Sec. 6-9)
the "loading" of a diaphragm by means of a sound box and horn.
We desire to give here a more extended discussion of the cone-type
loud speaker which is so common in the industry today.
1
Loc.
For
cit.,
iCLia.
209
There are several important factors involved in the modern loudspeaking art. They may be enumerated as follows: (i) the reception
and amplification of electrical oscillations, with retention of relative
magnitudes of the amplitudes of the various frequencies of
interest;
less
named
is
opportunity
emphasize here the electrical aspects, but attention should be drawn
to the fact that, even though the moving magnetic or electrodynamic
element of the loud speaker operates in a field that is ideal for the
purpose of generating the mechanical oscillations without distortion,
yet the nature of the mechanism including the magnetic vibrator,
the connection to the aerial sound generator and the generator
itself, determine whether or not the magnetic vibrator will follow the
It
is
actuated at
The
discussion
here will be confined to the case of the cone with a free edge. An
understanding of its manner of vibration can best be understood
ACOUSTICS
210
to the surface in a curved plate may involve relatively large exThis fact renders a curved surface, such as a cone, more
tensions.
into nodes
and
conical plate.
From the above
we might expect
movement given
the apex.
Dis-
211
to reduce the
frequently employed
the electrical oscillations. 1
to
"baffle."
the air slippage from one side of the cone to the other.
This
be
that
otherwise
the
reduces
would
slippage
pressure
developed by
The
Obviously
its
effect is
more
serious at low
an asymmetrical vibrator (see Sec. 9*8) which magnifies the difference tones and hence the low frequencies. If the actual intensities
of all frequencies in a complex sound were equally increased, the ear
would increase the low frequencies relatively more than the others.
Hence the ear will, in general, introduce distortion. This leads to
the point that any acoustic vibrating diaphragm will introduce
It
frequencies other than those imparted and for several reasons.
ceases to be a symmetrical vibrator when in actual use.
Again,
the vibrations are too large, it will rattle.
Presumably, the latter
if
is
Resonance
effects
may
It
felt at
ACOUSTICS
212
extraneous noises of thin diaphragms has been made and the remarks
here made are merely indicative rather than specific.
From what has been stated it is clear that the smaller the cone
the less the number of resonance frequencies in the audible range.
Thus a cone having a few inches diameter at the base will give good
The flow of energy
results if sufficient power is used to drive it.
Also if
to the air will of course depend upon the surface exposed.
the cone is very large the resonance frequencies will be so numerous
and so distributed as to give good reproduction. But the ideal is
to avoid distortion entirely
and two
be
mentioned.
speaker
His instrument
coils.
is
practically
free
from distortion,
but
The
Efficiency of
Sound Generators.
The
acoustic
effi-
it has become
practical purposes such as signalling, etc.,
this
quantity, as well as
important to consider ways of measuring
many
Radio Broadcast,
_ y
D-
<*-
""
7, p. 508, 1925.
Roy.
'
(8
'
3o)
213
T and
where
air.
The
with the temperature difference between the two sides and decreases
with the operating pressure. All the quantities entering into the
difference
thermopile.
The membrane
2
is the
the radius of the equivalent piston and
square
of the maximum displacement velocity. By the use of a formula
where a
important problem.
The
high as
It
watt over a frequency range from 200 to 1300 cycles. The actual
acoustic efficiencies were not measured.
A precision source of sound which has been studied extensively
is the
thermophone. If alternating current is passed
through a very thin conductor, the periodic heating gives rise to
periodic temperature changes in the medium near the wire and
in recent years
ACOUSTICS
2i 4
sound waves are produced of a frequency double that of the alternating current. This instrument has been investigated by Arnold
and Crandall, 1 and more recently by Wente. 2 The acoustic
efficiency can be quite readily calculated from the output as measured by a condenser transmitter and the input of electrical energy.
It is found to compare favorably with electromagnetic and electrostatic devices except in the vicinity of their resonant frequencies.
ment of
i.e.,
by measuring the
is,
by observing the
frequencies of assuming a
n
Ri
damping
dynes
200-^
cm
sec
cm 2
3
?
H. D. Arnold and
215
damping
air is
R=
I2/I//)
units at 20
C.
where M
and 6000
The
coef. of viscosity
as
0.000186
10
c.g.s.
2
dynes/cm
the frequencies 1000, 2000, 4000
.
cycles.
5.
difficulties
6.
Section 8-8.
CHAPTER IX
PHYSIOLOGICAL ACOUSTICS
0.55.
known whether
depends to a large extent, upon certain frequency regions, irreThe most complete study
spective of the fundamental tone used.
1
The
(Fletcher, Speech
is
216
PHYSIOLOGICAL ACOUSTICS
TABLE
SPEECH SOUNDS
Relative Power, Arbitrary Units
217
ACOUSTICS
218
made
yet
different vowels
same throughout
its
duration.
pool, in the case of one speaker, required 0.5 sec. to build up.
12&
i&t
Frequency
Female
FIG. 9-1.
from
IV
(1925), p. 586.
PHYSIOLOGICAL ACOUSTICS
219
that the records for the entire duration of each vowel were used and
the component frequencies were ascertained by a mechanical method
of analysis. A group of eight records was made of each vowel
sound, four with men and four with women. The results are
expressed in the form of curves shown in Fig. 9-1. The full line
curves are for the male and the dotted for the female. The curves
represent the relative importance of the amplitudes at the different
64 go 128
181
The
differences
between the
Frequency
Male
FIG. 9-2.
male and female curves are probably caused by the differences in the
fundamental tone upon which the vowels are sounded rather than by
differences in the resonance cavities.
It is to be borne in mind
that the resonances of the larynx, pharynx, mouth and nose are
the cause of the large amount of energy obtained from the vocal
cords and also account for the ability to make the characteristic
sounds of speech. In addition to the eleven vowels, two of the
semi- vowels are shown in Fig. 9-1. Four others are given in Fig.
9-2.
1
Fletcher,
after
considering
the
work of Stumpf,
Miller,
220
ACOUSTICS
Paget and Crandall, has compiled Table II, showing the characTable III indicates
teristic frequency region for the vowel sounds.
the frequency regions for the consonants r, 1, ng, m and n.
TABLE
II
TABLE
III
would involve not only the influence of resonance chambers on sustained sounds but also on impulsive and rapidly varying sounds.
Moreover, the vocal chords are by no means a simple type of
reed and the walls of the spaces involved are not rigid and stationary.
In fact the production of speech is very complicated and involves
acoustical phenomena that are well within the range of the ear,
but yet not discernible by it. For example, there is a marked
difference between the vowel in eat and in meat, the higher fre-
PHYSIOLOGICAL ACOUSTICS
221
Yet
3.
is
If only frequencies
40%-
Eliminating
articulation
all
as
3000
2000
FREQUENCY
FIG. 9-3.
9-5.
for the
Minimum
minimum
Audibility.
This and Fig. 9-4 are taken from Fletcher, Bell Sys. Tech. JL,
Fletcher, Bell System Tech. JL, 4, 375, 1925.
Jl., I
reliable values
cm are
as follows:
(1922).
4,
375, 1925.
ACOUSTICS
222
The values
or
radiating I watt per second and if the flow varied inversely as the
square of the distance, then at a distance of 13 km the flow would be
pressure refers to the pressure at the ear and not in the approximately plane wave in the absence of the head. The head would
approximately double the pressure for very short wave lengths and
would increase the pressure to some degree even for low frequencies.
A sound may be too faint to be
9-6. Limits of Audibility.
heard and it may be intense enough to cause pain. There is then a
observations
lie
and Wegel
Half of the
The frequency
limits of
with different
arbitrary,
audibility as shown
As a guide
an
norm.
to
have
individuals being too wide
acceptable
common
observations
of
deafness and the
to the relation between
are
the variation
2
values of the r.m.s. pressures in dynes, Fletcher and Wegel state
variation
from
that persons called "slightly deaf" require a pressure
the normal of about o.i dyne (r.m.s.) per sq. cm, that a person
requiring i.o dyne (r.m.s.) per sq. cm can usually follow ordinary
conversation and that those who require 10 dynes (r.m.s.) per sq. cm
1
PHYSIOLOGICAL ACOUSTICS
223
16
TOL
300
400
300
64
000
128
256
5IZ
1000
1100
1200
OOO
16304-
1400
fRCQUENCY 0V
PITCH UNIT).
FIG. 9-4.
logiop
a,
p. 331.
ACOUSTICS
224
this
or
log
+ j logio p2 = A + B Iog
pi
10
pt.
and B are
This formula is verified and experimental values of
values
of
a
and
c
each
for
the
individual
not
but
frequency.
given,
For the sake of convenience several authors are using the terms
unit
sensation
and sensation
They may be
level.
follows:
One
sensation unit
20 logio />,
The
sensation level
20 logio
defined
as
po
wherein
pQ
is
number of
the
threshold limit.
level
is
10 logio ///o.
(see eq.
studies
it
every frequency a
The
presented as follows:
1
loc. cit.
PHYSIOLOGICAL ACOUSTICS
SL
is
is
the intensity.
225
Knudsen has
also
He
found that
AE/E = $
will
represent
AE/E
(S Q
is the value of
as a function of intensity.
*?<
S the value at the threshold and 7 is a
AE/E
at high intensities,
number.
may
be ex-
pressed as follows:
=
SQ =
7 =
S
.0000157
0.3
i26/(8o/-
o.oootf
2 44 ooo/(358ooo/>'
+/),
8
i93//125
+ P) +
0.65/7(3500
+/),
where
1
is
earlier
mentioned
in this
is
expressed in octaves
and/ in
kilocycles.
work.
The
ex-
ACOUSTICS
226
"
is
mean
excess pressure.
This pressure is determined by the
unit
of
volume
the
incident
acoustic wave.
In fact it is
energy per
is
the
E
where
unit
It
volume.
is
this
lE,
energy per
pressure that
exert a
7/ 2 ).
But
this pressure,
when
(t
;/ 2 ).
#2)
an asymmetrical vibrator.
pressure variation
direction.
is
7/1,
27/i
n z,
277 2
377 1
77 2 ,
37/2
+
+
w2,
;/i
w2
Hi, 2tt 2
MI,
and
w2
;/i
37/2
n\.
2;^, 2;/ 2 ,
3i,
2fto, 27/i
3?/ 2 , 2;/i
27/ 2 ,
3^1
+
+
7/ 2 ,
7/ 2 ,
2
8
is
Phil.
Fletcher
seems
PHYSIOLOGICAL ACOUSTICS
"
"
much damping.
He
227
to adopt an
extension of the Helmholtz theory and to accept the
existence of resonance of the basilar membrane, though endowing it
with
fibers
The
recognition of pitch,
to
characteristic
Fletcher,
according
frequency regions
depends upon
of the basilar membrane.
When the maximum stimulation occurs
in a certain region of the basilar membrane, the pitch recognized is
that corresponding to this region.
1
very different view is held by Meyer,
might be termed the "hydraulic" theory.
He
has set up an
membrane.
He
a "space-time pattern
calls his contribution
seems
clear
that
a
thoroughgoing biophysical and
theory."
biochemical study of the auditory nerve process is imperative.
It
can
Max F. Meyer, Jl. of Gen. Psych., i, 139, 1928, and numerous other publications
by the same author therein mentioned.
2
At a meeting of the Acoustical Society of America, December, 1929.
1
ACOUSTICS
228
then there
0=
wherein
is
a constant.
A'log,',
-LR
The value of
with
found
that
and
differences
in a linear
XV,
5 (1920), p. 425.
3
manner, as
p. 242.
is
shown
PHYSIOLOGICAL ACOUSTICS
229
in Fig. 9-5, which shows the variation in p/6 or A"i with frequency
1
Two significant things can be shown from
for three observers.
500
1000
d v
FIG. 9-5.
is
emphasized
Figure 9-5
Vol. 31,
No.
Am.
iirf- A/,
we have A/
oc
0.
That
is,
is
on the
independent of frequency and dependent only
sound at the ears. Klemm, Arch. f. d. ges. Psych.,
ACOUSTICS
23 o
not be inferred that through the studies of the intensity and the
is
clearly indicated
by the
where the intensity effect lapses the phase effect is found to be clearly
in evidence, provided the frequency is sufficiently low. 1
There is one peculiarity of the phase effect which is of interest in
For most people the
practical applications as well as in theory.
binaural phase effect ceases at approximately 1300 cycles. It is
found that some experimenters, after considerable experience, can
extend this range up to several thousand. 2 The difference of phase
effect may be readily observed by using two tuning forks, one at
each ear, and listening for the rotation of the phantom sound about
The forks should beat about once in five seconds
the head in front.
to
make
rotation of the
sound
is
not reduced to
slight
See Stewart, Phys. Rev., 15, 432 (1920), and Psych. Mono., I.e.
In certain cases the limitation of the phase effect seems to be only that of audiSee Halvcrson, Am. Journ. of Psychology, 38, 97 (1927). At the higher
bility.
2
401 (1925).
CHAPTER X
SUBAQUEOUS SOUND RANGING AND SIGNALLING
Sound Signalling in Water.
Advantage of the Acoustic
Method. The importance of an effective method of subaqueous
1
10-1.
optical
little
is
detection of very small magnetic fields are not sufficiently rugged for
under water use and there is always the added complication of the
local
magnetic
field.
is a
good conductor of electricity, electromagnetic waves are rapidly absorbed in passing through it, thus
greatly diminishing the possibility of an electrical method of
There remains then the acoustic method, and it is
signalling.
found that the sea is relatively a good medium for the propagation of
sound waves, a matter discussed in detail in the following section/
Thus F.
Collin (Le Genie Civil, 79, 375, 1921) quotes W. Bragg's estimate of the
Mediterranean as of the order of 60 meters;
corresponding distance
231
is
ACOUSTICS
The
is
equivalent to an image source of practically
but
equal intensity,
opposite in phase. The source and its image
will produce practically zero intensity just within the surface.
The
latter action
closer the source to the surface the greater the region of interference.
where
is
5%
atmospheres increase.
for this in the value c
The
233
be most noticeable.
This
wave,
if
Experimental Con^iderIn Section 3 -2 it was shown that the energy flow in a spherical
there is no other cause of dissipation than the geometrical
cylindrical
the law of the decrease in intensity with the distance can be understood by the following relatively simple considerations. We note
that the total energy flow per second is equal to the energy flow per
second per unit area (i.e., the intensity) times the area of the surface
through which the flow is taking place. For given energy output the
But in the case of
intensity thus varies inversely as the area.
where
ACOUSTICS
234
that for a plane wave (and the result as far as absorption is concerned
be the same for a spherical or cylindrical wave) the attenuation
will
coefficient,
which
is
FIG. iQ'i.
displacement amplitude
is
reduced
given by
io- 10
power
falling off.
in watts per
8
cm2
At
a distance of 1000
16
practically
instrument of
this sensitivity,
icr
km
this
would become
watts/cm
put
235
(27r)2000r
a.
minimum
io~ 15 watts/cm2
detectable intensity, this limit will be
io~ 10 ,
it is
seen that
if
fall
far
Thus under
above.
contrary
all
firmed by the observation that, other things being equal, the range
is
invariably greater in winter than in summer, the ratio being
approximately three to one. This is exactly what would be
would occur since the sea bottom is a poor reflector and would
absorb a large amount of the incident sound. During the colder
months, on the other hand, the temperature gradient is much less
marked or may actually be reversed, leading to a longer range, since
the wave would be bent upward and the reflection from the water
surface is almost perfect.
The
slight
may prove
und
They note
AUJUbilUb
236
less
discussion.
The
is
effect of
noted only
in
Aigner, p. 50).
The fact that the range is controlled by exponential decrease in
intensity has the practical result, as pointed out by Barkhausen and
Lichte
(loc.
cit.),
by
in
which mi
resistances
We
io~~ 4 .
of
air
and
This
water.
quantity
equals
io~ 4
Though
this
is
between the water and the air chamber of the stethoscope, and it
was shown that if this medium has a specific acoustic resistance
which is a geometric mean between the values for air and water
respectively the transmission will be unity if the thickness of the
medium is one-quarter of the wave length (in this medium). It
was pointed out that this thickness condition imposes on the trans-
important item
1
237
details).
When
power transmission
is
multiple of one-half wave length (in the medium itself). One might
therefore suppose that for a very thin intervening medium this
would
still
well).
if
stiffness coefficient F,
pS = Ml
Now
let
+ F.
(10-2)
wave displacements
in the
and
while the transmitted
side of the hull
wave displacement
in the air
on the other
is
Now
F
2,
(10-3)
ACOUSTICS
238
The continuity
Ai
of displacement
Bi
water and
demands
A*.
it
being considered)
is
in resonance,
we
have at once
Mi + F =
(10-4)
o,
A\
5i)
BI
= #2^2,
= A^
leading to
The
where r i2
is
frequency in
air
is c is
given by
he
,
(
*>= 0.47-2,
while the frequency of the
same plate
in water
I0 7)
becomes
where
(10.9)
where p
1
See
is
Lamb,
239
is
given by solving
28.5 cm for
approximate solution yields a
the same under water frequency is
desired (namely 550 cycles).
Naturally for larger thicknesses the
Moreover the
resonating area must be materially increased.
resonance is fairly sharp. 1 Nevertheless for the case of the ship's
hull the general conclusion may be reached that it will not interfere
markedly with the transmission from water to air unless it is very
thick.
Hence the use of the hull for the attachment of receiving
instruments or even as a source of sound is practical.
In a discussion of the transmission from water to air it is not
if
its
2.54
cm and
merged
in
See Lamb,
loc. cit.,
p. 210.
ACOUSTICS
2 4o
lei
be a wy while that for the light body is a\>. The fact, stated above, of
the approximate equality of the force then leads at once to the
equation
(M +
b
where Ab and
)a b
aw
Hence
Aw
wave
is,
(10-10)
relations:
the incident
which
above
= (Mw + MJaw
__
body and
frequency, as usual.
if
Mb <
size
Mw
As pointed out
of the body.
greater
microphones
of the use of the ellipsoid is very small. The 'Might body" principle in general, however, has been of value in hydrophone research.
10-5.
Sources of Sound.
Before
may
be considerable.
is
A. B.
Wood and
F. B.
Now
241
is
(Sec. 3*2)
radius a
is
<;>= 4/r-e
ilut
-a
(10-12)
where r is now the distance from the center of the sphere. For
direct substitution shows that this satisfies the general wave equation
a the particle
(1-16) and the boundary condition that for r
of
will
be
the
the
radial
velocity
velocity
spherical surface itself,
*
namely,
Sa
= fc.
Thus
\r
= -
(j/r
ikW/r-e*"'-*^,
is
satisfied if
o# (i
A =--T
*
we choose
(10-13)
ika)
so that
f
Substitution yields
The
is
The
becomes by
p n _(ka
which yields the
which
is
Zsi
and the
"^j
(10-18)
in this case
an inertance^ since
it is
positive.
It
must be
ACOUSTICS
242
emphasized that Z$
is
that the sphere is vibrating in the medium. The extra force (or
force of reaction) on the sphere may then be written
Fa
= Z Sl -Sk +
iZto'Sk*
= Z 8 lSka +
~~
{,
(lO'2o)
CO
where S
*
is
/.
the surface area of the sphere and we utilize the fact that
in the above equation is the radiaThe coefficient of
tt
should
now be
M, R and/
the radiation
written
M+
if
a is
(R
+ Z sl S)ka
+/{.
= Q
force.
Written out
in
full
coefficients are
and
We
2
reasonably small) k a*
will
two
(if
the source
have
*\7
^ = 4x0%,
(10-24)
while
SZ M =
41^2
(I0 25)
The
243
For very high frequencies k2a 2 will be large compared with unity
and the radiation inertia becomes
~2
which
is
negligible
frequency case.
The
radiation resistance
now
inertia in the
(10-27)
oc,
which
is,
however, the
low
is
P<A
In fact we
(10-28)
plane wave.
The
we
recall
from Section
of dissipation of energy
where
is
2-1
by any
corresponding quantity
is
is
energy
is
velocity and
ACOUSTICS
244
Sources of Sound.
In order
circular cross section with radius a, the center being at 0.
to find the influence of the radiation into
the surrounding
of the plate,
potential at
the center.
can
any point
P', distant r
from
From
velocity potential at
from
is
given by
wherein A/r\
is
The constant
A may
whence the
is
C^^
(10-29)
The
wherein the dS has been replaced by 2?rro2 , the area of the assumed
hemisphere. Now the resulting velocity at the surface of the
hemisphere will be
By
245
we have
L=
lim^o
6***.
Therefore,
o
lim^o
27rr
2
(
\ ro
ik
= )
/ r j
2?r/f,
(10-31)
whence
A= -
&/27T.
(10-32)
may
--- Lf fj*^<,
27rJ J dn r
v
(10-33)
oo/
'
above
in
Our
which d<p/dn
^e
F = rfprt,".
wherein Ji(zka)
ment
zfca,
is
is
first
(to-34)
while
2
By
impedance then
is
(I0 35)
is
II, 1916,
278.
302.
simple derivation.
ff,
for a rather
ACOUSTICS
246
imaginary part
is
Zs 2
same
the
Hence
for high
>
Ki(ika)
2
==
shows that
(2ka).
7T
Hence
we have
2ojpo
,.
%S2
7T#
x\
(10-36)
T'o
2
= 2p^ ==
2^
^^^
This
is,
this point.
kW
ka
for
whence we get
(10-38)
coefficient
SZ Kl =
is
2 4
jTrpor* ^ .
(10-39)
cit.
27rtf
<:.
247
The
ratio
is
For ka small we see that Ki(lka) reduces to the first term in the
expansion above and hence the radiation inertia coefficient becomes
S'Zim
8
-
Po a\
(10-40)
*j
This
is
same radius
medium
of the
as the plate.
mass
and
stiffness coefficient f is
(m
+ | p,a*)l +
^irpockWk
+ /* =
ft
(10-41)
%j
The average
|?max
and
this increases
rate of radiation of
(io- 4 ia)
The
made
natural frequency
is
given
approximately by
'
(IO 42)
We see that if the radiation inertia is equal to the effective mechanical mass, the frequency in water is only 1/^2 or -77 times the
frequency in air. In order that the frequency be not lowered by
more than 10% the radiation inertia coefficient must not be more
than
20%
The
measured by the
ratio
on the frequency
will
be
_
ACOUSTICS
248
since the
Sec. 2-2)
M= m +
.
'
(IO 43)
where
10 cm, w
gm/cm
8/3 poa
1000.
The
),
I0 1Q
If
m=
io 3
gm we
io2 .
But
in this case.
To
we must
transmitter and
types,
or telephone receiver type and the moving coil
or galvanometer type.
In the first, alternating current is supplied
viz., the electromagnet
249
sound generators.
The
principle
of the device can be understood by reference to the diagram (Fig. 10-3) 2 which
The
magnet
energized
oscillator.
of a
bipolar
by direct current
shown in the figure
and
in the reverse
Alter-
coil.
coil
pieces
is
FIG.
Diagrammatic
The
diaphragm.
The
ac-
tion
up
10-3.
Cross-section of Oscillator
is
about the cylinder in planes perpendicular to its length. These currents cut the lines of force of the magnet and are opposite in direction
over one half of the cylinder from what they are over the other. The
that during one alternation of the current the cylinder is
while during the following alternation it is pushed
forward
pushed
result
is
1
For a more complete description of such an instrument, see Drysdale et al.,
Mechanical Properties of Fluids, 1924, p. 304. See also Aigner, loc. cit., p. 179.
2
Taken with kind permission from a publication of the Submarine Signal Com-
1917.
ACOUSTICS
250
An
The
1
following figure (Fig. 10-4) indicates the resonance characteristics of the device both in air and water.
1000
1050
1100
1200
Frequency
400
300
In Air
200
100
900
1000
1100
1200
Frequency
FIG. 10-4.
should expect from the discussion in Sections 1-2 and 1-3 (Chap. I)
that the smaller the wave length relative to the diameter, the more
nearly will the resulting sound be confined to a "beam" with little
sidewise spreading.
This in addition to the greater radiation
efficiency of the plate at high frequencies already
1
emphasized
Verlag von
M. Krayn,
1922.
in
Berlin,
251
modern high-
FIG. 10.5.
radius of the equivalent piston by which the plate has been replaced
be a. Let it be desired to find the velocity potential at point P on
This will be the sum
the axis of the piston distant r from the center.
of contributions from
shaded
all
ring.
Sec. 10-6)
" =
C
-lrffto
T JS
(K>44)
(a constant
sumption), dS
iirxdx
and
2 is the variable,
*iwt
t-fffat
<Pp
Introducing x
Vz2
/*<*
~^J
r 2 , this
we have
ikz
(10-45)
~^~
becomes
.
'?'"
(10-46)
ACOUSTICS
252
e~ lkr ^.
The power
Now
is
is,
(10-47)
the intensity
is
where the
Vr2
PO^O[COS
pr
7#
X2
~~
cos
kr~\
cos
po^oE sm ^Vr
cot
+wX
cot.
#r +
2
?#
X2
cos AT
==
2 sin -
(;
Vr 2
;;rX 2 )
sin
- (^r2
2
;
X2
r)
and
sin
Vr 2
77/
X2
sin kr
2 cos - (r
2
Vr2
7#
X2 )
sin
- (Vr2
2
+m\
2
2
7'),
If r
is
large
sin 2
-(Vr
+wX 2
r).
(10-48)
Then we have
for
/
T
o 7T7W
2
2
2p ro sin
/
,
(10-49)
falls off
rapidly without
(10-50)
FIG.
06.
is
(10-51)
As an
which a
= 12 cm and
= 2.90 cm and
m=
1
'37
is
essentially the
same
cit.,
p.
ACOUSTICS
6=2
8 in
the problem of supersonic radiation involves the calculation of the intensity at distant
points off the axis of the oscillator.
The
is
problem
to
mathematically analogous
the Fraunhofer diffraction of
FIG. 10-7.
light
ture.
that
if
we consider
sound diffraction
the
first
ring on
plane at considerable distance from the source the lateral spreading of the radiation is confined to a plane angle of magnitude
d
2 arc tan (.6i\/a).
The analysis of the paper just mentioned
10 cm emitting radiation
of frequency 50,000 cycles we get
approximately.
The Piezo-electric Oscillator. It will be of
10-9. Supersonics.
value to review briefly at this place the disadvantages in low
formula.
Thus
for
an oscillator with a
6=15
255
it is
wave
rendered evident.
During the latter years of the great War (1917) the French
physicist Langevin devised an acoustic oscillator with a frequency
as high as 50,000 cycles, which since its frequency is outside the
auditory range is generally referred to as a "supersonic" oscillator.
In constructing this instrument use was made of the piezo-electric
effect.
is
produced by
electrical
means,
it
is
marked.
a slab of thickness
by
d with
them the
it is
See, for example, Glazebrook, Dictionary of Applied Physics, Vol. II, p. 598.
ACOUSTICS
256
e.m.f.
Conversely,
if
the quartz
is
made
FIG. 10-9.
an alternating current
application of external mechanical pressure
be set up in the circuit. There will be resonance when the
will
is
of only .05%.
is
noteworthy.
For example,
in the
2
report of Langevin's experiments, for which unfortunately not all
the data are available in the literature, it is stated that using a piece
of quartz not cut for resonance an applied potential of 50,000 volts
257
above
oscillator will
highest
is
fundamental frequency
is
given by
(10-52)
2
arrangement as used by Langevin is indicated in the
SS' represents an
In
the
sketch
accompanying figure (Fig. 10-10).
typical
The
oscillator
is
with the
1926.
1925.
ACOUSTICS
258
quartz mosaic in the center and the two metal plates Pi and PI on
each side. P 2 is connected to one side of an oscillating circuit
wherein the frequency of the oscillations is controlled by the
The circuit of the oscillator is completed
variable condenser C.
water
from
B to PI. The source of high frequency
the
through
oscillations for driving the oscillator is not shown; it is the usual
arrangement employing the vacuum tube as generator. The part
denoted by
a beat
method
so as to render
film.
moving photographic
lators
is
little infor-
Much work on
in the
is
3
experiments of Wood and Loomis on high frequency sound waves
of large intensity. Their work appears to open up a large field for
future investigation of the physical, chemical and biological effects
communicated
to liquids
more or
less
stable
See
also, F. Collin,
Le Genie
R.
Also Phys.
Zeits., 28,
621, 1927.
See also F. L.
1927.
Hopwood,
became
practicable.
259
is
liquids.
In the same connection may be mentioned the result of experiments by R. W. Boyle 3 that there appears to be no change in the
velocity of sound with the frequency in liquids over a range from
is
In the
W.
J.
3
ACOUSTICS
260
case of the second group the receiver measures directly the displacement of the medium.
Illustrations
may
make
serve to
Thus
the sound
wave which
that no real
receiver
strikes
It
it.
to
either
made
it will,
classification
is
1
For let us suppose that we are to detect
importance in practice.
two sounds an octave apart in frequency with the same detector.
Assume
the latter
response
is
the
is
same
for
p/por
waves as we do
(10-53)
Now
is
(10-54)
where
Hence
detector
o>
2?r
would not mean that they are of the same intensity, for the frequency
is twice the other and the
corresponding intensity is four
of one
times as great.
In general we
when
its
that of the
1
See Aigner,
loc. cit.,
p. 202.
261
receiver
medium
in
microphone, while
medium and
may
be
strument
is
still
is
in use
for
submarine
signalling.
It
It
or shell sep-
dium but
The theory
worked out
FIG.
ion.
sound wave on the rubber nipple will cause vaand volume of the air in the chamber which
will then be communicated to the air in the ear tube.
The influence of the magnitude of the volume of the nipple can
be rather easily estimated. Thus let the equilibrium volume be V
and denote the change in volume corresponding to change in pressure
dp by by. Since the vibrations are adiabatic (see Sec. 1-13) we have
riations in pressure
ACOUSTICS
262
IV
(10.55)
where
and 7
/>o is
chamber
Betut
where
B=
(d^Oi max-
(10-56)
The displacement
by
= ^e
l((at
-kx
in the
tube
will
be given
(10-57)
If
the velocity of sound in air.
where k
o)/e y as usual, and c
the cross sectional area of the tube is S and if we take x = o at the
is
junction of tube and chamber we have for the total volume variation
of the latter
which becomes
8P=
(B
SA)e^
(10-58)
Now
the pressure variation at the junction must be the same for the
air in the chamber as for the air in the tube (continuity of pressure).
Hence we can write
^,
C'o-59)
or from (10-55)
OX
Combining
this
Be*
(10-60)
where tan
tube
is
kV^S.
Now
given by
263
matical point of view. The interested reader will find the theory
amply set forth in the article of Wilson just referred to. The
general assumptions made are as follows: the nipple is in the form
of a sphere and the forces that act on it are three in number, viz.,
(i) the force due to the incident sound wave from the water, (2) the
reaction force due to the radiation of sound from the sphere back
into the water, (3) the force due to the excess pressure in the air
tube.
The
fluid.
After writing
down
As
up
to its
optimum value
For
the response becomes greater and the resonance sharper.
areas greater than the optimum the resonance becomes sharper but
the response
falls
off greatly.
summarized form:
For a fixed value of the
follow in
1.
power transmission
2.
falls off as
The
section).
resonance.
ACOUSTICS
264
Microphones for Subaqueous Reception. Of acousticsound receiving devices there are four principal types, viz.:
10-12.
electric
microphone has so
far
for
subaqueous
microphone construction rather than to present detailed descriptions of various types of microphones now available.
Microphones may be divided into two classes, corresponding
more or less accurately to the general subdivision of sound receivers,
into pressure and displacement detectors.
The older type of
microphone in which sound pressure produces variation in the
resistance of an electrical circuit by varying the compression of an
aggregate of carbon granules, belongs to the first class. It has not
yet been designed for submarine signalling purposes. One of the
most stringent requirements of a microphone for subaqueous use is
that the sensitivity shall remain constant. This, however, is
impossible with the pressure type microphone as ordinarily constructed since the slightest change in the static pressure (brought
about, for example, by slight and unavoidable changes in the depth
or by currents) will alter the sensitivity and throw the instrument
in a
diaphragm A.
the coupling
button
is
attached to
between
One may be confused by the not altogether logical use of "receiver" and
The terms have been used for many years in the telephone industry
mitter."
occurs.
In
this chapter
we
"transto refer
265
To understand
the ac-
tion of such a
it is
microphone
very desirable to con-
moment some
sider for a
elastic-
vibration of a diaphragm
both the mass and the
stiffness
are
distributed
FIG. 10-12.
in the
Nevertheless
it is
possible in an ideal
will
be of
ing diagram
example,
this
frequencies
1
it
(Fig.
IO-I3).
connector
ACOUSTICS
266
If
possessing a large elasticity coefficient compared with its mass.
the phase of the vibration is to be the same at all points of the rod,
its
the
FIG. 10-13.
We
system considered
if
we
if
coupled
solve
its
Wl 2
FIG. 10-14.
The displacement
1
It may be objected that in no practical vibrating system is the differentiation of
the elements sufficiently exact to allow the rigorous replacement by a standard coupled
system as here defined. Moreover there exists also the difficulty that a coupled system
used cautiously.
that on
ctor.
is
f(x\
The equations
#2),
mixi
2x2
we
-# =
+/Cv - #1) =
+
i
f(*i
2)
ft
get
miXi
we denote
is
m
Iding the two
where/
267
;;; 2
^2
o,
(IOO2)
'
v
o.
o.
(10-63)
ipectively
the
by
ai
and
(1064)
o,
is
mi
ms
iss.
it
MIXI
we obtain
/(i+
comes out
-=
27T
-J\
2?T
miuPxi,
Jtfi^
(io66)
to be
(I0 .6 7)
ACOUSTICS
268
To get high
make/ very
of the frequency
Y we
is
have/
m
i
[,
r
.
mz
m>z
+
:
mi
3;;*!
?n
m*a
m%
(10-68)
n
I
m\
mi
3w 2
mi
+m
for
it
does introduce a
new
natural
mode
of
Hence
it will
not
The
In this case
vibration amplitude from a small one or conversely.
a
be
to
act
like
lever.
an
As
the system may
said
example we may
consider the electromagnetically operated diaphragm as a source of
sound waves in water. This is a rather inefficient source as will be
cm 2
^ watt per
Force
1
= R,
269
If the
where R is the damping factor and
the displacement.
mechanical damping is small enough to be neglected in comparison
with the radiation damping, we then have (Sec. 106) for high
= pocS, where S = ira 2 , the effective area of the
frequencies, R
diaphragm; while for low frequencies the corresponding quantity
(eq. 3-27) is
radiation is
R=
Now
pvukS^liir.
exceed
I
2?r
cm/sec.
mum
to attain such a
tons weight.
is
hopeless
maximum
should be of great value. For if the vibrating diaphragm is connected to the smaller mass of a standard coupled system instead of
radiating directly into the water, it will cause this mass to vibrate
with a large amplitude. At the same time the vibrations are com-
municated to the water through the larger mass with larger radiating
surface as waves of smaller amplitude corresponding to the same
average energy dissipation but smaller intensity. The radiation is
therefore far
diaphragm
more
efficient
to the water.
than
if it
for
way
may
ACOUSTICS
made up
**
FIG. 10-15.
It should be
noted that in
Now
phone
main argument
is still applicable.
that the tuning of a microvery variable. For some time the
But an analysis of the instrument into
found
its
See Aigner, loc. cit., p. 208. It may be mentioned that most of the material in
taken from Aigner 's book or from his original source, namely Hahnemann
this section is
and Hecht.
when
in use.
271
Compromise must be
One
difficulty has
maximum
The
sensitivity at once after the closing of the circuit.
period of growth may be as much as 30 seconds. The reason for
this is doubtless to be found in the fact that the air in the microphone
has to come to some kind of equilibrium during the process of
expansion of the air and the various component parts of the instrument. This difficulty can be overcome only by the very careful
choice of material for the construction of the microphone, for
Equali-
chamber
microphone
itself.
it
"matching" microphones
for
together.
acts on a vibrating system, in order that the force shall contribute
energy to the system it is essential that there be a difference in
phase between the force and the resultant displacement (see Sec.
For frequency of the force = w/2?r, this phase angle a is
2-2).
given by
cot a
//IIV
J
~/
/
,
(10-69)
the same.
The matching
is
usually done experimentally by
each
actuating mechanically
pair of microphones and allowing the
currents to oppose each other. If the resultant current is zero the
microphones are assumed to be matched. There is a difficulty that
is
ACOUSTICS
272
must be watched for in such a procedure. Examination of the formula for cot a shows that for co far away from the resonance value
two microphones may be fairly well matched even though there are
These differences,
slight differences in m R and / for the two.
however, will have a very pronounced effect in the immediate
neighborhood of the resonance frequency for which a = TT/I, resulting in lack of phase agreement between the two instruments. This
y
may
useless.
method
FIG. io- 1 6.
is
the annulus
BB
is
rather thin.
.03
1
cm.
This
is
for
For example
is
.07
cm
in a
cm and
outer
273
annulus and
The
CmofHg
40
30
20
10
340
380
420
-10
500
460
540
Frequency,
-20
-30
Curve
II
Air
= Water
-40
FIG. 10-17.
frequency.
This shows
the
effect
over a
is
rather
small
range.
possible but gives no
ACOUSTICS
274
it is not a
particularly accurate one for practical purposes
without the use of a baffle plate the effect of which has been noted in
Section i4. 1 The two most important principles now in use for
finder but
direction finding are the so-called binaural phase effect and the
maximum intensity effect. The first of these is the more important
for signalling purposes and its application will be discussed in this
The ability of an individual with two normally functioning
section.
ears to center a
sound
(in the
absence of too
many
reflecting
and
with the
effect
is
by
far the
more
Stewart gives as his most convincing reason for this conclusion the
fact that for most observers there are certain frequency ranges in
which wide variations of intensity at the two ears seem to produce no
displacement of the apparent source of sound (i.e., it stays fixed in
In these same "lapse" regions the phase
the median plane).
The physiological and
effect, however, continues to be operative.
of
the
binaural
effects
are dealt with in
psychological aspects
Nine.
Chapter
See also the experiments of Wood and Young, Proc. Roy. Soc., 100, 261, 1921-22.
G. W. Stewart, Physical Review, 9, 502, 1917. In the three successive articles
there presented there will also be found very complete references to the literature on the
binaural effects. In the present volume there is a careful survey of the subject in Sec.
9-12.
accompanying
Two
acoustic receivers
275
and
0' are placed at the ends of a rod of length /. The source of sound
is, of course, at a distance very large compared with the length /.
OE and O'E' are the ear tubes. The path difference between the
and that
sound reaching
reaching
/
cos
is
/ sin 0.
27r/Xi
is k\l
and
sin
\i is the
of the sound in
(1070)
approximately
where
dif-
k\
wave length
the
water.
in the appropriate
will then
appear to lie in the median
plane represented in the figure by the dotted line perpendicular to
OO'. The angle
then measures the direction of the source from
the observer.
it
may
/ sin
Xi,
(10-71)
may
H. A. Wilson,
all
ACOUSTICS
276
is
line
of the preceding section, instead of rotating the rod, one can shorten
the ear tube OE or lengthen the ear tube O'E' by an amount such
that the difference in length
j
where k
2?r/X
and X
is
where
and
spectively.
c\
72
l\ is
kj
equal to
sin 6
the
air
and water
re-
lengthening is performed by
the use of a trombone adjustment. The instrument may
be made to read
or <p directly.
It
represented graphically in
the
revolvable
fitted
diagram and
two grooves in a
following
consists of
to
circular
plate
stationary plate
the grooves two
having in
snugly fitting blocks.
FIG. 10-19.
These
Tubes are inserted at I, 2,
A tube from one of the receivers goes to 2; the sound
3, and 4.
then passes through the curved part R and out to the ear at 4.
The other sound receiver is connected with the ear via i and 3 and
by
B and
of the compensator.
The
the side
We
C.
0.
277
direction.
figure (Fig.
10-20)
it
is
seen that
n
FIG. ID- 10.
(from
I) for
direction
a given setting
the sound may be coming either in the
or CA* This ambiguity may be removed by noting
the apparent source moves with the alteration of the
BA
which way
compensator. When
phase the apparent
displaced from
source moves
it is
its
position of equality of
AB
and
in the direction of
may
also be
the
same
The
DA and BA.
the
two
FIG.
10-21.
ACOUSTICS
278
Four receivers placed at the corners of a square are also often thus
employed, introducing the factor of safety that the failure of one of
the receivers will not prevent the use of the instrument.
10-16. Multiple Receiver Systems.
Early in the
acoustic receivers
it
study of
receivers used
common
tube
might gather more sound than one alone. The theoretical treatment of such collections of receivers is extremely complicated. It
has been worked out in detail by H. A. Wilson. 1 We shall not
discuss the theory here.
FIG. 10-22.
receiver go to a
common
it is
evident
(1073)
/J
H. A. Wilson,
loc. cit.
279
It is then shown
respectively and c the velocity of sound in air.
that the area in the water across which there passes per second an
amount of sound energy equal to that which crosses the main tube
(assumed to be of cross section equal to the sum of the cross sec-
A=
\i(n
is
given by
i)7
great variety of multiple acoustic receivers have been conFor a description of the characteristics and uses of these
structed.
reference should be
made
to articles
1
by Harvey C. Hayes.
Most of
=O
..
B'
FIG. 10*23.
between them, and the sound therefrom led to the ears. Let us
suppose that sound is approaching this pair of receivers from the
direction of the arrow. The receiver A will then be first excited and
the resultant disturbance will travel down the tube to the outlet C.
the same time the sound will travel through the water from
to
At
i>
1920.
ACOUSTICS
280
we must
Let
is
*
\a
where X and X
From
ively.
?tf
refer to the
this
we
AC =
l-x
Am
Aa
wave lengths
x and
in air
in
such a
AB =
way
The
get
cl
(10-75)
where
water.
= velocity of sound in
velocity of sound in air and c\
the
numerical
values
we
have x = .61 5/, which
Introducing
of the outlet.
is
thus a
maximum
sound
direction of
*-To
main
line
FIG. 10-24.
To illustrate how
may
MV
less
superseded in this country and has been replaced by a similar
instrument employing microphones instead of acoustic receivers.
It is of interest, however, as
representing the most elaborate use of
the purely acoustic receiver.
This instrument is made in two
each
consists
of
a
line
of
twelve
receiver units, and each unit in
parts;
281
turn
is
FIG. 10-25.
to //, By C,
by tubes of invariable length. It has been possible to combine the whole compensation system into one circular
compensator with appropriate grooves. Naturally the compensation introduced by each element must be made dependent on that
introduced by the others and is usually of a magnitude equivalent
to the phase difference corresponding to a certain small distance in
water, say from 5 to 10 cm. The binaural base-line, so to speak, is
to the left ear, and that
y the sound from / going
provided by
jfrom
JK
to the right.
In use
it
ACOUSTICS
282
bearing on the sound by employing first the starboard line alone and
then the port line alone. Finally the forward six receivers of each
line are used binaurally in what is called "cross" compensation to
check the previous determinations. This, of course, introduces the
need for a special type of compensator.
The electrical
tube is similar to the acoustical, save in that
MV
it
instead of twelve.
line
This
is
an
electrical
FIG. 10-26.
MV
See G.
W.
283
phone
latter course
is
usually disadvantageous.
All
10-17. The Echo Method of Acoustic Depth Finding.
modern acoustic methods for depth finding are based on the fact
made
fathoms
it is
FIG. 10-27.
/
1
h tan
<p
See H. C. Hayes, Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., 59, 317, 1920; 63, 134, 1924.
ACOUSTICS
284
is
then given by
The
+I=
+ h tan
(10-76)
<p.
in the
(Fig. 10-28) a
diagram
FIG. 10-28.
<f>.
+a=
,
a H
\
(10-77)
1 1>
may
sound
it is
first
paragraph
and
at the
285
on which
it
operates is indicated in the following figure
covered
a
(Fig. 10-29).
uniformly rotating horizontal disc
with a good friction surface there bears a vertical wheel CD of
smaller dimensions. This rotates by the friction between its edge
principle
AE
On
is
sent out
by a Fessenden
oscillator.
D\
FIG. 10-29.
One
is
and
is t\
T=
depth by
If
we represent
the
new value of g
is
S'
ACOUSTICS
286
whence
and
i
ciRT
^-7)'
(-79)
H. T. Barnes, Nature,
CHAPTER XI
ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS
Historical Introduction.
1 1 -i.
Architectural acoustics
in
its
This matter
will
be considered in the
following section.
Reverberation.
1 1 -2.
i
'2
that
by
reverberation
It
we mean
than would be the case if the same source were acting in the open
and far from the presence of reflecting surfaces. If a continuous
air
recesses in a
ation.
Hence
in the
ACOUSTICS
288
We
shall
now
0\d<z
an
e l ement
The energy
E.
jj.j
dV is
in
which
will
ultimately strike
dS
is
is
will strike
it
du/^ir,
dS
at
Ed'V and
that fraction of
it
dS
dV which
then
cos 9
amount of energy
in
is
EdVdS
cos
will
the
dV =
falls
f f
on dS from
all
we have,
Jo Jo
possible directions,
\EcdS,
\Ec.
1
shell
(11-2)
is
(i 1-3)
ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS
289
Now
f adS
OL $',
Jo
where a
may
The
is
is
absorbed
therefore
\EcaS.
Now
it
is
being produced.
We
have
r?+lEcaS
V
4,
(I
is
rate of
this
-5)
sound
equation,
(n.6)
whence
maximum
o.
for the
density
A=
we have
That
is
is,
E = E^r*****.
(ii -8)
W.
S. Franklin,
Phys.
Rev
ACOUSTICS
2 9o
then defines as the reverberation time the time in which the decay
That is the time given by
IO -6
or
if all
and we use c
344 meters/ sec.,
room temperature, i.e., 20 C. If everyterms of feet (i.e., V cu. feet, S square feet and c
thing
is
expressed in
we have
in feet/sec.),
the form
T=
The
reverberation time
.049
V =
T can
V
.049
(n-io)
former
is
the
the latter
is
As has been shown in Secthe rate of flow of energy per unit area.
tion 1*15, for a plane wave the latter equals the former multiplied by
the velocity of sound.
Hence the ratio of two values of the energy
density
is
the
same
is
interesting fact
gave
is
time
room
the
generally.
in the calculations
Of
auditoriums tested.
1
W.
ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS
291
appropriate coefficient,
summing up
in practice
That
is,
i=
Z <x*Si
(11-12)
i=i
(11-4).
is
Recent investigations by M.
l
have shown that the
J. O. Strutt
of
in
law
Sabine expressed
eqs. (11-9) and (n-n) is of greater
In particular the
generality than has been hitherto suspected.
is
when
reckoned in the one case from the moment the source stops
from the moment the source starts^ is constant,
i.e., independent of the time /.
Oscillograms of the increase and
in
taken
a
with
of
sound
room,
great care to keep conditions
decay
uniform, confirm this conclusion.
Strutt also emphasizes the important fact that the decay of
sound intensity in a room is not simply exponential in time but is
time
and
/,
M.
J.
8, 236, 1929.
ACOUSTICS
292
actually
l
and Eyring 2 have
recently Schuster and Waetzmann
pointed out that Sabine's formula (11-10) applies essentially to
"live" rooms, i.e., rooms with small absorption and large reverberation.
Recent experiments show that this formula does not
More
work
well for
"dead" rooms, i.e., rooms where the average absorpa is greater than 0.5. Eyring has derived a new
tion coefficient
E = Emax <f*
The
log
-5><w
when a
< <
(i
in (n-8).
It is
.80)
noted
The more
(11-80) reduces precisely to (n-8).
formula
(11-80) leads to the following expression for the
general
that,
i,
reverberation time:
make
it
calculated
1
The
room of
by
would be
ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS
11-3.
Methods
of Absorption
293
The measurement
Measurement.
density, that
is,
in the
form
a
=- 4^
(11-13)
'-/-max
As a second
sound
A^ respectively.
sources are t\ and / 2
maximum
densities
mum
method by
two sources were used, of emission rates A and
If the durations of audibility with the two
respectively, and I\ and 7 2 are the steady state or
intensities
EI and
2,
audible intensity
whence
a
is
denoted by
log
/,,,,
AilA^\V\c(h
A),
= Ai\A^ by
(11-14)
eq. (11-7).
The only
T7 ,
Knudsen
These are:
(i) the
minimum
audibility
reached, due partly to the low sensibility of the ear to small
changes in intensity near the threshold of audibility and partly to
1
See W. C. Sabine, Collected Papers, Harvard University Press, 1922. The
is
present section
Phil.
2
is
summary by V. O. Knudsen,
ACOUSTICS
294
method.
minimum. (4) In addition to the slowness with which the measurements must be carried out, must be cited the fact that the method
is very inaccurate when
applied to rooms in which the reverberation
time
is
may
be denoted by
#'.
Corresponding to
this, a
new maximum
Then
a
This method has several advantages, namely, the facts that all the
measurements are instrumental and thus independent of the human
ear, that the percentage error in a is the same as the percentage
AEmax / m ax from eq. (11*13)),
error in measuring max (i.e., Aa/a
ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS
295
taking oscillograms of the decaying sound in a room, while interesting, does not
11-4.
seem practical
as yet.
Applications.
It
is
at
once evident from the equations of sound growth and decay (n-6)
and (11-7) that the reverberation time is a very important factor in
the use of an auditorium for hearing speech or music.
For if the
reverberation time is relatively great, any given sound like a spoken
syllable or musical note will take a relatively long time to build up
Thus
be rendered
inarticulate and music
be
may
hopelessly
blurred. On the other
speech
hand a
may
relatively short
time im-
reverberation
The
first
(Fig.
11-2)
reverberation
long.
The sounds
is
in this
.1
.6
10
.8
II
/6
1.8
2Q
II
in
seconds'
spoken syllables with an
1 -2.
FlG.
average emission time of
0.2 second and an interval of .05 second separating syllables, in which
interval emission is supposed to cease. The intensity-time curves for
the individual syllables are drawn at the bottom of the graph. The
f
dotted curve
1
is
E. A. Eckhardt,
loc. cit., p.
805
ff.
ACOUSTICS
296
which
it
is
room would be
Only very
speaking
the absorbing power
Figure 1 1 -3 shows the effect of increasing
time.
The intensity no
the
reverberation
and hence cutting down
to render
fluctuation
an
is
adequate
longer builds up and there
0.01
5
t
.6
seconds
FIG. 11-3.
amount of reverberation.
The problem of the proper reverberation time
for a
room
is
W.
ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS
297
limits, of course,
that
to a
tastes
.002
.8
1.0
t- in Seconds
FIG. 11-4.
seems unwise to
music, therefore,
reverberation.
it
It
is
its
F. R.
Inst.,
July 1924.
ACOUSTICS
298
With regard
somewhat
heard correctly
is
and consonant
under
vowel
articulation.
hearing
is
perfectly satisfactory.
The
results of experiments
to
?.o
50
so
+4
FIG. 11-5.
in
time.
1
is
also,
The
I.e.,
and 117.
ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS
The work was
articulation.
there
is
carried
down
to
T=
As
299
the open
performed
with reverberation pracin
tically zero
than
results
room with
100
gave better
the small
T=
80
0.6 sec60
ond.
The next
1 1
-6)
40
figure (Fig.
I
20
234 567
The indication
ft.
toriums of this
seconds.
is
Reverberation (Seconds)
FIG.
that the
maximum
1 1 -6.
Knudsen L has
100
[^--..fc
8
8
rllable-
20
40
60
80
Loudness of Noise-S.U.
Average Per Cent of Hearing* 100
FIG. 11-7.
lation
is
When
it
2
plotted against the loudness in sensation units (S. U.).
is considered that the loudness of the
converordinary
V. O. Knudsen,
loc. cit.
is
ACOUSTICS
300
if
ference.
In the
first
An open window
place
we must
number of absorption
i.e.,
the ratio
cients
It must be remarked,
however, that there is still considerable uncertainty in the precise
value to be attached to any one material. The exact state of the
absorbing surface, i.e., whether painted or unpainted, etc., must be
indicated.
Moreover, with absorbing materials for which the
absorption depends primarily on the viscous resistance encountered
in small channels or interstices, we must expect that the absorption
will increase with the frequency of the sound, so that high notes will
Even when
suffer a relatively greater absorption than low notes.
the state of the material and other conditions are given as precisely
ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS
301
as possible, different observers obtain somewhat different coeffiNevertheless the great utility of high absorbing materials
cients. 1
in the correction of
research in this
auditoriums
field.
It
may
is
by
P. E. Sabine have indicated that the absorbing power per unit area
Thus for areas from I square
varies with the actual area involved.
various
1
fibers.
The
greatly
increased
interest
in
maand
architectural
ACOUSTICS
302
current
some of the
surfaces.
details
energy
will travel
part of the energy will set up true waves in the wall which will be
transmitted through it as through any medium. But it must be
the next.
The
amount transmitted
in
may
summary.
ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS
303
square foot.
large extent.
skin action.
In particular they emphasize the characteristic drumcourse it should be emphasized that the trans-
Of
mission about which we are here speaking is from air to air through
the wall.
The transmission of sound which originates in the wall or
floor is naturally a different matter.
In this case there may be
considerable wave transmission through the partitions and the more
Hence it
rigid the construction the greater the transmission.
arises that a room may be proof against sounds which arise in the air
of the adjoining room (such as conversation or music), while it is not
proof against sounds which arise by pounding on the floor or walls
or the throbbing of machinery fixed rigidly to the floor.
These
facts must be considered in the practical application of sound
3
proofing.
P. E. Sabine, loc.
Phil.
cit.
Thus a
higher the frequency, the less the relative response, except near resonance.
piece of stretched burlap heavily painted will transmit low frequencies as a drumskin,
but will more effectively reflect high frequencies.
selectively reverberant.
It
is
thus possible to
make
a studio
ACOUSTICS
3 o4
otherwise, and if the top flooring rests upon a half inch or more of
absorbent material, fairly good results are obtainable.
So far in our study of architectural
1 1 -8. Impulsive Sounds.
acoustics we have been considering in general the effects of sustained
tones only.
this
equation
of the influence of reverberation on the articulation of speech (Sec.
11-4) it was seen that this influence varies with the nature of the
It was
speech, that is, whether vowel, consonant or syllable.
found, in fact, that the percentage articulation for a given reverberation time is least for syllabic sounds and greatest for vowel sounds
with the consonantal sounds occupying a median position. Now a
remember that
in
As
may
like.
made
theory.
who has
the
e catl * v,
P. E. Sabine,
The American
Architect,
May
24,
June
7,
ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS
can be measured in the usual way. Thus E is given
and if one can be measured the other is known.
305
in
terms of
a,
By using two
values of E y say E\ and E^ in successive impacts and measuring the
corresponding time intervals t\ and /2> ^ is at once obtained. It is
assumed that the ratio Ei/Ez is the same as the ratio of the meFor the results of this method as
chanical energies of impact.
applied to the problem of office noises the reader
Sabine's articles.
is
referred to
All machinery
11-9. Machinery Noises and Their Prevention.
motion involves the production of both sustained and impulsive
sounds. The elimination of such sound and noise is not particularly
important from the viewpoint of mechanical efficiency, for only a
Yet the disturbing
relatively small amount of energy is involved.
effect on articulation (see Sec. 11-4) and the undesirable psychological effect which recent studies have brought to light render it
We
wish
desirable to reduce machinery noise as much as possible.
to consider in this section a few fundamental points bearing on this
problem.
The
is,
Thus a
ACOUSTICS
3 o6
its
floor
by a
series of springs.
Since the specific acoustic resistance is poc (Sec. 3*1), it is of imwave in a spring is
portance that the velocity c of a longitudinal
Indeed the specific
solid.
a
in
continuous
that
than
less
much
very
acoustic resistance of the spring for longitudinal vibrations is much
and there is considerable reflection of the longitudinal vibrations
less
normal to the surface of contact of the motor base and the spring.
Obviously, a transverse vibration could communicate but little
of
energy also to the spring. So the effect of the springs is that
of
and
seriously decreasing
causing a reflection of vibratory energy
any vibratory motion in the floor. This provides a good illustration
of the application of the principle of securing a large change in
To summarize, it may be said that the
specific acoustic resistance.
be secured by the
prevention of noise from machinery can wisely
at the source by
vibration
the
of
following steps: (i) prevention
of the vibrathe
conduction
of
diminution
reduction of the cause, (2)
'
The
the interest should be in the transmission of vibratory energy.
of
flow
the
as
decrease
absorb
much
so
not
do
energy
springs
energy.
But
there
machinery
to
is
a method for
the
reduction
of vibrations in
If a small vibratory
damping
D.
Vibratory Problems in Engineering," by Timoshenko,
the
think
authors
The
by
given
explanation
1928, p. 33.
Timoshenko is in error in comparing static vibratory conditions. It is the flow of
energy with which one should be concerned.
2 See
Timoshenko, loc. cit., p. 101, or the contribution by Ormondroyd and
1
CHAPTER
XII
ATMOSPHERIC ACOUSTICS
Resume
Phenomena.
of Principal
already presented.
and 7 the
of
thereon
affected
we may
is
a matter of
some
1.40
interest.
12-1
o.ie/p
o.iep,
- * B
.778^;
May
1921.
J.
Humphreys, Journal
307
(I2>2)
7 6o(l+ a/)'
it
"
Physics of the
ACOUSTICS
308
mm
mm
mm
at the
perfectly dry
influence of fog, dust and
air
most
is
probably negligible
cases.
media and
But here we
incident intensity is but approximately 1/160,000.
have neglected the possibility of total reflection, which can take
place
when
wave of sound
from one medium
a plane
angle in passing
is
to another in
take place, we
cot
2 /cot
may
utilize the
* -
and 2
the subscripts
medium,
>
6C
=
=
(12-4)
ATMOSPHERIC ACOUSTICS
reflection
is
309
total reflections
must be considera-
source.
observer.
'
The two
viz.,
convective
been noted
is
greatly increased.
The
situation
from Humphreys,
is
p. 597).
INVERSION LEVEL
FIG.
2- 1.
Sound Confined
to an Inversion Layer.
Loc.
cit., p.
594.
The
following
ACOUSTICS
310
figure
AEC
A'
FIG. 12-2.
At the
source and the other from a point below the latter. At 3, but one
From the
is heard from the direction of the original source.
sound
FIG. 12-3.
front
1
The
altered
all
wave
front A'B'C'D'E',
loc. cit.
and
at 2
ATMOSPHERIC ACOUSTICS
311
three identical
The
Section
in
when
range
in the
is
The
ad-
s
FIG. 12-4.
Distortion by
Wind
of
Sound Fronts.
FIG. 12-5.
to
in
in
Leeward.
adjacent layers (a not unusual state of affairs) act to bend the sound
wave fronts first up and then down, and hence may cause the zones
of silence so frequently observed with auditory areas on either side.
Among the sounds of meteorological origin which the reader will
find discussed in an interesting
manner by Humphreys
(loc. cit., p.
we may
607
briefly note the following: creaking of snow, thunder,
brontides, howling of the wind, humming of wires, whispering of
trees, murmur of the forest, roar of the mountain, rustling of leaves,
rattle of rain, etc.
Though perhaps not precisely in the same class,
ff.),
hum
of
traffic,
the
ACOUSTICS
312
prominent roar of
the airplane and the various noises which accompany the industry
of a busy city. It may not be inappropriate to mention here the
Doppler effect which must be noticed many times a day by all who
0.185^,
where v is the velocity of relative motion of wire and air and d is the
diameter of the wire (all quantities in c.g.s. units). The production
of these sounds is undoubtedly due to the instability of the vortex
sheets which are formed
air.
The
rushing
wire to the other.
affords to the
12-2.
may
sound wave through a medium in which the velocity of the wave and
the velocity of the medium vary continuously from point to point.
The importance of the solution of this problem for sound ranging
and signalling in air is obvious. In this and the following section
See, for example, Houstoun, A Treatise on Light, London, 191 5, p. 275 ff.
Humphreys, loc. cit., p. 588.
2
Ann. der Phys., 5, 216, 1878.
3
But see the work of v. Karrnan and Rubach, Phys. Zs., 13, 49, 1912.
1
Or
also
ATMOSPHERIC ACOUSTICS
we
313
l
in deriving the
of
in
a
medium
such
as
we have just
general equations
propagation
The calculation is based on the following generalization
indicated.
drawn normal
medium
the
We
"ray" of sound
shall
then define a
as a curve
is
in the
moment when
the
The treatment
motion.
y
2
(#, y, z)
on the wave
= Ic + u,
= me + v
= nc + w.
front,
(12-6)
to eq. (12-6)
d(x)
(fii)
we have
the following:
=
BxjL(Ic
u)
+ 8yj^(lc +
u)
+ Bzj^(lc +
lies
z.
u)
(127)
front,
mdy
ndz
(12-8)
o,
&c
i^ u
dv
dw
ACOUSTICS
where the summation sign indicates the sum of three terms with
factors dx 9 dy, dz, respectively.
In obtaining the above, one needs
2
2
= o,
to recall the identities /2
n z = i and (d/dx)(P
ri*)
+m +
Now
etc.
satisfying (12-8),
/i
//
&c
J+v-+
dx
\
//
+m +
t& u
and
dz y
we must have
]T
dx
dv
+ w dx
H- +
,
dw\
w ^- )
dx /
dv
Writing
lu
mv
nw,
where
the
considering
/,
m,
dc
jdu
5-+/vd^
dx
.
dv
+ w^+
dx
,
dw
^-,
dx
become
by composition.
replace (12*10)
by
it is
seen that
we can
'--<-
+++*.
The
three eqs. (12-6) and the three eqs. (12- 12) are sufficient for a
complete determination of the ray. Of these the former set give
the direct propagation of the sound as affected by the bodily motion
of the medium, while the latter express the refraction of the sound
over the wave front.
caused by the variation of
ATMOSPHERIC ACOUSTICS
315
and
(12-12)
become,
x
y
2
if
we
recall that
dFjdx
= d^fdy =
= k + u,
= me + v,
= nc
o,
(12-13)
and
m = mn-,
(12-14)
*-<*-.)
From
the
first
two of
eqs. (12*13)
'm
we
constant,
//
it is
wave
fronts
will
nc.
$L
L(<*L
so that
dz
or,
proceeding
now
\ dz
"*"
t^a\
dz )
'
to ordinary differentials,
ACOUSTICS
316
The
integral of the
above
differential equation is
c o//o
c\l
cos
0, /o
cos
uy
UQ
refer to initial or
If
boundary values.
the above equation becomes
c sec 8
CQ
sec
u.
#o
we
(12-17)
when
sec
"
"~
",
(12-18)
This is precisely
r , and the refraction is convective only.
the special formula (1-5) deduced directly in Section 1-7 (note that
in (1-5)
of the
denotes the angle complementary to the angle
c
sin Or/2
0)
-0
if
UQ
u>
i.e.,
there
is
no
(I2>I 9>
cation
The procedure
location, see particularly the following section.)
will, of course, involve a knowledge of the corrections which must
be applied to the experimentally determined direction in taking
account of the transmission of the sound through the atmosphere
considered as being approximately a stratified medium. It is
assumed that the instrument used measures the direction of the
normal to the incident wave front. In this section we again follow
Milne. 1
1
Loc.
cit., p.
101
ff.
ATMOSPHERIC ACOUSTICS
In Fig. I2-6 1 the observer's position is taken to be the origin of
coordinates, while S with the coordinates X 8 ,y 8 z 8 is the source of the
,
sound.
incident
N and Si.
served
azimuth
made equal
the angle
thus
to zero, while
azimuth
corrected
the
The obis
is
observed elevation
the
is
=
angle S ON' E>
r
say, while
the correction to the elevation
is
the angle
S'OSi= bE.
p IG
I2 .^
Now
the normal at
eq. (12-15)
where be parallel to
/
cos
The equations of
We can
m = o,
this plane.
6,
x
y
z
=
=
=
Hence by
will
every-
therefore write
S and O
sin
6.
(12-20)
0(z),
c(z) sin 6,
CQ sec
#o
(12*21)
u(z).
From the first and third equations in (12-20) and from (12-21) it is
evident that the projection of the ray on the zx plane is independent
of v(z) (the so-called "cross wind"). Hence dE is independent of
v(z), and in calculating the elevation correction we can take Si as the
1
same
slight modification.
Figs. 12-7
and
12-8 are
from the
ACOUSTICS
3i8
From
source.
dy
-j-
v(z)
T-T esc 0,
c(z)
dz
from which
it
we have
follows that
u(z}
f'*
'
>
Hence
tan
d<p
y 8/(za cot
(.E
5))
tan (E
1
+-
CZa -~
v(z)
8E)
I
'*
If
we knew
and
v(z), u(z)
/o
(12-22)
'
we could compute
c(z),
esc Qdz.
hence evaluate the integral in (12-22). However, it is more convenient at this point to introduce approximations. The velocities u
and v are always much smaller than c. Hence, to a rather good
we may
approximation
as a constant
consider
set
0o
= E + dE
tan
iv\
sec
J
b(p
sec
\ c /
change
is
(12-22), i.e.,
to the
Then
actual elevation.
where
in
(l
Co
^'^3)
in c as
dx
-y
dz
From
u(z)
COt
which yields
COt (E
dE)
X afza
=*
If
we subtract
.
sin
dE
/zr
+ dE)
sm (E
sr> .
^~.
COt
|
Jo
c\
f
za J
i
i
f
-r--^
sin
L
sm
,_
(0
v
u(z)
)+ -7- sm
N
'
c(z)
CSC
dz.
we get
-
dz.
(12-24)
*'
ATMOSPHERIC ACOUSTICS
From
sin (9
o)
'
Hence the
sin
sin
dE
(E
sm
|(0
0o)
i_
za
BE)
/**
cos 0cos
u^jf.
c^c
*o
fo
cos j(0
JQ
-Jo
will
/ u(z)
y/
sin
.
sn
si
cos 0o cos
it
develops that
+ L T ^)
r
Again
it
319
$(0-
6Q)
c-c
= E+
SE
^~.
cos 5o cot Oo
fo
M.
+ CQ
^
~
Co
sin
f(z)
cot
g,.
(12.26)
^0
In
8E
wind
in refracting the
CQ
o,
so that
c
we have
finally
Co
~
CQ
To
viz.,
C(Z)
cot 0o
cot
-Zs/C2
-Xs/C.
2
(12-27)
first
ACOUSTICS
320
be seriously in error for small 0o, for in this case the correction 5E
may be of the order of E and 0o themselves. Any approximate
formula
will
We
FIG. 12-7.
be the angle which the normal to the wave front makes with the
The initial and final values of 6 will be denoted by A
horizontal.
and
00)
respectively.
Then
c i sec 0i
CQ sec
UQ
(12-28)
by
61)
Sec
_
O =
Sec
HO
U\
-f-
CQ
0/ -
(12-29)
w and get
Up
Ui
C\
by
CQ
(12-30)
ATMOSPHERIC ACOUSTICS
>
i,
should be so
is
If sec 9]
the angle Oi
Uo
Ui
Co
which
for
c sec 8
Thus
real.
is
321
- d > o.
= o, we have
#o
it
(12-31)
CQ.
(12-32)
"o
c<>
>
c,
(12-33)
between the source and the ground, the ray for which
Gi will actually reach the ground.
Moreover, we see that all
rays for which ir/2 >0i>0i will reach the ground (0 real), while
will not reach the ground, since for
those for which Oi > 61
for all heights
61
>o
CQ
the ray 0i
O/, where
IT/I
>
< O/ <
will
be
ft,
TT,
will
~=
cot
dz
+ -c
cos
R=
( cot
+ - csc
0,y
is
then
\ dz.
(12-34)
Now
u2
we
finally find
R= f\l\*0 - C ^
+U Jo
Q
dz
The only
J^
V
(12-35)
difference in the
E!
= f\l \*0
Jo
^
+
UQ
+
;
dz.
V
(12-36)
J /
ACOUSTICS
322
The
integrals
an d
(12-35)
denominators vanish
for z
I2 '36)
o.
As an illustration, consider u db c
Then on evaluation the integrals yield
R, R'
zs
as a linear function of
=-
c =b
\<r
it is
z.
u
Thus suppose z8
c
18 ft/sec, while UQ
10,000 ft, CQ
= 50 ft/sec. Then R 47,000 ft, while R' is infinite.
The extension of the above results to include examination of
The details
audibility at all points on the surface is not difficult.
will be found in Milne (loc. cit.,
In particular we may note
p. 108).
that with the wind (as above) in the positive x direction, if R#
denotes the range of audibility in the direction making an angle <p
with the x direction,
Rv =
A
develops that
it
z,
J\Co
UQ
U COS
Rv
<f>
as a function of
<p
for
120
T15
Limiting!
Form as n
l
Ui
FIG. 12-8.
c is given in
various values of u and using the above data for c o
curves
ovals.
The
the
are
closed
u
c
c
1 2- 8.
For
<
o
#o>
Fig.
ATMOSPHERIC ACOUSTICS
sound
is
audible at
(p
all
effect of the
constant
For u > CQ
c
# , the curves
neglected.
divide the region into zones of audibility and
curve has a pair of asymptotes given by
is
still
Each
inaudibility.
323
<f>
arc cos
d
l
During the late war much work was done on the location of cannon
by the sounds received and the times of reception at three or more
listening stations.
Consulting Fig. 12-9, let <S denote the source of
the sound and let A^ B, C be three receiving stations containing
microphones
FIG. 12-9.
accurately the time of arrival of the sound from the gun. Now the
locus of a point the difference of whose distances to two fixed points
is
constant
1
See, for
is
foci.
Hence the
ACOUSTICS
on the hyperbola with A and B as foci and with the
(//?
IA)C where IA is the time of arrival at
A and tB that at B> and ^ is the velocity of sound. Similarly S must
also lie on the corresponding hyperbola with B and C as loci.
Hence it must lie at the point of intersection of the two hyperbolas,
source
S must
lie
characteristic difference
which
As a matter of fact
simple principle.
of the source.
When
directly ahead or
which are similar to those which we have
is
but we
is
sists
projectile
as
it
progresses
The
ii'io)
following
1
(Fig.
figure
illustrates this effect
by means of a photograph of
Fio. i2ia.
The second is the wave due to the fall or exploas a sharp crack.
while
the third is the actual gun wave due to the
the
sion of
shell,
expanding powder gases at the muzzle of the gun and traveling as
far as the observer is concerned with the normal speed of sound.
Since it is only the gun wave which gives the desired information
about the location of the source, the fact that all three waves are
recorded on the receiving device is a matter of embarrassment.
2
However, it was found by Esclangon and others that by using
1
"Handbuch
der
ATMOSPHERIC ACOUSTICS
a
325
the
The
corrections
sufficiently
due
to
emphasized
wind
in Sec-
tion 12-3.
on a
searchlight battery
in
reported.
it
may
be
3
appropriate here to recall the observations of Stewart, who found
that under poor listening (daytime) conditions such sounds are
at night under
undoubtedly the greater scattering of the high frequency components by the irregularity of the atmosphere (Sees. 1-9 and i-n).
In the latter case, according to Stewart, the question is one of
audition.
Sabine 4 found that sounds of frequency 64 and 1024
is
io 4 and
15
io 6
times
their
if
minimum
audible
intensity.
See the reported observations of G. W. Stewart, Phys. Rev., 14, 166, 1919.
G. W. Stewart, Phys. Rev., 14, 376, 1919.
3
4
W.
8,
1900.
ACOUSTICS
326
save for wind and temperature effects, (c) a third zone of inaudiMore complete
of renewed audibility.
bility, and (d) a fourth zone
1
details will be found in the literature.
What
"from a
Under what circum-
bells
and
chimes in towers.
Why
wave
front.
Also,
Handbuch
der Physik,
APPENDIX
=
=
R=
c
PQ
gram
sec
The substances
group
cm2
in the order of decreasing
wave
/?.
327
ACOUSTICS
328
APPENDIX
II
The propagation of
elastic
waves through a
solid
medium
is
in
Fortunately in the
general an extremely complicated problem.
matter
is
somewhat simplified, for here
case of an isotropic solid the
n,
Y and a can
The funda-
be shown to be
1
See, for example, Love, Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, 3d edition, p. 101.
Also the somewhat simpler treatment in Edser, General Physics for Students, p. 223.
APPENDICES
whence
Y/2(<r
E=
y/3 (i
Y=
<r
+
-
329
i),
(II-i)
iff),
(II-2)
9 En/(n
on reduction.
Let the component displacements of any point in the solid along
For the external
, 17, f, respectively.
normal
on
stresses we shall denote by
stress
the yz plane in
the
x
the x direction, while the tangential stresses on this plane in the y
the three coordinate axes be
Y and Z
Y Xy and Z
and
The corresponding
x.
y;
dZx
Now
let
The
and
X Y
xy
vy and Z 2 , along the x y y^
accordance with this law:
g= XJY - *(
Z,)/Y,
= Y./Y - *(XX +
Z,)/Y,
g
g=
ZJY -
X Y
x,
y,
,(Y,
utilizing
and
z,
(H-6)
XJ/Y.
thereafter
the individual
eqs. (II-i)
and
ACOUSTICS
330
we
finally
pressions:
y,
5==
which
is
known
^+
<*?L
+ <X,
(H.8)
The
eqs.
(II7) take care of the elongation stresses and strains. The effect of
the components
x , etc., is to produce shearing action.
yj
ApHooke's
law
plying
again in the form that the shearing stress equals
the shear modulus times the shearing strain, we have by examination
X Y
yx =
\ dx
dy
>
=*
Zx = n(
\dx
+ dz \*
/
A~\
/at-
(II-9)
The
The
quantities (dy/dx
y and
equality of
+ d/d^),
Y etc.,
xy
etc.,
is
are
the
shearing strains.
X X
dXx
dZx
1
cit.,
dXy
dZy
dX,
dZ,
35
n\38
Also Love,
loc.
APPENDICES
The equations
331
then
(H-n)
Now
if
we
jy,
3,
\
(11-12)
since
But
Section 1-12.
wave with
is
velocity
That
this
the
or z direction.
The
For now
^=^=^ = n
dx
dy
dz
>
Pf=
prj
V2
tfV
2
i?,
(II- 1 5)
ACOUSTICS
33*
CT
The
text
(Sec. 4-5).
direction of its length, say the x axis, the deformations along the y
and z directions will be negligible and we shall have simply in
(IM6)
where
Y is Young's
modulus, while
Yy
The equation
= Z =
O.
and we have a longitudinal wave of velocity c* = VY/p. Comparison shows that for a large number of solids CL and c' differ by
about
R=
more accurately by
VSpi.
APPENDIX
(II-I9)
III
^
dx2
^)^
dx
dx
(III,)
APPENDICES
333
p = Au
where
A and B are
arbitrary.
Bv,
(HI-2)
Similarly since
=
we have
du
dv
=-A ,.B
(HI-3)
w here
|8
du
and
d(kx)
d(kx)
The
A;
respectively.
By means
of these determinants
it is
possible to express
A and B in
terms of any two of the four quantities pi pz, i and 2 (the subThus we
scripts referring to the two ends of the tube, as before).
9
have
pi
The plan
is
Aui
to solve the
Bvi y
p 2 = An*
Bv^
left for
A and B
and
The treatment
ACOUSTICS
334
We
then obtain
/> 2
api
+ bX
(III-8)
l9
(III?)
where
4!,
Z2
Z 2 = 4-2
That
is,
(III-io)
APPENDIX
IV
we consider
lindrical
the propagation of sound waves through a cytube as given by the fundamental eq. (1-17) of Sec. 1-13
This theory
is
is
based on that of
W.
is
6,
APPENDICES
The
335
PQ<P
is
X=
where S
is
Xie
1
.
On
substitution
A=
B= On
(XilkS
1/2-
results
+ pi/p**),
(IV-5)
(X^S - />I/POCO).
(IV-6)
p =
^T
where we have
(pi cos
(Xi cos
kx
iZXi
^-
i/Z-/>i sin
set
sin
kx)e* y
**)^,
Z,
wave
in the conduit.
Zb
L
B
tion" of the
AC =
2/
is
ACOUSTICS
336
we assume
(1)
(2)
We now
X^
=
Xu =
/>12
pb
Xb
+
=
= pi
Xn = Xi
pi2
(Xi
piz
- p,/Z
b)
pb/Xb,
we
write
cos
iZXi
kl it
sin kl,
i/Z-pi sin
(IV-I3)
*/,
(IV-i 4 )
sin kl,
(IV- 15)
follows that
pi cos kl
cos */
(IV- 1 2)
cos kl
(IV-n)
Xti.
= Xn-pblZb.
Now
e
(IV- 10)
/>21>
i(pi/Z
iZXi
- Z/Z
(IV-i6)
Furthermore.
=
Xz =
p2
substitution these
-Y2
/>i(cos 2^7
J^i(cos 2>&/
cos kl
2\
And on
p2
become
iZ/2Zb *sm
iZXn
p2i cos kl
iZ/2Z
sin kl,
i/Z-p2i sin
after
^/.
some reduction
ikl)
iZJTi(sin 2kl
-sin ikl)
-
(sin a*/
+
-
2
iZ/Zb- sin */),
/Z/Z6 -cos
*/)
(IV-iy)
(IV-i8)
APPENDICES
Now
337
is infinite
= Z
we have
Z is a constant impedance. That is, to the right of any midas C, the rest of the filter is precisely the same as it is to
such
point
the right of any other mid-point.
The expression for Z which will
where
filter, is
obtained as
follows:
Pl
_
~
__
z g*'
+ /Z/Zfr-sin kl \
2/ + *'Z/2Z -sin ikl) ~
_
2
/ sin 2k/
cos
cos
On
solving
(I V-2o) for
^ iv
fl/Xl
We now
obtain finally
= Z7 =
set
/F
COS
= Z we
pi/Xi
COS
whence
sin
== sin
= Z
We
2/V(i
^/)
(IV-22*)
=
=
W^ cos W - />!/Z
/>i
cos
sections.
pm+l
-yH-i
Incidentally
we can
we can
-sin
(IV-23)
^.
(IV-2 4 )
Thus,
(IV-26)
following:
pm+i
Xm+i
1
Thus we prove by
special case
where
m -
2.
I.
(IV-27)
(IV-28)
for
m =
w,
in general.
for the
we can prove
that
ACOUSTICS
338
Going back to
form
and (IV-26), we
eqs. (IV'25)
= Z
may
write
them
in the
iW
fm+ = pm<r
Xm+ = Xm e~* w
i
(IV-2 9 )
>
(IV- 3 o)
Now if W is
cos
If a
mr
(n
if
there
cos a cosh b
any integer or
cosh b
while
is
cos a
=t (cos a*/
sin a sinh b.
i.e.,
cos 2k/
iZ/2Z6 -sin
o, the
iZ/iZb-sm
is
2>t/),
(IV-32)
phase change
ikl.
<
cos
W<
is
given
(IV-33)
and the
thus given by
that there
(IV-3i)
is
no attenuation,
by
it
follows
(IV-34)
i,
cos 2k/
i.
by
(IV-35)
Thus examining
if
The
is
real, sin
W must be
real
(eq. IV-22^),
we
see that,
shall be real.
is
real.
therefore
APPENDICES
339
APPENDIX V
GRAPHICAL METHOD FOR OBTAINING TRANSMISSION BANDS
IN
ACOUSTIC FILTERS
In the filter theory presented in the Sections 7-2 to 7-5, the
region of no attenuation is given by the limiting values
Zi/Z2
and
Z\IZ%
4.
We may
4^2
In words, the transmission band must include those frequencies for
line and branch impedances are of opposite sign and the
absolute value of the line impedance is not greater than four times
the absolute value of the branch impedance.
which the
We now
number of simple
Z=
in parallel
in series.
(series
or simple (parallel
(Note that when
are in
parallel,
that
Moo2 ).
Z'
Z",
while
Z Z"
(V-2)
'
7
Zp
Z'
Z"
i,
1923.
v,
we have
ACOUSTICS
340
dZ"
=
dv
dv
77/2
dZ v
dv
Now
since Z'
form
iwM or
dv
(Z'
dZ'
2
Z") dv
(V-3)
'
dZn
7/2
"*"
(Z'
+ Z")
(V- 4 )
dv
Vi).
/?.
inert once
c.
capacitance
FIG. V-i.
Z2
i/uCz.
branch impedance
It is
ideal illustration.
is
2:
is
plotted against
co
both for Zi
^ /i. co
i.
Trans
z*'--snri
LOW
FIG. V-2.
m is sion
!*.!< \+**\
APPENDICES
and 4Z2
From
evident that the region of no attenuwhere at O' the ordinate of Zj is equal and
that of ^Z\.
For it is only in this interval that we have
of opposite sign and at the same time |Zi| ^ 4|Z 2 |.
of the non-attenuation region are then v\ = o and
the figure
opposite to
Zi and
The
Z2
limits
it is
to 0',
"2=
j>
it
Zi
let
Here we have
Z2 = it a>M
and
iuMi
V
Plotting Zi/i and
4Z 2//
as usual,
FIG. V-3.
filter is
we obtain
Single
Band
^
wC
Fig. V-j.
v\
before
it is
Filter
As
o and
2)
The
limits of
ACOUSTICS
342
The corresponding
line
electrical
may
where
-4),
be represented as in the
signifies as usual
'OOOOOOOOKP
'
-15*
-i- z*
FIG. V- 4 .
-||-
signifies
capacitance.
Next
let
filter
-5.
discussed in
Here we set
in,
FIG.
Zi
tinuity
at
The
*Mio>/(i
and 4Z 2//.
V5.
first
from 0' to
o>
That
is,
The
the
filter is
APPENDICES
343
in Section 7-5
Finally, let us consider the type presented
and
V-6.
Here
in
iuMi
Z\
Fig.
depicted
and
FIG. V-6.
Low Frequency
Pass
MC
22
The curve
for
\Lz shows an
2<o
M 'C
2
i)
infinite discontinuity at
i
VC (M2
2
The
transmission band
is
clearly
*-s\<
and
A/,')
O'O" with
M
M + 4M
l
limits
2 ')
27T
It
is
the anti-
ACOUSTICS
344
APPENDIX
VI
is
membrane
in
proportional
to
first
displacement, thus
W+-~j
F=fS + g? +
(VI-i)
The
We
therefore
vz
= o>i/27r and
Suppose that two harmonic forces of frequencies v\
The equation of motion
a)2/27r are impressed on the system.
m +/
Now
the
first
+g?=
Fi cos
+ F* cos
co!/
(VI -2)
co 2 /.
is
(Sec. 2-2)
cos
i/
+ f,
7/7W2
cos
co 2 /.
(VI-3)
To
2
), we
get the second approximation (i.e., the effect of the term
substitute from (VI'j) into this term and write the resulting equation
mi
FI cos
coi/
+F
cos
co 2/
--
cos2 Wl/
-T T~f
v\7~f
5\
cos2
mu) = /
for (VI*4)
and making
APPENDICES
^1 COS w l*
+^
COS
"
It
is
f/i
[COS
345
(o>j
cos aw,/
C0 2 )/
COS
J/2
cos
2o> 2/
(VI-5)
(o>i
significance in
2a>i,
2co 2
(i.e.,
(coi
co 2 )
ACOUSTICS
346
APPENDIX
VII
and
is
is
APPENDICES
TABLE OF ABSORPTION COEFFICIENTS
347
(Continued)
INDEX
refer to pages]
[Numbers
Absorbing
architectural
in
181
300
acoustics,
filters,
Amplification,
Absorption,
by the medium, 67
by walls of room, 289,
importance of impedance
of conical horn, 139
of exponential horn, 145
293, 300
effect
of horn, 135
of hyperbolic horn, 149
of resonator, 5 1
Acoustic,
conductivity, definition
in, 151
and theory,
48,
51
298
definition, 221,
>
phones
elements, definition, 43
Audibility,
abnormal zone
image, 2
impedance,
definition,
49,
50.
See
ff
Auricles,
power transmission,
selective property, 8
See Transmission
pressure, definition,
i,
26, 198
reactance, 50
reflectors,
Beam
of sound,
condition for producing, 4
use of high frequency in
resistance, 50
wave,
325
ff
measurements, 190
mirages, 309
wave
of, 14,
222
Audition,
Impedance
instruments, 190
lever, 268
65.
i,
20
ff
length,
250
Acoustics,
Beats,
architectural, 287 ff
atmospheric,
producing,
ff
1 1 ff,
307
binaural, 230
Bel, unit of
ff
physiological, 216 ff
Binaural,
beats, 230
349
sound intensity, 32
INDEX
in parallel, 91
phase
227
effect,
273, 275
Boundary conditions
ff
Conical,
connectors, 83
Branch
horns, 138
pipes,
79
Conical horns,
line,
140, 141
amplification, effect of horn ratio, 142
impedance of, used as branches, 143
orifice as,
120
optimum
angle, 143
resonance
in, 79
Connectors in conduits, 83
elasticity)
direction, 89
Constantinesco system of transmission, 69
Continuity,
of liquids and gases, effect on
Capacitance,
combined with incrtance, 164
electrical, 55,
for spherical
wave
propagation, 24, 39
principle of, 21
57
wave, 65
of resonator, 50
of tube, 57
9,
7 2 > 94
Coupled systems,
mechanical oscillators, 266
Compensation,
resonators, 58
Compensation)
Compensators
(see
Complex wave
Condensation,
definition, 20
mechanical-acoustical, 1 56
Currents, effect on transmission in sea
water, 235
relation to displacement, 26
relation to excess pressure, 23, 26,
Cylindrical tube,
30
column, 149
calculation of, 51
Damping
limits for, 54
of an
orifice, 48, 51
224
Conduits,
application of reciprocal theorem
transmission through, 89
connectors in, 83
(see Dissipation)
Depth
to
finding
by
Detectors of sound,
Broca tube, 261
displacement, 259
INDEX
waves
microphones, 264
Elastic
pressure, 261
Electrical
tions,
analogues of acoustic
328
oscilla-
54
density, 31
of an acoustic wave, 30
output influenced by surroundings, 38
output of diaphragms and membranes,
by head, 15
by obstacles, 19
Radiation)
coefficient of, 44,
67
from open tube, 127
from orifice, 66, 120
from resonator, 48
by
Equation,
of continuity, 21
wave motion, 23
wave motion for plane waves, 25
wave motion for spherical waves, 28
rate of,
relative
Displacement,
in a wave, i, 20, 26, 29
269
Dissipative force due to radiation from a
source, 66
Equation of motion,
for Helmholtz resonator, 49
for mechanical oscillator, 44
for
membrane, 202
Distortion,
for
by microphone, 19
by wind, 309
in loud speakers, 209, 21 1
of intensity distribution by head, 15,
in
waves
328
in a horn, 134
hydrodynamics, 22
Exponential,
1
Echoes, 3, 309
diffuse,
309
conical, 147
horns, transmission through, 144
309
harmonic, 309
discrete,
of reflectors,
5,
250
band
pass, 175
design
of,
189
of sound)
INDEX
35*
finite,
Helmholtz resonator, 47
182
and
solids,
186
low pass, 1 68
Filtration of sound,
High frequency
beam
experiments of
method
for discussing,
339
theory, 161
region of inaudibility in, 170, 174, 177
lumped impedance
simple methods
59
Flange, effect on radiation from an openof,
ing, 130
Forced oscillations of a tube, 61
Mechanical
(See
oscillations;
Vibra-
measurement of
velocity, 259
used for signalling, 254
Homogeneity of medium, importance in
transmission, 232
Horns,
amplification
by means
135
of,
impedance theory
resonator, 58
on frequency due
to
on frequency due
to
damping, 45,
60
effect
258
al.,
exponential, 144
tions)
compound
et
conical, 138
Free oscillations,
effect
Wood
radiation, 250
transmission, 253
medium,
238,
2 47
of, 132,
332
parabolic, 149
throat impedance, importance of, 152
used as transmitters and receivers, 151
Huyghens*
principle,
Helmholtz resonator, 49
mechanical oscillator, 45, 60
Fresnel's equations for reflection at interface, 113
Impedance,
in water, 248
(See also Sound sources;
135,
Diaphragms)
calculation, 52
mechanical, 44
on sound received by
ear,
18
Hearing
on amplification of horns,
151
effect of,
change
Generators of sound,
efficiency of, 212
Head,
Image, acoustic, 3
mid-branch, 184
mid-series, 184
(see Audition)
Heat conduction,
effect of, in
damping
sound waves, 68
Helmholtz reciprocal theorem, 18
applied to receivers and transmitters,
151
applied to transmission through conduits, 89
motional, 190
of cylindrical tube as a branch, 124, 137
of horns, theory, 132 ff.
See Horns
63
INDEX
specific, for a
plane wave, 63
table
353
of values
for
wave, 63
specific
acoustic
327
Impulsive sounds, 303
resistance,
Kinetic energy,
of acoustic wave, 30
of air in an orifice, 51
wave, 31
Kinetic theory,
normal, 36, 94
to high frequency
propagation, 24
Kundt's tube experiment, 6 1, 71
oblique, 96
application
Inertance,
wave
definition, 50
for high
32
variation
with
distance,
absorption, 67
variation with distance,
affected
by
cylindrical
wave, 232
Loudness,
Fcchner's law, 223
sensation units and levels, 224
Loud
speakers, 208
65
Intensity difference in audition,
limit of perceptibility, 224
minimum
audible,
relation
ff
fre-
quency, 325
Interferometer,
259
U-gauge, used to measure pressure, 199
Isothermal gas changes, 27
Isotropic solids, transmission of sound
sonic,
impedance, 194
Mechanical impedance,
in
measuring
definition,
See Impedance
Mechanical oscillations, 43 ff
analogy with electrical, 54
of membranes and diaphragms, 202
of vibrating string, 61
Mechanical-acoustical coupling, 156
Membranes,
effective mass, 203
effective stiffness,
204
44.
INDEX
354
nodal lines
204
in,
269
in
270
tion,
ff
38
due
matching
Phase difference,
between excess pressure and particle
Mirages, 309
Mirrors,
plane, 2
selective property of, 6
Multiple receiver systems, 278
N
oscillations
(sec
Free
oscilla-
and
Pinnae
(see Auricles)
oscillations)
membranes
in
257
Mechanical
lines
displacement, 26
between excess pressure and particle
velocity, 62, 64
parabolic, 6
tions;
in filtration, 178
elliptical,
conduit, 78
hot-wire, 197
dia-
Piston,
phragms, 204
Nodes
tor,
Phase change,
difficulties
Nodal
33
Microphones,
button type, 264
condenser type, 199
Natural
definition,
for
Phase of a wave,
in tubes, 71
Noise,
interfering effect
on
articulation,
299
of machinery, 305
Pitch,
differences, 225
225
Planarity of surfaces, effect on sound
levels,
flection,
Plane waves,
Orifice,
absorption by medium, 67
conductivity of, 51
effect of increasing number of orifices
Mechanical
oscillations;
258
transmission by, 62
Plates (see Diaphragms)
quency
re-
70
Potential energy,
of a vibrating membrane, 203, 204
of an acoustic wave, 30
of an acoustic wave in an
orifice,
53
INDEX
to
relation
kinetic
energy
in
plane
definition,
45
wave, 31
Power
355
factor,
Power transmission,
mechanical, 45
definition, 31.
See
Transmission
networks, 339
Receivers of sound,
application of reciprocal
theorem
to,
Pressure,
acoustic, definition,
measurements, 198
microphones
Propagation,
of elastic waves through isotropic solid,
328
of sound through atmosphere, theory,
312
(See Transmission)
R
coefficient, 242,
246
Radiation of sound,
from circular plate, 244
from diaphragms and membranes, 244
from open pipe, 127
orifice, 122,
Reflection,
at a boundary for oblique incidence, 96
at boundaries in gaseous media (normal
concave mirrors, 6
dry to moist air, 38
pinnae, 8
plane wall, 2
small finite areas, 5
influence
on phase, 33, 36
selective, 6
elliptical,
308
48,
parabolic, 6
plane, 4, 6
269
coefficient,
from
from
from
from
from
acoustic, 2,
Refraction,
convective,
n,
14,
311
selective, 14
Range,
effect
Helmholtz's
Reflectors,
Radiation resistance
(see
reciprocal theorem)
127
theorem
Reciprocal
dence), 34
at change in area of a conduit, 9, 72
from
Microphones)
incidence), 36
at boundaries in liquids (normal inci-
Radiation inertia
(see
disc,
196
Reactance,
acoustical, 50
a
specific resistance at
junc-
for
Rarefaction, 26
sity,
acoustic, 63, 64
change of
tion, 94
for a solid
ling)
Rayleigh
an
medium, 107
orifice, 120,
193
mechanical, 44
specific, 63,
64
3*7
INDEX
356
Resonance,
diffuse,
Shadows, 15
Shell sounds,
46
Signalling
non-homogeneous medium,
231
of, 118,
Sound
194
sources,
"
compound, 58
definition of
Helmholtz, 47
reactance
of, 118,
194
Reverberation,
4, 287,
reaction of
295
constant*' source, 38
medium
thermophone, 213
Speech,
energy flow
time,
optimum, 295
in,
216
Speech sounds,
energy in, 216
nature of, 216
Scattering of sound,
Spherical waves,
transmission
Steady
Section of acoustic
162,
filter,
184, 335
63
72
236
in,
branch
sound
velocity, 10, 27
by
by
sig-
Boys* type, 58
capacitance
nalling)
Sound ray
Resonators,
324
(see
Branch
lines)
stethoscope, in
tubes in parallel, 91
tubes with constrictions
Stiffness coefficient,
in
mechanical
in resonator,
oscillator,
44
48
Stress
Summation
and expan-
tones, 226
344
Supersonics, 254
INDEX
Thermophone, 213
Velocity,
of
Tones,
difference, 226,
system),
to water, 236
wave, 62
ff
of water vapor in
of wind on,
72
in a compressible fluid, 10
in a gas, 10
Velocity potential,
definition, 21
Vibrations,
of a diaphragm, 206
of a membrane, 202
of a plate and effect of
of a sphere, 240
medium
on, 244
of a string, 61
of an air column, 56
Vibrators (see Membranes, Diaphragms,
filter,
(See Filters)
Sources, etc.)
Viscosity,
damping
influence of, 67
effect of, at
an
orifice, 117,
'5 1
Volume elasticity,
Vowel sounds,
120
69
120
condenser, 199
diaphragms, 206
212
efficiency of,
Wave
Waves,
(see
Conduits
front, definition,
cylindrical, 3, 233
Microphones)
Horns)
on, 307
spherical wave, 28
microphones
air
u, 311
plane wave, 24
expansions, 75
through an acoustic
effect
wave, 63
in a stethoscope, 103
walls, 71,
Velocity of sound,
in a liquid, TO
in sea water, 233
medium, 105
in a spherical
108, 331
29
in a solid
"bow" wave
344
from and
357
and
324