> From fission>toINTRODUCTION

chain reaction

THE COLLECTION
1 > The atom
2 > Radioactivity
3 > Radiation and man
4 > Energy
5 > Nuclear energy: fusion and fission
6 > How a nuclear reactor works
7 > The nuclear fuel cycle
8 > Microelectronics
9 > The laser: a concentrate of light
10 > Medical imaging
11 > Nuclear astrophysics
12 > Hydrogen

FROM RESEARCH
TO INDUSTRY

> How a nuclear

reactor works

NUCLEAR FISSION
COMPONENTS
OF A NUCLEAR REACTOR
THE VARIOUS TYPES OF REACTOR

Commissariat lnergie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives, 2005

Communication Division
Btiment Sige - 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette cedex
www.cea.fr
ISSN 1637-5408.
De la fission la raction en chane

6 > The operation of a nuclear reactor

> CONTENTS

> INTRODUCTION
The builders of the
first experimental
reactor: Lew
Kowarski (left) and
Frdric Joliot-Curie
(right).
The building housing
the first experimental
reactor, Zo.

4
5
5
6

COMPONENTS
OF A NUCLEAR REACTOR
7
The fuel
8
The control rods:
Neutron traps
9
The coolant: Carrier of heat 9
The moderator:
Neutron decelerator
10
The steam generator:
Heat exchanger
10
THE VARIOUS TYPES
OF REACTOR
Reactor families
The pressurised
water reactor (PWR)
The fast neutron
reactor (FNR)
The gas cooled
reactor (GCR)

11
12

Loading the reactor and closing the reactor vessel head

at the Civaux nuclear power station (Unit 1).

Overview
of the core
of a reactor.

15
15
15

Mdiathque EDF

NUCLEAR FISSION
Fissile atoms
The energy liberated
during fission
Neutrons and
the chain reaction

The first nuclear reactor was constructed

in the USA in 1942. The first French reactor
came into operation six years later.

Mdiathque EDF

How a nuclear
reactor works

introduction

power station is a factory that manufactures electricity. Some power stations burn
fossil fuels, some are driven by water and
some use nuclear energy. All generate electricity
in the same way by using a turbine to drive an
alternator. The electricity is generated in the
alternator. The differences lie in the method
used to drive the turbine. In a hydro-electric
power station, water from a dam drives the turbine directly. In traditional power stations, a
fossil fuel (coal, natural gas or oil) is burned
to convert water into steam. The steam then
drives the turbine. In a nuclear power station,
uranium nuclei are used in place of the fossil
fuel. The heavy uranium nuclei break down,
releasing the energy needed to boil the water.
The steam is then used to drive a turbine in
the same way as in a traditional power station.
The first nuclear reactor was constructed by
Enrico Fermi in the USA in 1942. It consisted
of a stack of 6 tonnes of metallic uranium,

34 tonnes of uranium oxide and 400 tonnes

of graphite. The Fermi pile (so-called because
of its stacked construction) generated a power
output of just half a watt. In France, the first
experimental reactor, Zo, was built by the CEA
at their research centre in Fontenay-aux-Roses.
This reactor became operational for the first
time on the 15th of December 1948. The
power output was increased to 150 kW in 1953
and the reactor was shut down in 1976. The
Zo reactor building is now used as a museum
devoted to the atom.
Modern French electricity generating reactors
deliver between 900 and 1,450 megawatts*
of electricity. Within the reactor, the steam generator produces the heat needed to turn water
into steam. The other components (turbine,
alternator, etc.) are similar in all types of power
station.
* Megawatt: One million watts.

Designed and produced by Spcifique - Cover photo by PhotoDisc - Illustrations by YUVANOE - Printed by Imprimerie de Montligeon - 03/2005

From fission to chain reaction

6 > How a nuclear reactor works

From fission to chain reaction

6 > How a nuclear reactor works

> NUCLEAR FISSION

IT RELEASES ENERGY IN THE FORM OF HEAT.

IN A NUCLEAR POWER STATION, THIS HEAT
IS USED TO GENERATE ELECTRICITY.

Nuclear fission

Each fission reaction liberates two

or three high energy neutrons travelling
at 20,000 km/s.

FISSILE ATOMS
The nucleus of some heavy atoms can be split
in two by striking it with a suitable projectile.
Neutrons are particularly good projectiles for
splitting atoms.
Neutrons carry no electrical charge which
enables them to get close to the positively
charged nucleus without being repelled by an
electrostatic force. A neutron can therefore
penetrate right into the heart of the nucleus
and cause it to split in two. The split is not
due to the mechanical shock of the impact of
the neutron. The split is triggered internally
within the nucleus by the arrival of the extra
neutron. The additional neutron disturbs the
balance of nuclear forces within the neutron
(see the Nuclear energy: Fusion and fission
booklet). This fragmentation of the nucleus is
called a fission reaction.
Atoms capable of splitting in two following a
collision are said to be fissile. The most widely
known fissile atoms are uranium 235 and
plutonium 239. The two parts of the nucleus
resulting from the fission of a heavy nucleus
are known as fission products. These are usually
radioactive.

Mdiathque EDF

Atoms with unstable nuclei are said

to be radioactive. These nuclei
transform themselves naturally into
other nuclei with the emission of
radiation (see the Radioactivity
booklet).

From fission to chain reaction

6 > How a nuclear reactor works

From fission to chain reaction

CERN Geneva

WHEN AN ATOM UNDERGOES FISSION,

THE ENERGY LIBERATED

DURING FISSION
When a nucleus undergoes a fission reaction
it releases a large quantity of energy.
The two fission products absorb a large part
of this energy in the form of kinetic energy.
They are ejected Kinetic energy is the energy carried
a t a ve ry hig h by a moving body. It is proportional
to the mass and the velocity.
speed of around A vehicle travelling at high speed
8 , 0 0 0 k m p e r has more kinetic energy than the
same vehicle travelling at a lower
se c o nd. The se speed. If the vehicle crashes into an
at high speed the damage is
heavy projectiles object
greater than if the crash occurred at
collide with other low speed. Similarly, a car has less
than a lorry travelling at the
atoms in their energy
same speed.
path. These multiple collisions cause them to decelerate rapidly, losing energy in the process, and they
eventually come to a halt in the mass of
uranium. The energy lost heats the surrounding
material. The initial energy of the fission
products is eventually all converted into heat
6 > How a nuclear reactor works

> NUCLEAR FISSION

THE COMPONENTS OF A NUCLEAR REACTOR ARE

USED TO RECOVER AND TRANSFORM THE HEAT.

Controlled chain reaction in a nuclear reactor

Components of
a nuclear reactor

Neutron.

and the local temperature of the uranium rises.

In a nuclear power station, this heat is recovered
and converted into electricity.

NEUTRONS AND THE CHAIN REACTION

In addition to the fission products, each
fission reaction also produces an average of
two or three high energy neutrons that move
at high speed (20,000 km/s) through the surrounding uranium atoms. These neutrons carry
only a small proportion of the energy liberated
during fission, most of which is carried by the
fission products. However, as the neutrons are
much lighter than the fission products, they
move at very high speeds.
With their small size and electrical neutrality,
neutrons can travel over relatively long
distances before they interact with another
atomic nucleus. If this happens to be an atom
of uranium 235, the neutron can trigger
another fission reaction.
The two or three neutrons liberated during a
fission reaction can trigger new fission reactions which liberate more neutrons which
From fission to chain reaction

In a nuclear reactor,
the chain reaction
is controlled in order
to maintain a constant
rate of fission
reactions.
trigger more fission reactions, and so on and
so on This is called a chain reaction.
In a nuclear reactor, the chain reaction is controlled in order to maintain a constant rate of
fission reactions. Of the two or three neutrons
liberated during a fission reaction, only one
triggers a new reaction and the others are simply
captured. The system is in equilibrium. One
fission reaction leads to one new fission reaction, which leads to one more, and so on. In an
uncontrolled chain reaction, one fission reaction could lead to two, which could lead to four,
then eight, etc. In a controlled chain reaction,
the quantity of heat liberated per second in the
mass of uranium is completely under control.
6 > How a nuclear reactor works

Framatome

From fission to chain reaction

6 > How a nuclear reactor works

> COMPONENTS OF A NUCLEAR REACTOR

> COMPONENTS OF A NUCLEAR REACTOR

While the control rods trap

neutrons, the coolant extracts heat
from the reactor.

THE CONTROL RODS:

NEUTRON TRAPS

Reactor vessel
This is a sealed metal enclosure containing the reactor
core, the structure supporting the core, and the guides
for the control rods.

Coolant circuit
guide tube

Coolant
circuit
inlet

Reactor
vessel

Reactor
vessel head

Maintenance
column

Framatome/Rey Robert

Within the reactor, the chain reaction is continually kept under control by means of control rods.
These rods contain a material capable of absorbing neutrons, such as boron. The control rods can
be moved in and out of the reactor core. Their
height can be adjusted, or they can be removed
completely, according to the number of neutrons
that need to be absorbed. The control rods are
used to control the operation of the reactor.
In the event of an incident, all the control rods
are dropped into the reactor core stopping the
chain reaction almost instantaneously.

Hot coolant
Control
rod
Uranium
fuel rod

Moderator

THE COOLANT: CARRIER OF HEAT

Coolant
circuit
outlet

Control
rod
mechanism

Fuel
assembly
Internal
instrumentation
The fuel rods contain uranium oxide.
From fission to chain reaction

Core of a nuclear reactor

6 > How a nuclear reactor works

The energy liberated in the form of heat when

the uranium 235 nuclei undergo fission must
be recovered in order to be used to generate
electricity. This task is performed by the
coolant. As its name implies, the coolant is
a fluid capable of carrying away heat. This
fluid circulates around the uranium fuel rods
and provides two functions: it takes up heat
from the fuel and carries it out of the reactor core. It also maintains the core temperature at a level that will not damage the materials in the core.
The fuel is contained in a sealed metal enclosure
isolating it from the coolant. This prevents any
direct contact between extremely hot fuel elements and the coolant which could otherwise
result in chemical reactions. It also stops any
fuel particles from being carried out of the
From fission to chain reaction

Cold coolant

CEA

The fuel used in a nuclear power station contains fissile atoms capable of giving up their
energy through fission. The most common
fissile atoms are uranium 235, plutonium 239
and plutonium 241. Uranium 235 is the only
one that occurs naturally. For this reason, uranium 235 is the main fissile atom used in
nuclear power stations.
The nuclear fuel is loaded into the core of the
reactor (see The nuclear fuel cycle booklet).

C. Pauquet/Framatome

THE FUEL

Loading the reactor core.

Simulation
of the neutron flux.

reactor core by the coolant. The uranium itself

is less dangerous than fission products, most
of which are highly radioactive.
6 > How a nuclear reactor works

10

11

> COMPONENTS OF A NUCLEAR REACTOR

THE CHOICE OF THE COMBINATION OF FUEL,

THE MODERATOR:
NEUTRON DECELERATOR
In addition to the enclosed fuel rods, the
coolant and the control rods, most reactors
also contain a moderator (see the diagram on
page 9). The moderator slows down the
neutrons as they are often too energetic to
trigger new fission reactions effectively.
Because of their high energy, these neutrons
move at high speed (20,000 km/s). They are
known as fast neutrons.
If a neutron is travelling at a very high speed,
it can pass very close to a uranium atom
without being captured. This makes it difficult to obtain sufficient fission reactions. In
From fission to chain reaction

The moderator slows

the neutrons so that
they can be captured by
atoms and trigger a
fission reaction.

The various
types of reactor

order to obtain a greater number of fission reactions easily, the neutrons must be slowed down
considerably, from 20,000 km/s to a speed of
around 2 km/s. Neutrons travelling at such
speed are called slow neutrons or thermal
neutrons. Neutrons are slowed when they pass
through a material made up of atoms with nuclei
that do not absorb neutrons. Just like a billiard
ball, the neutrons loose energy each time they
collide and bounce off one of these nuclei.
The neutrons are slowed more rapidly if they
collide with light nuclei with a mass similar to
that of a neutron, such as hydrogen.
The material containing these atoms is called
the moderator.
In an efficient reactor design, the fuel and the
moderator are positioned alternately; fuel,
moderator, fuel, moderator, etc.

THE STEAM GENERATOR:

HEAT EXCHANGER
The coolant is heated by contact with the fuel.
It leaves the reactor core at a temperature of
between 300 and 550C.
The coolant is then used to heat water in the
steam generator. The water boils and
produces steam. This steam is used to drive
a turbine connected to an alternator generating electricity. After it leaves the turbine,
the steam is condensed back into water in a
condenser cooled by river water.
6 > How a nuclear reactor works

Mdiathque EDF

Framatome/G. Liesse

Transporting a steam generator.

COOLANT AND MODERATOR DETERMINES

THE REACTOR FAMILY TO WHICH THE POWER STATION BELONGS.

From fission to chain reaction

6 > How a nuclear reactor works

12

> THE VARIOUS TYPES OF REACTOR

> THE VARIOUS TYPES OF REACTOR

Pressurised water reactors produce half

of the worlds nuclear electricity.

REACTOR FAMILIES
A nuclear power station is designed to produce
electricity from nuclear fuel. However, although
they all share the same basic principle of
operation, there are several different families
of nuclear reactors.

The Civaux nuclear

power station (Vienne).

There are four main components of a reactor

core:
The fuel assemblies, in which fission reactions take place.
The coolant fluid to carry the heat out of the
reactor.
The moderator (except in the case of a fast
neutron reactor) used to slow down the neutrons.
The control rods to control the chain reaction.
Each of these components, and especially the
first three, can exist in a number of different
forms. For example, the coolant may be a gas
(e.g. carbon dioxide) or a liquid (e.g. water).
However, of the many possible combinations of
fuel, coolant and moderator, only a few have
been used to manufacture actual reactors. The
main types of reactors are shown in the table
on the next page.

Mdiathque EDF

Although they all

share the same basic
principle of operation,
there are several
different families
of nuclear reactors.

From fission to chain reaction

6 > How a nuclear reactor works

REACTOR FAMILIES
TYPE OF REACTOR
UNGG reactor
(Natural Uranium Graphite Gas
in English)
First type of reactor to be developed
in France. All the reactors of this
generation are shut down,
the last one in 1994.
CANDU reactor
Type of reactor developed in Canada.
RBMK reactor
Reactor Bolshoi Moschnosti Kanalynyi
or Channelised Large Power Reactor
in English. This type of reactor
accounts for 40% of the nuclear power
stations in states of the former USSR,
(for example, Chernobyl).
Boiling water reactor (BWR)
Reactor family developed in the USA,
Japan and Sweden
Pressurised water reactor (PWR)
The most common type
of reactor in the world.
It was also developed in
the ex-USSR as the VVER.
Fast neutron reactor (FNR)
This type of reactor does not use a
moderator. The neutrons are not
slowed down. There is one prototype
reactor of this type in France,
the Phnix reactor (250 MWe).

FUEL

MODERATOR

COOLANT

Natural uranium
(0.7% uranium 235)

Solid carbon
(graphite)

Carbon dioxide

Natural uranium

Heavy water*

Pressurised heavy water

Enriched uranium
(1.8% uranium 235)

Carbon (graphite)

Boiling water

Enriched uranium
(3% uranium 235)

Boiling water in the core

Enriched uranium
(3% uranium 235)

Pressurised liquid water. The pressurised water

acts as both coolant and moderator.

Enriched uranium
or plutonium

None

Liquid sodium.
Does not slow
the neutrons

*Heavy water: Water in which the hydrogen atom has been replaced by deuterium, a
heavy isotope of hydrogen (see The atom booklet).

From fission to chain reaction

6 > How a nuclear reactor works

13

14

> THE VARIOUS TYPES OF REACTOR

> THE VARIOUS TYPES OF REACTOR

Diagram showing the operation of a pressurised water reactor

Steam generator
(heat exchanger)
Control
rods

Turbine

Steam

Pressuriser

Alternator

Boiling water

Some types of reactor use helium

as the coolant, carrying heat out
of the reactor and stabilising the
temperature.

Reactor
vessel

The Phnix fast neutron reactor.

Reactor core
Condenser

Nuclear reactor
Pump

Cold coolant (280 C)

Cooler:
river or sea water,
or air

Pump

Cruas nuclear power station reactor building fuel rod loading probe in the open reactor vessel.

This is the most widely used reactor type in

the world. Pressurised water reactors produce
around half of the worlds nuclear electricity.
In France, all the nuclear reactors except Phnix
reactor are PWR types. Thirty-four deliver 900
MWe (megawatts of electricity), 20 deliver
1,300 MWe and 4 deliver 1,450 MWe.

THE FAST NEUTRON REACTOR

(FNR)
The fast neutron reactor was designed to make
a more complete use of fissile material in the
fuel (uranium and plutonium) than in reactors
using thermal neutrons.
The coolant may be a liquid metal, such as
sodium (Phnix) or a gas such as helium.
They have the advantages of being able to
produce more fissile material (breeder) or to
incinerate long-lived nuclei (actinides).

Mdiathque EDF

Fast neutron
reactors do not
use a moderator.
From fission to chain reaction

6 > How a nuclear reactor works

From fission to chain reaction

Photothque EDF/P. Brenger

THE PRESSURISED WATER

REACTOR (PWR)

Hot coolant
(320 C)

THE GAS COOLED REACTOR (GCR)

The use of helium as the coolant makes it
possible to design reactors with a direct cycle.
In this type of reactor, the very hot helium drives
a turbo-alternator directly without the need for
an intermediate heat exchanger, thereby
increasing the thermodynamic efficiency. This
type of reactor has been considered in the past,
but recent developments in gas turbine
technology have led to a revival in interest.
They are suitable for use in economic and safe
small-scale installations (100 to 300 MWe).
This type of reactor is also capable of operating
with fast neutrons giving it all the additional
advantages of the FNR.
6 > How a nuclear reactor works

15