Proceedings of 2nd International Conference On Environmental Research and Assessment

Bucharest
ISSN: 1842-4201
Proceedings of 2nd International Conference on Environmental Research and Assessment, Bucharest, October 5-8, 2006;
Eds: Maria Pătroescu, M. L. Matache
CONTENT
Heavy metals contents in some food from

Carmen Hura, B. A. Hura 3-7
Romania
Bioluminescent monitoring of remediation
Kudryasheva N, Fedorova E, Rozhko N. 8-14
processes
Chemical modification of mesoporous silica for
M. Mureşeanu, A. Reiss, V. Pârvulescu,
heavy metal ions 15-21
I. Ştefănescu, E. David, V. Hulead
adsorption
Water cleaning from heavy toxic metals (Pb,
Zizi Svanidze, Omar Mikadze,
Cu, Zn, Cd) using a natural 22-28
Boris Gogichaishvili
sorbent
Response of shock loading on phenolic
Mini Bajaj, Claudia Gallert, Josef Winter wastewater biodegradation in an 29-35
anoxic fluidised bed reactor
Makoto Ohkubo, Akio Shimizu, Futoshi Brain EST analysis of endocrine system
36-43
Aranishi molecules in mummichog killifish
Prospects of natural colorants and study of their
M. I. Savvidou , D. G. Economides application in the field 44-55
of paper coloration
Efstratios Doukakis Earth’s climate: past, present and future 56-59
Csilla Hudek, Edit Forro Our Peatland Future 60-65
Environmental education a must for facing
Mădălina Aramă global changes and 66-72
minimising environmental risk
Sustainable tourism in the Iron Gates Natural
Necşuliu Radu Park – necessity or 73-83
utopia?
Georgiana Drăguşin, Ionela Negrea, Serban
Renewable energy risk and opportunity 84-89
Bobancu
Ana Virsta Flood prevention by biological reinforcements 90-98
Ramiro A. Sofronie, Ana Virsta Learning to deal with natural disasters 99-117
Sea level rise and Greenhouse effect: Do
Nikos Voudrislis, Nikos Lambrinos primary school pupils think 118-127
that the two phenomena are connected?
Eco-friendly agricultural production for
Shehrawat, P. S. sustainable environment 128-140
development
The evaluation of the ecological and
Cristian Ioja, Maria Pătroescu, Annemarie improvement of the environment
141-145
Ioja quality functions of the urban and metropolitan
green areas quality
Roxana Alexe, Alexandru Călin, Cătălina Post-seismic interventions to university
Călin, Claudiu Dragomir, Marilena Nicolae, buildings and balancing their 146-188
Ovidiu Pop, Camelia Slave environment
Atmosphere pollution evaluation in Bulgarian
Rosalina Chuturkova, Petar Todorov 189-195
industrial region
Evaluation of shoreline change rate methods
Efstratios Doukakis using forecasting and 196-207
hindcasting
Pros and cons of methods assessing the
Efstratios Doukakis 208-214
shoreline change
Comparative Review of Environmental Impact
Engy Samy Hussein, Phil Jones 215-232
Assessment Programs
Manuel Feliciano, Artur Gonçalves, Ana
Cardoso, Teresa Nunes, Luís
Nunes, Paulo Cortez, António Ribeiro,
The role of green spaces on urban
Orlando Rodrigues, João Castro, 233-249
environmental quality
Luís Martins, Mário Cerqueira, José Castro,
Amílcar Teixeira, Maria do Loreto
Monteiro
1
Mapping the snow albedo on the territory of

Simona Oancea, Andrei Diamandi Romania using 250-253
NOAA/AVHRR Satellite Data
Environmental risks and impact of old mine
Alena Luptakova, Andrea Slesarova, Maria
loadings 254-257
Kusnierova
in Slovak republic
Multicriteria decision aid method used in
Mădălina Aramă 258-263
environmental assessment
Manea Raluca Land management using G.I.S. 264-273
A gis-based approach of recreation terrain
suitability mapping for
Necşuliu Gabriela 274-294
resource use management in Apuseni Natural
Park
Impact of man on the environment as evident
Nili Liphschitz from dendroarchaeological 295-299
research
Study on traffic noise pollution at major
D. K. Parbat, P. B. Nagarnaik 300-306
intersection in Yavatmal city
P. Todorov, R. Chuturkova Air pollution from the Varna airport activity 307-319
A geo-based modelling and management tool
Hsie Tung-Shen for determining urban 320-327
morphology and natural ventilation potentials
Aluminum species distribution and equilibrium
Alin Tudorache , Constantin Marin ,
relations in 328-335
Vlădescu Luminiţa
groundwater from Romania
Nitrogen compounds dynamic in Argeş Lower
Cristian Ioja, Marius Matache 336-343
Basin
R.M. Damian, L. Niculita, C .Ioja, M.
Matache, Maria Pătroescu, C. Roman, S.
Environmental Quality Changes in the Argeş
Marginean 344-349
Lower Basin
G. Pavelescu, D. Savastru, J. Ciuciu, M.
Stanciulescu, G. Chiriac, S. Capra, C. Cata
Impact assessment on the Pinus nigra ssp.
Pătroescu Maria, Dobre Mariana, Necşuliu banatica site by natural and
350-361
Radu, Ioja Cristian, Rozylowicz Laurenţiu anthropic causes in the area of Domogled –
Valea Cernei National Park
Rozylowicz Laurenţiu, Dobre Mariana, Iojă The risk of habitat fragmentation caused by the
362-366
Cristian, Necşuliu Radu, Pătroescu Maria Romanian transport infrastructure
Romanian climate strategy: simulations of Kyoto
Rodica Sandu-Loisel Protocol and European Trade Scheme by 367-386
dynamic CGE model
Management of obsolete pesticide cleanup in
Neel Strobaek, Stela Dezsy 387-393
Romania
Virgil Criste, Ana Anghel, Mădălina Aramă, Modalities to approach the environmental
394
Adrian Zîmbran, Cristian Şerbănescu protection in organizations
The role of the protected natural areas in the
Tomescu Viorica, Vlăduţ Alina, Boengiu preservation of biodiversity within the flood plain
395-403
Sandu, Marinescu Emil of the Danube – the sector Drobeta Turnu-
Severin – Corabia
The vulnerability of geographic landscapes to
Pleniceanu Vasile, Marinescu Ioan, Golea
the flood risks within the alluvial plain of the 404-411
Cornel, Curcan Gheorghe
Danube – Calafat – Bechet sector
Cover top
Cover back
2
Heavy metals contents in some food from Romania

Carmen Hura, B. A. Hura
Institute of Public Health, Iassy, Street V. Babes nr. 14, Romania; chura@iasi.mednet.ro
Abstract
Heavy metals toxicity is the result of their interactions with the enzymatic systems from the animal cells or
some constituents of cells membranes. The interactions of heavy metals with usual elements from diet (Pb,
Cd) have an important role in acute and chronic toxicity. Population can be contaminated with heavy metals
by ingestion of contaminated or polluted food or water. The concentration of heavy metals in food products is
varied, depending on their origin, storage conditions and progressing technologies.
The study presents the results obtained in 2005 year of some metals (Pb, Cd) in the food (meat, milk,
vegetables, juice, diets), in Romania area. Trace elements concentrations were analyzed by atomic
absorption spectrophotometer, using a Carl Zeiss Jena, Model AAS-1N, with flame air-acetylene
In all analyzed samples these metals were found. Generally, a wide variation between individual samples
was observed.
Introduction
Exposure to heavy metals is an important problem of environmental toxicology. Most of these
metals are toxic to humans, animals and plants. From the sanitary point of view the presence of all
alien substances in food products raises many problems because, with few exceptions, these
substances have a certain level of toxicity [1, 2, 3, 4].
The levels of the concentrations of these compounds in food are regulated by the sanitary
legislation of each country. For Romania, these levels are indicated in the Health Ministry order
141/2004, in conformity with European Directive. During 1999 we continued the determination of
the content of metals in some food products: vegetables, meat and dairy products, fish, meals [5,
6, 7, 8, 9, 10]. The food products were harvested from Romania area. The aim of this study was
the evaluation of the heavy metals contents in the food of Romania.
Material and method

The study presents the results obtained in 2005 year of some metals [Pb, Cd] in the 1869 samples
in which: 750 vegetables samples, 469 meat samples, 283 cereals samples, 162 juice samples
and 205 diets samples, from Romania area. Trace elements concentrations were analyzed by
atomic absorption spectrophotometer, using a Carl Zeiss Jena, Model AAS-1N, with flame air-
acetylene.
Results
In all analyzed samples these metals were found. Generally, a wide variation between individual
samples was observed (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1 –The distribution of the food samples for the heavy metals, on products category, in
Romania, 2005
750
800
600 469
400 283
162 205
200
0
vegetables m eat products cereales juice diets
3
Vegetables
Table I and Table II presents the mean levels of metals from vegetables in Romania (750 samples)
from Ardeal, Banat, Moldova, Muntenia districts. The mean levels of Pb in the vegetables samples
analyzed were 0.06 mg/kg lead and varied between 0.03 mg/kg (Moldova district) and 0.09 mg/kg
(Muntenia district). The mean levels of Cd in the vegetables samples analyzed were 0.02 mg/kg
cadmium and varied between 0.01 mg/kg (Banat district) and 0.03 mg/kg (Ardeal district).
Table I - The mean levels of metals in vegetables from Romania, on districts, (mg/kg)
Pb Cd
Samples Samples
Samples Samples
District inadequate Mean inadequate Mean
analyzed min/max analyzed min/max
Nr. % Nr. %
Ardeal 197 15 7.6 0.07 nd – 1.42 197 4 2.0 0.03 nd –1.02
Banat 50 2 4 0.06 nd – 0.8 50 - - 0.01 nd – 0.11
Moldova 220 1 0.5 0.03 nd – 0.53 220 8 3.6 0.02 nd – 0.3
Muntenia 283 11 3.9 0.09 Nd – 0.53 228 6 2.6 0.02 nd – 0.315
Romania 750 29 3.9 0.06 nd – 1.42 695 18 2.6 0.02 nd – 1.02
Table II - The mean levels of metals in vegetables from Romania, on products, (mg/kg)
Pb Cd
samples Samples
Samples Samples
Vegetables inadequate Mean Min/max inadequate Mean Min/max
analyzed analyzed
Nr. % Nr. %
Lettuce 190 11 5.8 0.08 nd – 1.42 174 2 1.1 0.02 nd– 1.02
Spinach 174 8 4.6 0.06 nd – 0.97 160 1 0.6 0.02 nd – 0.3
Potatoes 113 3 2.7 0.06 nd – 0.46 108 5 4.6 0.03 nd– 0.35
Carrot 114 4 3.5 0.07 nd – 0.8 109 - - 0.02 nd– 0.11
Apples 159 3 1.9 0.06 nd – 1.21 144 10 6.9 0.02 nd – 0.6
Total 750 29 3.9 0.06 nd – 1.42 695 18 2.6 0.02 nd– 1.02
Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 present the mean contents of heavy metals (Pb, Cd) from some vegetables
consumed in Romania area. The mean levels of Pb in the vegetables samples analyzed were 0.06
mg/kg lead and varied between 0.06 mg/kg (spinach, potatoes, and apples) and 0.08 mg/kg
(lettuce).
The mean levels of Cd in the vegetables samples analyzed were 0.02 mg/kg cadmium and varied
between 0.02 mg/kg (spinach, lettuce, carrot, apples) and 0.03 mg/kg (potatoes).
Fig. 2 – The mean levels of lead from vegetables in Romania, mg/kg
0.1 0.08
0.07
0.06 0.06 0.06
0.05
0
Lettuce Spinach Potatoes Carrot Apple
Fig. 3 – The mean levels of cadmium from vegetables in Romania, mg/kg
0.04 0.03
0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
0.02
0.01
0
Lettuce Spinach Potatoes Carrot Apple
4
Meat
Table III and Table IV presents the mean levels of metals (Pb, Cd) from meat products in Romania.
The mean levels of Pb and Cd in the meat samples analyzed were 0.08 mg/kg lead respectively
0.07 mg/kg cadmium. The mean levels of Pb in the meat samples analyzed were 0.08 mg/kg lead
and varied between 0.05 mg/kg (Moldova district) and 0.10 mg/kg (Banat and Muntenia districts).
The mean levels of Cd in the meat samples analyzed were 0.07 mg/kg cadmium and varied
between 0.03 mg/kg (Ardeal district) and 0.10 mg/kg (Banat district).
Table III - The mean levels of metals in meat products / districts, from Romania, 2005
(mg/kg)
Pb Cd
Samples Samples
Samples Samples Mean
District inadequate inadequate
analyzed Mean min/max analyzed min/max
Nr. % Nr. %
Ardeal 126 11 8.7 0.06 nd – 0.62 128 4 3.1 0.03 nd – 0.6
Banat 49 - - 0.1 0.01 – 0.5 54 - - 0.1 nd – 1.0
Moldova 181 1 0.6 0.05 nd – 0.55 181 - - 0.07 nd – 1.0
Muntenia 113 7 6.2 0.1 nd – 0.6 95 5 5.3 0.06 nd – 0.95
Total 469 19 4.1 0.08 nd – 0.62 458 9 2.0 0.07 nd – 1.0
Table IV - The mean levels of metals in meat products, from Romania, 2005 (mg/kg)
Pb Cd
Meat Samples Samples
Samples inadequate Samples inadequate
Mean Min/max Mean Min/max
analyzed analyzed
products Nr. % Nr. %
Beef 87 3 3.7 0.06 nd - 0.5 86 1 1.2 0.01 nd – 0.11
Pork 85 3 3.5 0.08 nd – 0.6 83 4 4.8 0.01 nd -0.32
Chicken 79 12 15.2 0.09 nd–0.62 74 2 2.7 0.008 nd – 0.32
Liver 116 1 0.9 0.08 nd–0.55 112 - - 0.04 nd – 0.9
Kidney 102 - - 0.1 nd-0.6 103 2 1.9 0.3 nd-1.0
Total 469 19 4.1 0.08 nd–0.62 458 9 2.0 0.07 nd-1.0
Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 presents the mean levels of metals (Pb, Cd) from some meat products in
Romania area. The mean levels of Pb in the meat samples analyzed varied between 0.06 mg/kg
(beef) and 0.10 mg/kg (kidney). The mean levels of Cd in the meat samples analyzed varied
between 0.008 mg/kg (chicken meat) and 0.3 mg/kg (kidney).
Fig. 4 - The mean levels of Lead in meat products from Romania, 2005 (mg/kg)
0.15
0.09 0.1
0.08 0.08
0.1 0.06
0.05
0
Pork Chichen Liver Kidney
Beef
Fig. 5 - The mean levels of Cadmium in meat products from Romania, 2005 (mg/kg)
1 0.3
0.1 0.04
0.01 0.01 0.008
0.01
0.001
Beef Pork Chichen Liver Kidney
5
Cereals
Table V presents the mean levels of metals from cereals products (283 samples) from Romania
area. The mean levels of Pb and Cd in the cereals products samples analyzed were 0.06 mg/kg
lead respectively 0.02 mg/kg cadmium.
Table V - The mean levels of metals in cereals products from Romania, 2005 (mg/kg)
Pb Cd
Sample Samples
Cereals Samples Mean Samples Mean
inadequate min/max inadequate min/max
products analyzed analyzed
Nr. % Nr. %
Wheaten flour 181 11 6.1 0.06 nd – 0.8 184 1 0.5 0.02 nd – 0.4
Maize 102 2 2.0 0.06 nd– 0.42 102 - - 0.01 nd – 0.2
Total 283 13 4.6 0.06 nd – 0.8 286 1 0.3 0.02 nd – 0.4
Juice
Table VI presents the mean levels of metals from juice products (162 samples) from Romania
area. The mean levels of Pb and Cd in the juice products samples analyzed were 0.03 mg/kg lead
respectively 0.01 mg/kg cadmium.
Table VI - The mean levels of metals in juice products from Romania, 2005 (g/kg)
Pb Cd
Samples Samples
Samples Mean Samples Mean
Juice inadequate min/max inadequate min/max
analyzed analyzed
Nr. % Nr. %
Natural Juice 115 8 7.0 0.5 nd – 9.7 116 - - 0.02 nd – 0.3
Nectar 47 2 4.3 0.04 nd – 0.5 36 - - 0.0005 nd– 0.01
Total 162 10 6.2 0.3 nd – 9.7 152 - - 0.01 nd – 0.3
Diets
Table VII presents the mean levels of metals from daily diets from Romania (205 samples) from
Ardeal, Banat, Moldova, Muntenia districts.
The mean levels of Pb and Cd in the daily diets samples analyzed were 0.5 mg/kg lead
respectively 0.01 mg/kg cadmium.
Table VII -The mean levels of metals in daily diets from Romania, 2005 (mg/kg)
Pb Cd
samples samples
Samples Samples
District inadequate Mean min/max inadequate Mean min/max
analyzed analyzed
Nr. % Nr. %
Ardeal 40 - - 0.04 nd – 0.31 40 - - 0.007 nd – 0.037
Banat 40 - - 0.1 0.029-0.3 40 - - 0.03 nd – 0.15
Moldova 60 - - 0.01 nd – 0.14 60 - - 0.01 nd – 0.06
Muntenia 65 - - 0.2 nd – 0.92 65 - - 0.01 nd – 0.1
Total 205 - - 0.5 nd – 0.92 205 - - 0.01 nd – 0.15
Conclusion
The presence of metals in all samples of food products analyzed, some in concentrations which
exceeded the maximum allowed limits (MAC) requires the continuation of the determination of
these metals in food products In all area of the country for the supervision and monitoring of the
chemical pollution and also for to protect the general population’s state of health as it is daily
exposed to a high number of pollutants in the environment.
Determinations of these chemical contaminants in food are important in environmental monitoring

for the prevention, control and reduction of pollution as well as for occupational health and
epidemiological studies.
6
References
1. Dudka, S., and Adriano, D. C. 1997. “Environmental impacts of metal ore mining and processsing: A
review” J. Environ. Quality 26 (3), 590-602
2. “Methodology for exposure assessment of contaminants and toxins in food” World Health Organization
Food Safety Programme
3. Report “consultations and Workshops: GEMS/Food Total Diet Studies” WHO/SDE/FOS/ 99.9
4. Trace Elements in Human Health World Health Organization, Geneva, 1996.
5. Hura C. – Chemical contaminants in food and human body (in English), Publishing House “CERMI, Iasi,
2002, 138p. (ISBN 973- 8188-01-6)
6. Hura C. – Contaminarea chimică a alimentelor în România, 2001, volumul 1, Publishing House “CERMI”,
Iaşi, 2002, 323 p .(ISBN 973 – 8188 -19 -9)
7. Hura C. - Contaminarea chimică a alimentelor în România, 2002, volumul 2, Publishing House “CERMI”,
Iaşi, 2003, 267 p. (ISBN 973 – 8188-90-3)
Iaşi, 2004, 235 p. (ISBN 973 – 667 – 079 - 1)
Iaşi, 2005, 164 p.(ISBN 973 – 667 - 142-9)
10.Hura C. - Contaminarea chimică a alimentelor în România, 2005, volumul 5, Publishing House “CERMI”,
Iaşi, 2006, in press.
11. Hura C. – Ghid de laborator – Metode de analiza pentru produse alimentare, Publishing House “CERMI”,
Iaşi, 2006, (ISBN 973-667-194-1).
7
Bioluminescent monitoring of remediation processes

Kudryasheva N, Fedorova E, Rozhko N.
Institute of Biophysics SB RAS, Akademgorodok, Krasnoyarsk, 660036 Russia
Phone: +7(3912) 494242; Fax: +7(3912) 433400; E-mail: kudr@ibp.ru
Abstract
Bioluminescent bacteria-based assays are widely known as simplest test-systems for toxicity monitoring in
ecological investigations. Bioluminescent assays in vivo and in vitro were used to monitor detoxification of
solutions of model pollutants (quinones and metallic salts) by humic substances (HS). Detoxification was
found in the solutions of some quinones and trivalent metallic salts (Cr, Fe). Detoxification efficiency of HS
was characterized by detoxification coefficients.
Dependence of the detoxification coefficients on redox potentials of quinones was found in the series of
homological quinones - 1,4-benzoquinone, tetrafluoro-1,4-benzoquinone, methyl-1,4-benzoquinone,
tetramethyl-1,4-benzoquinone, and 1,4-naphtoquinone. Conclusion was made on reduction activity of HS in
the quinone solutions. Comparison of bioassays in vivo and in vitro showed that detoxification occurs before
the quinones can penetrate through the cellular membrane.
Specific time-depended change of bioluminescence signal in vivo and in vitro were found in low-intensity
radioactive solutions of 241Аm3+. The results of the bioassays were compared in the absence and in the
presence of HS. Detoxification of the radioactive solutions by HS was found.
Introduction
It is known that bioluminescent bacteria and enzymes isolated from these bacteria are used as
ecological assay systems. They are convenient objects to study remediation processes. Luminous
bacteria and their bioluminescent enzymatic reactions are considered as the simplest models of
living organisms. This is a reason of their application as bioassay, mainly in ecological
investigations. Advantages of this assay are simplicity, fast response, and no requirement for
highly organized organisms.
Generally, the main feature of all bioassays is integral response, hence, they could be applied as
alarm tests, indicating habitat unfavourable for life. The results of bioassay reveal the necessity of
a detailed chemical assay, which is more expensive and time-consuming than the biological one
[1].
Microorganisms, luminous bacteria included, are currently preferable in ecological monitoring as

bioassays [1-14]. Bacterial bioluminescence-based assay was described in its current form as long
ago as 1969 [6]. In the late 1980s the test was standardized in Germany as a method for
pollutants’ detection. Then other researchers [7, 10-12, 14] modified the luminescent bacterial
assay. Application of enzymatic bioluminescent reactions is a new direction in this field. In 1990 the
in vitro bioluminescent system of enzymatic coupled reactions was suggested as a toxicity assay
[5]. Later [15], the bioluminescent enzyme system immobilized into starch gel proved to be a
promising one. Bioluminescent assay in vitro provides opportunity to optimise sensitivity to definite
pollutants by varying substrate concentration or by constructing coupled enzymatic chains [16-17].
The main principle of the bioluminescent assay is to correlate toxicity of the sample under study
and the changes in bioluminescent intensity - Is,/I0, Fig.1.
Advantages of bioluminescent assays are simplicity fast response (1-3 min), sensitivity;
bioluminescent assays are not expensive; they don’t use highly-organized organisms. There exists
a possibility to use bioluminescent assay systems of different organization level, i.e. in vivo or in
vitro. The last position is very important because it provides possibility to compare toxic effects on
the levels of whole cells and enzymatic reaction. This means that we can discuss mechanism of
toxic effect.
8
I
Sample
I0
Is
Fig.1. Bioluminescent kinetics. I0 – bioluminescent intensity in the absence of toxic sample,

Is - bioluminescent intensity in the presence of toxic sample
One more important point deals with the fact that bioluminescent assay systems are a basis of
bioluminescent biosensors which appeared to be very promising now.
The aim of the paper is to demonstrate a potential of bioluminescent assay systems in study of the
detoxification processes. We studied detoxification mechanism taking only one natural factor as an
example– treatment of toxic solutions with humic substances (humates). Humic Substances (HS)
are products of natural transformation of organic matter in soil. They are polymeric molecules of
irregular composition. HS include a lot of functional groups and, hence, are characterized by
various chemical and physico-chemical properties. Toxicity of compounds can change in the
presence of HS [18-20]. Mechanism of detoxification by HS is of great interest for the researchers.
These substances are assumed to bind toxic compounds, preventing penetration of large
aggregates into cells [18].
Organic oxidizers, as sewage components, are high on the list of organic toxic pollutants.
Quinones, being organic oxidizers, produce semiquinone radicals and other radicals (active forms
of oxygen included) with a harmful impact on water systems and their inhabitants. Detoxification
properties of HS in the presence of oxidizers are determined by their reduction ability. The
reduced forms of quinones (hydroquinones) are less toxic than the corresponding quinones.
Phenolic groups of HS and their fragments with unpaired electrons are supposed to be
responsible for the reduction of the quinones.
Materials and methods

A series of quinones with different redox characteristics: 1,4-benzoquinone, tetrafluoro-1,4
benzoquinone, methyl-1,4-benzoquinone, tetramethyl-1,4-benzoquinone, and 1,4-naphtoquinone,
was used.
The toxicity water solutions was assessed using two bioluminescent assays: in vivo -
Microbiosensor 677F, based on the lyophilized luminous bacterium Photobacterium phosphoreum,
and in vitro – a NADH:FMN-oxidoreductase-luciferase (L+R) coupled enzyme system from
Photobacterium phosphoreum. Additionally, the intact bacterial cells were used for electronic
microscopy studies. All these materials were prepared at the Institute of Biophysics (Krasnoyarsk,
Russia).
The influence of 50µl of the quinones and phenols on the system in vivo was studied in 0.5 ml of
3% NaCl solution.
9
To construct the system in vitro, 0.1 mg/ml L+R, 5·10-4 M FMN, 8·10-4 M NADH, and 0.002%
tetradecanal solutions were used. The assay was performed in 0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH 6.8) at
room temperature.
The Gumat-80 preparation (“Gumat”, Irkutsk) was used as a source of HS. It was produced by
non-extracting treatment of coal. Concentrations of HS that inhibit bioluminescence by less than
20% were 5·10-4÷0.3 g/L.
The measurements were carried out with a BLM-8802 bioluminometer (Nauka Special Design
Bureau, Krasnoyarsk, Russia). Bioluminescence intensity in the control measurement (I0) was
compared with that in the presence of quinones (Iq) of Cq concentration.
Detoxification efficiency of quinone solutions was characterized by detoxification coefficient K =

Iqh/Iq, where Iqh is the maximal bioluminescence intensity in the presence of quinones on addition of
HS of Ch concentration. All the results of the bioluminescence assay were corrected for the "optic
filter effect."
Results and discussion

We studied detoxification of groups of pollutants (quinones, metallic salts) by HS. Some results are
presented below.
First group is a series of homologous organic oxidizers - quinones.
In the presence of HS, bioluminescence intensity increased in solutions of three quinones. Fig.2
presents the data on the influence of HS on quinone solutions in the system in vivo. The K values
in the in vivo system appeared to be higher than those in the in vitro system. Hence, the system in
vivo is more sensitive for monitoring of detoxification process.
Fig.2 shows bioluminescent indices of quinone solution (blue diagrams), as well as bioluminescent
indices of these solutions in the presence of HS (yellow diagrams). It is seen that in the case of first
three quinones, the addition of HS increases the indices, making them close to norm, and hence,
decreasing toxicity.
The detoxifying effect of HS in the system in vitro was observed only after preliminarily incubation
of HS with quinones, irrespective of the duration of incubation. In the system in vivo, incubation of
the quinone solutions with HS had no effect on K-values.
These results suggest that detoxification of the quinone solutions with humates takes place before
quinones interact with the components of bioluminescent enzyme system and, probably, before
they penetrate through the cellular membrane.
Detoxification coefficients (K) were calculated. Fig.3 shows correlation between K in the solutions
of quinones and redox potentials of the quinones.
K and E0 values are obviously interrelated: the maximal K and E0 values correspond to tetrafluoro
1,4-benzoquinone and the minimal values do to tetramethyl-1,4-benzoquinone and 1,4
naphtoquinone. Correlation coefficients between K and E0 were found to be 0.93 and 0.83 for the
systems in vivo and in vitro respectively. The fact indicates that in our experiment the detoxifying
effect of HS was conditioned by redox activity of HS.
Fig.4 shows detoxification of solutions of metallic salts by HS. Detoxification coefficients K are
listed. The results shows that solutions of trivalent cations are detoxified, but bivalet cations are
not.
10
О О
F O O О
F СН3 CH 3
I q /I 0 1
H 3C
I qh /I 0 F F О О H 3C CH 3
O O О
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
1 2 3 4 5
Fig.2. Bioluminescence intensity in vivo in the quinone solutions in the presence (yellow)
and in the absence (blue) of HS. Detoxification coefficients (K) were 2.1, 1.7, 1.4, 1.0, 0.9 in
the row of the quinones.
К 4
0
0
E ,V 1 1 2 3 4
0,5
0
1 2 3 4
Fig.3. Detoxification coefficients (K) and redox potentials of the quinones (E0). 1 -
tetrafluoro-1,4-benzoquinone, 2 - 1,4-benzoquinone, 3 - methyl-1,4-benzoquinone, 4 -
tetramethyl-1,4-benzoquinone
11
Is /I0 1,5
Ish /I0
0,5
Pb(CH3 COO) 2
К4 [Fe(СN)6 ]
1
6
СоСl 2
К3 [Fe(СN)6 ]
CuSO 4
CrCl 3
Fig.5. Bioluminescence intensity in vivo in the metallic salts solutions in the presence (red)
and in the absence (blue) of HS. Detoxification coefficients (K) were 2.3, 2.4, 1.0, 1.1, 1.0, 1.1
in the row of the salts.
Fig.6 presents detoxification of radioactive solutions by humates. Solution of americium is taken as

an example. It is known that americium produces alpha-irradiation. Green color shows
luminescent kinetics without americium, blue color shows this in the presence of americium.
Luminescence decay evaluates radiotoxicity of the solution. Addition of HS (red color) decreases
the bioluminescence decay, thus, decreasing radiotoxicity. Probably, humic acids form complexes
with americium, and hence, protect bacterial bioluminescent cells from alpha-irradiation.
I/Io control
1
2
0,5
1
0
3,25 3,5 3,75 4 4,25
Log(t, min)
Fig,6. Effect of 241 Am3+ (С=5·10-7М) on bioluminescence kinetics. 1 - in the absence of
humic substances, 2 - in the presence of humic substances (С=0,25 mg/ml)
12
Conclusions
The study demonstrated a high potential of bioluminescent assay systems to monitor detoxification
efficiency of HS in solutions of organic oxidizers. Detoxification of solutions of quinones and
metallic salts (radioactive compounds are included) was evaluated. A correlation was found
between standard redox potentials of the quinones and the detoxification coefficients. Results of
the in vitro bioassay showed that the detoxification occurs before the quinones penetrate through
the cellular membrane.
Bioluminescent assay systems can be used to compare efficiency of various detoxification factors,
such as photoinduced degradation or treatment with HS nces and biological agents.
Acknowledgements
The work was supported by: the joint grant of Krasnoyarsk Regional Scientific Foundation and
Russian Foundation for Basic Research N05-03-97701-R_Yenisei; Award No. RUX0-002-KR-06 of
the U.S. Civilian Research & Development Foundation (CRDF) and RF Ministry of Education and
Science, BRHE Program; Grant of “Molecular and Cellular Biology”, program of Russian Academy
of Sciences. We thank to our colleagues from Institute of Biophysics SB RAS, Russia (Prof.
Bolsunovski A.Y., Prof. Kratasyuk V.A., Dr. Bondareva L.G., Kuznetsov A.M., Dr. Vydryakova G.A.)
Irkutsk State University, Irkutsk, Russia (Prof.Stom D.I.).
References
1. J.I. Gitelson, V.A. Kratasyuk. et al,. Ecological Biophysics.1. Photobiophysics of ecosystems, Logos,
Moscow, 2002.
2. A. Roda, P. Pasini, M. Mirasoni, E. Michchelini, M. Guardigli, Biotechnological application of
bioluminescence and chemiluminescence. TRENDS in Biotechnology. 22 (2004) 295-303.
3. T. Wilson, J.W. Hastings, Bioluminescence. Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol. 14 (1998) 197–230.
4. G. Wegrzyn, A. Czyz. How do marine bacteria produce light, why are they luminescent, and can we
employ bacterial bioluminescence in biotechnology. Oceanologia 44 (2002) 291-305.
5. V.A. Kratasyuk, Principles of luciferase biotesting, in B. Jezowska-Trzebiatowska, B. Kochel, J.
Stawinski, I. Strek (Eds.), Biological Luminescence, World Scientific, Singapore, 1990, pp.550-558.
6. E. Grabert, F. Kossler, About the effects of nutrients on the luminescent bacteria test, in J.W. Hastings,
L.J. Kricka, P.E. Stanley (Eds.), Bioluminescence and Chemiluminescence, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester,
1997, pp. 291-294.
7. D.I. Stom, T.A. Geel, A.E. Balayan, A.M. Kuznetsov, S.E. Medvedeva, Bioluminescent method in
studying the complex effect of sewage components. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 22 (1992) 203-208.
8. K.V. Wood, M.G. Gruber, Transduction in microbial biosensors using multiplexed bioluminescence.
Biosensors & Bioelectronics 11 (1996) 207-214.
9. L. Guzzella, C. Bartone, P. Ross, G. Tartari, H. Mutau, Toxicity evaluation of lake Orta (Northen Italy)
sediments using the Microtox system. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 35 (1995) 231-235.
10. A.A. Bulish, D.L. Isenberg, Use of the luminescent bacterial system for rapid assessment of aquatic
toxicity.ISA Trans Actions 20 (1981) 29-33.
11. G. Natecz-Jawecki, B. Rudz, J. Sawicki, Evaluation of toxicity of medical devices using Spirotox and
Microtox tests: I. Toxicity of selected toxicants in various diluents. Biomedical Materials Research 35 (1997)
101-105.
12. V.A. Kratasyuk, J.I. Gitelson, The application of luminous bacteria in bioluminescent ssays. Uspekhi
mikrobiologii. 21 (1987) 3-30.
13. O. Drzyzga, S. Jannsen, K.H. Blotevogel, Toxicity of diphenylamine and some of its nitrated and
aminated derivatives to the luminescent bacterium Vibrio fisheri. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 31
(1995) 149-152.
14. V.A. Kratasyuk, E.N. Esimbekova, M.I. Gladyshev, E.B. Khromichek, A.M. Kuznetsov, E.A. Ivanova,
The use of bioluminescent biotests for study of natural and laboratory aquatic ecosystems. Chemosphere 42
(2001) 909-915.
15. V.A. Kratasyuk, V.V. Abakumova, N.B. Kim, Gelic function model of luciferase in the cell.
Biochemistry-Moscow 59 (1994) 1020-1026.
16. N.S. Kudryasheva, I.Y. Kudinova, E.N. Esimbekova, V.A. Kratasyuk, D.I. Stom, Effects of quinones
and phenols on the NAD(H)-dependent triple systems. Chemosphere 38 (1998) 751-758.
13
17. N.S. Kudryasheva, E.N. Esimbekova, N.N. Remmel, V.A. Kratasyuk, A.J.W.G. Visser, A. van Hoek,
Effect of quinones and phenols on the triple enzymic bioluminescent system with protease. Luminescence
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14
Chemical modification of mesoporous silica for heavy metal ions

adsorption
M. Mureşeanua, A. Reissa, V. Pârvulescub , I. Ştefănescuc, E. Davidc, V. Hulead

a
Faculty of Chemistry, University of Craiova, 165 Calea Bucuresti, 200144 Craiova, Romania, e-mail:
mihaela_mure@yahoo.com
b
Institute of Physical Chemistry, 202 Spl.Independentei, 060021 Bucharest, Romania
c
National Institute of Cryogenics and Isotope Separation ,4 Uzinei Street, Rm.Valcea, Romania
d
Institut Gerhardt, UMR 5618, ENSCM/CNRS, Montpellier, France
Abstract
n-Propylsalicylaldimino - functionalized MCM-41 and SBA-15 mesoporous silica was prepared, characterized
and used as a heavy metal ions adsorbent. This organic-inorganic hybrid material was obtained by two-step
post-synthesis modification of MCM-41 and SBA-15 mesoporous silica with 3-aminopropyl-triethoxysilane and
salicylaldehyde, respectively. For comparison an amorphous silica gel was functionalized by the same
procedure. By means of elemental analysis, small-angle powder XRD, nitrogen adsorption-desorption, Fourier
transform infrared spectroscopy, DRUV and thermogravimetric analysis, the structure and physicochemical
properties of the materials were characterized. The results show that the organic functional groups are
successfully grafted on the SBA-15 surfaces and the ordering of the support was not affected by the
modification. The hybrid materials were used in the removal of heavy metals ions from aqueous solutions in
order to develop a new technology for wasted waters ultra purification. Studies were carried out to determine the
optimal experimental conditions for the retention of heavy ions. The novel obtained materials posses a high
loading capacity and a high selectivity for copper ions over the nickel, zinc and cobalt ions. Metal-loaded
adsorbent can be regenerated by acid treatment without altering the adsorbent properties.
Introduction
The increasing level of heavy metals in the environment represents a serious threat to human health,
living resources and ecological systems. The most abundant harmful metal ions in the liquid effluents
are Cr, Ni, Zn, Cu, and Cd. They are considered persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic substances.
Various treatment technologies have been developed for the removal of these metals from
wastewater, depending on the concentration, such as precipitation of the metal hydroxide and filtration
when higher concentrations are treated 1, 2. A high number of adsorptive compounds are capable of
capturing metal ions from aqueous solution. Activated charcoal and clays are the most known of them.
Among the inherent disadvantages of these materials is their wide distribution of pore size,
heterogeneous pore structure, low selectivity for heavy metal ions and relatively low loading
capacities.
Silica is increasingly utilized as a support for different chelating agents that offer a better selectivity for
different metal ions. 2-Amino-1-cyclopentene-1-dithiocarboxylic acid3, hexathia-18-crown-6-tetraone4,
mono- and bis-salicylaldehyde and naphtalaldehyde Schiff bases based on silica gel5, 1-(2
thyazolylazo)-2-naphtol6, quinalizarine7 and 8-hydroxiquinoline immobilized on fluorinated metal
alkoxide glass8 are selected examples.
The discovery of MCM-41 mesostructured silica has stimulated a renew interest in adsorbents and
catalysts design because of their unique large surface area, well-defined pore size and pore shape9,10.
The design of mesostructure-based adsorbents for the removal of metal ions from solution has been
intensively investigated11-20. It is well established that the functionalized derivatives of mesostructure
15
can be prepared using easily implementable methods, such as grafting21 or one-step synthesis22
methods. These hybrid materials characterized by a uniform open-framework mesoporosity and
exceptionally high specific surface area (700-1500 m2g-1) have been reported to exhibit improved
sorption properties toward heavy metal ions, superior by far to those achieved with silica gel
functionalized with the same ligand23,24. In particular, they are characterized by significant enhanced
accessibility to the binding sites. Loading capacities up to 100% were obtained in ordered structures,
their pore size remaining in the mesoporous range (> 2 nm) while incomplete filling was observed with
the corresponding amorphous adsorbents23. Also, the regular structure of these ordered mesoporous
materials resulted in fast adsorption rates with mass transfer kinetics usually much higher than in their
amorphous analogs.
In this paper MCM-41 and SBA-15 mesoporous silica modified with n-propylsalicylaldimine by a post-
synthesis method were prepared as heavy metal ion adsorbents for application to aqueous solutions.
For comparison an amorphous silica gel was functionalized by the same procedure.
Experimental
MCM-41 mesoporous silica was synthesized from hexadecyltrimethyl amonium bromide (HDTMABr)
as template and sodium silicate as silica source and SBA-15 from Pluronic P123 amphiphilic triblock
copolymer and tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS).
MCM-41 and SBA-15 were freshly activated at high temperature under vacuum, and 3-aminopropyl
triethoxysilane (APTES) was added to dry toluene. The obtained materials were dispersed in dry
toluene, salicylaldehyde was added and the mixture was refluxed .The yellow materials were collected
by filtration and washed with toluene, ethylic alcohol and then diethyl ether.
Silica gel 60 was used as a reference material. The aminopropyl functional group was grafted into this
support by the same procedure described for MCM-41 and SBA-15.
By means of elemental analysis, small-angle powder XRD, nitrogen adsorption-desorption, Fourier

transform infrared spectroscopy, DRUV and thermogravimetric analysis, the structure and
physicochemical properties of the organic-inorganic hybrids were characterized.
All chemicals and metal ion species (Cu(NO3)2, Co(NO3)2, Ni(NO3)2 and Zn(NO3)2) were analytical
grade reagents and used without further purification. For the pH adjustment at 4.8, a phthalate buffer
solution was prepared and was used to prevent the precipitation of metal ions during the adsorption
experiment. Adsorption experiments were carried out in batch conditions, by suspending 10 mg of
adsorbent in 100 mL solution. After equilibration under constant stirring for 24h, solid particles were
filtered off and the remaining metal concentrations in the supernatant were determined quantitatively
by atomic absorption spectrometry. The filtered solids containing the metal ion-salicylaldimine
complexes were dried at 353 K and used for their investigation of the bonding nature. In some
representative cases the mass balance was maintained by quantitative analysis of the metal ions in
the solid phase after his dissolution in 10% HF. Ion competitive adsorption studies were conducted by
treating 100 mL of a mixed metal solution containing nearly equimolar amounts (~5 10-2M) of Cu(II),
Co(II), Ni(II) and Zn(II) ions with 100 mg of the adsorbent for 24 h at room temperature. In a test of
extraction/stripping cycle, once Cu(II), Co(II), Ni(II) and Zn(II) loading was complete, the metal ion
were removed from the sorbent by washing with 10.0 mL of 0.3 mol L-1HCl. The sorbents were rinsed
several times with deionized water and dried at 353 K before another extraction cycle.
16
Results and Discussion

Mesoporous MCM-41 and SBA-15 and silica gel were synthesized and functionalized thereafter with
3-aminopropyltriethoxisilane (MCM-41 NH2, SBA-15 NH2 and SiO2-NH2). On these hybrids organic-
inorganic material was covalently grafted salicylaldehyde as a chelating agent for heavy metal ions
(MCM-41 SA, SBA-15 NH2 SA and SiO2-SA) (Scheme 1).
Et-O Et-O
OH + Et-O Si NH2 O Si NH2 + EtOH
OH2 Et-O
SBA-15 NH2-SBA-15
Et-O Et-O
O Si NH2 + OCH O Si N CH
- H2O
Et-O Et-O
HO HO
SA-SBA-15
Scheme 1
XRD patterns of mesoporous silica show peaks which can be indexed according to a hexagonal array
of mesopores (fig.1). Their mesostructure was preserved during the surface modifications.
Nitrogen adsorption-desorption isotherms for the studied samples show a sharp step corresponding to
the filling of the ordered mesopores (fig.2a and 2b).
The textural parameters of materials are presented in Table 1.
Fig.1 Powder X-ray diffraction patterns of calcined mesoporous silica materials
17
700 900
1
600 800
Volume adsorbed, cm /g
Volume adsorbed, cm /g
2 700
3
3
500
600
3 1
400
500
300 400
200 300
2
200
100 3
100
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
p/p0
p/p0
(a) (b)
Fig.2. Changes of N2 adsorption isotherms for :

(a) (1) SBA-15, (2) SBA-15 NH2 and (3) SBA-15 SA (b) (1) MCM-41, (2) MCM-41NH2 and (3MCM-41
SA
Table 1. Textural properties of calcined and modified MCM-41 and SBA-15

Material SBET ⁄ m2g-1 Vmezo⁄ ml g-1 DBdB⁄ nm
MCM-41 1042,49 0,91 3,50
MCM-41 NH2 501,15 0,40 3,17
MCM-41NH2 SA 381,04 0,25 2,30
SBA-15 697.23 1.49 8.28
SBA-15 NH2 367.75 0.77 7.83
SBA-15 NH2 SA 316.73 0.73 6.85
The yield of the coupling reaction calculated from elemental and thermogravimetric analysis was
around 98%, proving the efficiency of the salicylaldehyde grafting into mesoporous silica. Contrarily,
for the amorphous silica gel, even if the number of aminopropyl groups was grater than for the
mesoporous silica, the yield of salicylaldehyde grafting was around 50%.
The functional groups contained in the organic-inorganic hybrid materials were identified by FT-IR. The
IR spectrum (fig.3) indicates a significant decrease in the silanol bands (isolated silanol) at 3740 cm-1 and
bridged (hydrogen bonded) silanol in the range 3550-3670 cm-1 with a concomitant increase of bands
characteristics of the immobilized aminopropyl groups and of the azomethine group of the immobilized
Schiff base.
18
Fig.3.FTIR spectra of the mesoporous silica materials

These solids posses a high loading capacity and a high selectivity for copper ions over the nickel, zinc
and cobalt ions. The maximum loading capacities corresponding to the saturation of the tested
adsorbents with Cu(II), Co(II), Ni(II) and Zn(II) ions are shown in Table 2. The competitive adsorption
of these ions on MCM-41 and SBA-15 type silica comparatively with an amorphous one was tested for
a mixed metal solution and the results are presented in Table 3
Table 2. Maximum Metal Ion-Loading Capacities of MCM-41 and SBA-15 type Adsorbents
Cu(II) Ni(II) Co(II) Zn(II)
mg/g mmol/g mg/g mmol/g mg/g mmol/g mg/g mmol/g

Solid
MCM-41 12.00 0.19 9.56 0.16 4.78 0.08 11.89 0.18
MCM-41NH2 22.00 0.35 36.82 0.63 10.19 0.17 31.47 0.48
MCM-41SA 30.90 0.49 16.17 0.28 7.12 0.12 2.76 0.042
SBA-15 10.53 0.17 8.34 0.14 5.78 0.09 6.94 0.11
SBA-15 NH2 50.65 0.79 22.68 0.39 25.56 0.44 22.2 0.34
SBA-15SA 59.06 0.92 22.69 0.39 17.02 0.3 24.30 0.38
SiO2-NH2 30.14 0.47 20.11 0.34 20.34 0.32 10.54 0.16
SiO2-SA 33.46 0.51 15.75 0.27 8.34 0.14 4.03 0.06
19
Table 3. Competitive adsorption of Cu(II), Co(II), Ni(II) and Zn(II) ions

Cu(II) Ni(II) Co(II) Zn(II)
Solid mg/g mmol/g mg/g mmol/g mg/g mmol/g mg/g mmol/g
MCM-41 10.07 0.15 7.32 0.12 3.93 0.06 10.85 0.17
MCM-41NH2 20.00 0.31 21.38 0.36 9.68 0.16 22.75 0.35
MCM-41SA 25.09 0.39 3.86 0.06 1.78 0.03 0.46 0.007
SBA-15 8.23 0.13 7.56 0.13 4.73 0.08 5.52 0.08
SBA-15 NH2 43.86 0.70 18.78 0.32 20.46 0.35 18.79 0.29
SBA-15SA 44.49 0.70 4.70 0.08 4.09 0.07 3.92 0.06
SiO2-NH2 20.72 0.33 16.34 0.28 13.87 0.23 4.37 0.08
SiO2-SA 28.60 0.45 24.65 0.42 12.86 0.22 18.30 0.28
The affinity of MCM-41 SA, SBA-15 SA and SiO2-SA adsorbents follow the common order
Cu>Ni>Co>Zn. For amino functionalized mesoporous silica the copper loading capacity from a mixed
metal solution is the same as for salycilaldehyde grafted materials but the selectivity is not as good as
for the letter adsorbents.
From the FAAS analysis, the copper, nickel, cobalt and zinc content of the fully loaded
N-propylsalicylaldimine mesoporous silica samples was found to be 0.92, 0.39, 0.3 and 0.38 mmol/g,
respectively for SBA-15 and 0.49, 0.28, 0.12 and 0.042 mmol/g, respectively for MCM-41 type silica.
These results are in accordance with the larger pore size and structure of the SBA-15 type silica
comparative with MCM-41 type. Furthermore, SBA-15 posses a higher hydrothermal stability and for
all these reasons the further investigations will be focused on this material.
During acid treatment with 0.3M HCl, all the metals were leached out the adsorbent. Powder XRD and
infrared spectroscopy studies of the regenerated mesoporous silica confirmed that the structure of the
adsorbents is not altered by acid treatment. After acid regeneration the solids were used in three other
adsorption-regeneration cycles and the adsorption capacity of the adsorbents did not diminished.
Conclusions
The new obtained materials posses a high loading capacity and a high selectivity for copper ions over
the nickel, zinc and cobalt ions. SBA-15 type silica was selected for the further investigations due to its
better adsorptive capacity and hydrothermal stability. It was proved that the porous structures that
retain a significantly open framework after functionalization of their pore walls are likely more effective
for adsorption of metal ions.
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21
Water cleaning from heavy toxic metals (Pb, Cu, Zn, Cd) using a natural
sorbent
Zizi Svanidze, Omar Mikadze, Boris Gogichaishvili
Georgian Technical University, Department of Metallurgy, Division of Metallurgy of Ferrous Metals, 77, Kostava
Street; 0175 Tbilisi, Georgia, zizisvanidze@yahoo.com, omarmiqa@yahoo.com, Tel: (995 32) 22 60 02, Fax:
(995 32) 22 19 65
Abstract
Water cleaning from heavy toxic metals has lately become quite an urgent problem in a number of developed
countries (Japan, USA, etc.). Drinking water deficiency makes elaboration of modern methods of water cleaning
particularly acute and essential.
We have elaborated an innovation method of drinking water and irrigation water cleaning. The method consists
in water purification by utilization of a sorbent - diatomite.
Diatomite is a surface-active natural mineral with a complex composition. Heavy metals are adsorbed on the
surface of diatomite forming stable chemical compounds and complex groups. Thus, metals are bound and
water is cleared from toxic metals.
Tests have proven that diatomite ensures efficient water treatment. It helps receiving safe drinking water and
ecologically clean agricultural products.
Diatomite is used as a native mineral. Its cleaning capacity by specific elements makes up: Cu – 60%, Zn – 55%,
Cd – 78 %. In case of sorbent modification with CaO lime, the degree of cleaning from Cu and Zn drastically
increases up to 97%, while that from Pb - 98,5%.
Diatomite as a sorbent has also been tested for treating alcoholic drinks, where it showed positive effect.
Analytical Review
Water is an essential condition and medium of life presented on our planet in a large quantity. By its
physical-chemical properties water almost does not have any analogs among the well-known chemical
compounds.
Water is a perfect solvent of acids, alkalis and salts, many gases, including vitally important ones such
as oxygen and carbonic acid gas. At the same time, the substances not containing in their molecules
polluted or polarized groups are almost insoluble in water. The ability to interact with hydrogen bonds
of water categorizes substances into two main groups: hydrophilic – soluble or at least water-wet;
hydrophobic – displaced by water and water solutions along with release of energy.
Combination of hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties of various organic substances is used by living
organisms for creation of highly solid structures of ultramicroscopic size – cellular membrane and
other “molecular constructions” ensuring development of extremely important vital processes at the
cellular level.
No natural water appears to be absolutely clean. Even rainwater, as well as the water generated
through melting of mountain glaciers, contains a certain quantity of dissolved gases – oxygen,
carbonic acid gas, nitric oxide. As it is known, in case of atmospheric air pollution the rainwater
contains numerous admixtures. The water being in contact with variable substances in actual
conditions of terrestrial reservoirs always contains a certain quantity of dissolved mineral substances,
including heavy metals.
Ingress of sewage waters containing heavy metals may cause numerous physical, chemical and
biological changes in water systems. These changes may be divided into two categories:
1. Changes related to an impact of environmental conditions on metal behavior.

22
2. Changes related to an impact of metals on the state of environment.
Distribution and migration of metals in water systems are mainly conditioned by characteristics of
bottom sediments and water mass. Intensity of metal ingress from bottom sediments depends on
physical structure and chemical nature of metals, which in their turn determine a bonding force with
chemical elements.
Physical-chemical conditions of water mass determine the forms of metal migration: suspended,
colloid, dissolved ion, complex compounds. Natural and anthropogenic factors form properties of an
active part of bottom sediments and water mass, in which heavy metals are carried. Thus, water
systems are characterized by a big diversity of metal distribution and migration peculiarities.
The reviewed literature sources present data on chemical and ecological condition of Ottawa river and
its basin. A particular attention has been paid to the content of mercury and its migration [1]. An
assessment of Minamata and Yatsushiro bays is also given [2]. Results of Ruhr river basin study are
introduced in the work by Imhoff and the others [3]. Research of Rhein river points at a serious
contamination degree of its water. The data on transport of heavy metals, such as arsenic, cadmium,
chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, zinc [4, 5] – are also presented. Presley and the others have
studied condition of Mississippi river. According to the study, the river is polluted by cadmium and
lead. It is determined that this river exports a huge quantity of suspended and soluble substances from
the USA territory [6].
Problem Statement and Methodology

In Georgia, the authors of the given article have studied together with their colleagues the degree of
Kazretula river and Mashavera river pollution. Analysis of received data has proven that the above-
mentioned rivers are seriously contaminated by heavy toxic metals, such as: Cu, Zn, Cd, Co, Sr.
Contents of these elements many times exceed corresponding indices of Maximal Allowable
Concentration (MAC). The work has identified stationary pollution sources [7].
Analysis of the literature data shows a high degree of water resources pollution in various regions of
the Earth, which causes deterioration of drinking water and irrigation water quality.
At present, due to incorrect exploitation of natural resources and barbarian attitude towards the nature,
a reduction in the amount of drinking water resources can be observed. Therefore, drinking, irrigation
and sewage water cleaning has become quite an urgent problem for the recent years.
The following can be singled out as the most widely used methods of cleaning:
9 Methods for removal of coarsely dispersed particles – settling, flotation, filtration, clarification,
centrifugation;
9 Methods for removal of fine-dyspersated and colloid particles – coagulation, flocculation,

electric methods of sedimentation;
9 Methods for cleaning from inorganic compounds – distillation, ion exchange, reverse osmosis,
reagent sedimentation, cooling methods, electric methods of sedimentation;
9 Methods for cleaning from organic compounds – extraction, absorption, filtration, ion
exchange, reagent methods, biological oxidation, liquid-phase oxidation, ozonization,
chlorination, electrochemical oxidation;
9 Methods for cleaning gases and vapors – blowing, heating, reagent methods;
23
9 Methods for elimination of hazardous substances – thermal decomposition.
The above-mentioned methods have both positive and negative features.
The present work has targeted at a study of the possibility of combining or carrying out simultaneously
absorption and filtration methods by use of a natural sorbent in water cleaning from heavy metals.
Experimental Part
For fulfilling the above-mentioned task we have used diatomite as a natural sorbent, which represents
a surface-active substance with the following chemical composition, mass %:
Al2O3 Fe2O3 FeO TiO2 P2O5 CaO MgO Na2O K2O SiO2
1,96 0,2 0,2 0,13 0,05 0,8 0,7 0,36 0,3 the rest.
We have used diatomite as a native mineral, which is largely presented throughout Georgia.
Research has been carried out on a specially designed two-stage construction equipment with water
flow regulation.
A construction chart of the mentioned equipment is presented on Fig.1.
Water cleaning experiments have been carried out using different fractions of the sorbent for the
purpose of determining an optimal fraction of diatomite. Fractions from 1mm to 20mm size were
prepared. Results of the fulfilled experiments are presented on Fig.2.
Analysis of the data presented on Fig. 2 has proven that an optimal fraction of diatomite varies
between 6-12 mm.
When �
< 6 mm, the sorbent layer is thicker and its discharge capacity significantly decreases along
with reduction in the size of particles.
When �> 12 mm, water cleaning degree steadily decreases due to the factors below: 1) drastic
increase of discharge capacity of the sorbent layer; 2) reduction of its surface activity.
For further increase of water cleaning capacity we have modified diatomite with calcium oxide CaO.
For determination of an optimal quantity of the modifier an experimental research has been carried
out, during which an optimal fraction composition of the sorbent was steadily preserved at 8 mm. The
experiment results are presented on Fig.3.
Analysis of the diagram presented on Fig. 3 has shown that an optimal discharge of the natural
sorbent modifier makes up G = 20÷22%, at which the chemical composition of a modified diatomite
shall be the following, mass %:
Al2O3 Fe2O3 FeO TiO2 P2O5 CaO MgO Na2O K2O SiO2
0,62 0,54 0,05 0,09 0,11 20,8÷22,8 0,6 0,3 0,2 the rest.
An absorption layer in all experiments made up 30 cm.
Quantitative results of water cleaning from heavy toxic metals may be presented in a form of the table
1.
24
H2O
3 4
5
2
Fig.1. Water Cleaning Equipment Chart
1 – Reservoir with water to be cleaned;
2 – Tap valve to regulate water flow, equipped with a flowmeter for measuring discharge rate;
3 – Stage I with irrigation system;
25
4 – Shower system;
5 – Stage II with diatomite absorbent;
6 – Absorbent;
7 – Cleaned water receiver.
Table 1. Maximal Allowable Concentrations and Content of Heavy Metals Pb, Cu, Zn, Cd in
Water Before and After Treatment by Pure and Modified Diatomite
Content of heavy Content of heavy metals in water after
MAC, mg/l metals in treatment, mg/l
METALS
untreated water,
mg/l by pure diatomite by modified diatomite
Pb 30.10-3 41.10-3 10,25.10-3 0,615.10-3

Cu 1 4,60 1,84 0,14
Zn 5 7 3,15 0,21
Cd 1.10-3 3.10-3 0,66.10-3 0,045.10-3
We have also tested diatomite absorbent for cleaning wine containing Cu, Pb and Zn.
The experiments gave the following results:
9 After cleaning Cu, Pb and Zn remained in the wine only in a form of traces;
9 Organoleptic indices were improved;
9 Alcohol content did not change during the experiment;
9 Optical indices were improved, as far as apart from being cleaned from heavy metals, wine is
filtrated as well.
100
Pb
90
Cd
80 Cu
Zn
70
60
ΔE, %
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
δ, mm
Fig.2. Impact of a Fraction Composition of a Sorbent (δ, mm) on the Degree of Water Cleaning
(ΔE, %) from Heavy Metals Pb, Cd, Cu, Zn.
26
100
90
80
70
60
ΔE, %
50
40
30 Pb
Cd
20
Cu
10 Zn
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
G, %
Fig.3. Impact on the Degree of Water Cleaning (ΔE, %) from Heavy Metals Pb, Cd, Cu, Zn,
Caused by Discharge of a Modifying Agent CaO (G, %) into Natural Sorbent of Diatomite.
Conclusions
Analysis of experimental data made it possible to draw the following conclusions:
1. An innovation method of cleaning the drinking water, as well as water used in irrigation
systems has been elaborated. The proposed methodology makes it possible to significantly
improve drinking water quality and produce ecologically clean agricultural products.
2. Water cleaning is fulfilled by means of a sorbent diatomite. A modifying agent, in particular,

CaO lime has been suggested for increasing the sorptive capacity of the sorbent. An optimal
discharge of the agent has been also determined.
3. An optimal fraction composition of the sorbent has been determined.
4. The proposed sorbent may be successfully used for wine cleaning from metals Cu, Pb and Zn,
as well as improving organoleptic indices.
Bibliography
1. Ottawa River Project Group. 1979. Mercury in the Ottawa River. Environmental Research 19; 231-243.
2. Kudo, A., S. Miyahara, and D.R. Miller. 1980. Movement of mercury from Minamata Bay into Yatsushiro
Sea, Progress in Water Technology 12: 509-524.
3. Imhoff, K.R., P. Koppe, and F.Dietz. 1980. Heavy metals in the Ruhr River and their budget in the
catchment area. Progress in Water Technology 12; 735-749.
4. Hancock, F.D. 1973. Algai ecology of a stream polluted through gold mining on the Witwatersrand.
Hydrobiology 4: 189-229.
27
5. Van Driel, W. 1979. Zwar metalen in zurveringsslib en in rivierslib. Landbouwkun dig tiidschrift 91: 171
182.
6. Presley B.I., I.H.Trefry and R.F.Shokes. 1980 Heavy metal inputs to Mississippi delta Sediments. Water,
Air and Soil Pollution 13: 481-494.
7. Akulashvili N.D., Gogichaishvili B.G., Svanidze Z.S., Mikadze O.S., Lomtatidze G.A. Vlianie
madneulskogo gornoobagatitelnogo kombinata na stepen zagryaznenia rek Kazretula i Mashavera.
Sbornik trudov X mejdunarodnoi nauchno-texnicheskoi konferencii. Problemi svarki, metallurgii i
rodstvennix texnologii, Kutaisi, 2005, p. 162-169.
28
Response of shock loading on phenolic wastewater biodegradation in an

anoxic fluidised bed reactor
Mini Bajaj, Claudia Gallert , Josef Winter

Universität Karlsruhe, Institut für Ingenieurbiologie und Biotechnologie des Abwassers, Am Fasanengarten,
76131 Karlsruhe, Germany; Tel.+49 (0) 721 608 2297; Fax+49 (0) 721 608 7704; email:
Josef.Winter@iba.uka.de
Abstract
The performance of an anoxic fluidised bed reactor under shock loading was investigated in this study. The
synthetic wastewater contained glucose and phenol as carbon sources. The reactor was operated over 400
days and a maximum of 98.5 % of COD removal was achieved at a HRT of 2 days, an OLR of 2.1 g COD/l.d,
with 100 % phenol removal (1.9 mmol/l) and 74 % NO3-N removal (1.55 g/l). The COD and phenol removal
efficiencies of the reactor were on an average > 92 % and 98.6 %, respectively. At steady state conditions, the
OLR was increased from ~ 3 g COD/l.d to 5.2 g COD/l.d and the phenol concentration was increased from 2.2
mmol/l to 4.5 mmol/l. The COD and the phenol removal were decreased rapidly with a corresponding decrease
in nitrate reduction. The mean COD/NO3-N ratio was 4. At a phenol concentration of 4.5 mmol/l there was only
48.2 % phenol removal and 45.5 % COD removal. For the recovery of the reactor, the phenol concentration was
lowered from 4.5 mmol/l to 2.5 mmol/l. COD and phenol removal efficiency started to improve and recovery was
observed in less than 9 days.
Introduction
Industrial effluents from coal gasification, coke production, pharmaceutical-, pesticide-fertilizer-, dye
manufacturing-, synthetic chemical-, pulp- and paper production contain phenol along with other
organic and inorganic impurities. A phenol concentration of 1 mg/l or greater affects aquatic life;
therefore in most cases a stringent effluent discharge limit of 0.2 mg/l has been imposed (Tay et al.
2001). Apart from direct effects on the environment, phenol is a known inhibitor of biological reactions
influencing the efficiency of industrial wastewater treatment plants (Knoll et al. 1988, Watanabe et al.
2002, Hosseini and Borghei 2004). It is toxic particularly to unacclimated microorganisms at relatively
low concentrations of 10ths of milligrams per litre and can be a growth inhibitory even to those species
that have the metabolic capacity of using it as a growth substrate (Hill and Robinson 1975).
Conventionally aerobic methods have been used for the treatment of phenolic wastewaters. However,
due to their high energy requirement and sludge yield, anaerobic and anoxic methods are more
preferable. In case of anaerobic reactors sludge acclimation, which can take months, is required. An
anaerobic reactor treating phenolic wastewater exhibited high sensitivity to changes in operating
conditions such as loading and temperature and the recovery was gradual (Fang et al. 1996).
Whereas anoxic reactor showed a quicker recovery regaining their previous phenol removing
efficiency compared to aerobic and anaerobic reactors, when have been given a pulse phenol injection
on an anaerobic-anoxic–aerobic system (Chakraborty and Veeramani 2005).
The variations in toxic substance in the influent could be responsible for breakdown of a reactor. In
the present study, the performance of a phenol degrading anoxic fluidised bed bioreactor was
investigated under shock loading of phenol to demonstrate the flexibility and stability of the reactor.
29
Material and Methods

Feed Composition
The synthetic wastewater used for the study contained glucose monohydrate (C6H12O6.H2O) as a main
carbon source and phenol (C6H5OH) as a co substrate along with 10 ml/l of nutrient solution consisting
of KH2PO4 (4.0 g/l), MgSO4 (0.1 g/l), yeast extract (1.0 g/l) and trace metal solution (2 ml/l).The trace
metal solution contained FeSO4.7H2O (1.36 g/l), Na2MoO4.2H2O (0.24 g/l), CuSO4.5H2O (0.25 g/l),
ZnSO4.7H2O (0.58 g/l), NiSO4.6H2O (0.11 g/l), MnSO4.H2O (1.01 g/l) and H2SO4
(1 ml/l). The total COD of the influent was maintained at 5 g/l, by varying the composition of glucose at
different phenol concentrations (2.1 mmol/l to 4.5 mmol/l). KNO3 was added as a source of electron
acceptor so as to maintain the COD/NO3-N ratio between 3.4 to 4.
Reactor Design
The lab scale anoxic fluidised bed reactor consisted of a glass column with a working volume of 1.75 l
(Fig 1.). A recirculation pump (Watson Marlow, model 604 S) was provided to keep the reactor content
in fluidised conditions. A peristaltic pump (Gilson, model Miniplus 3) was used for continuous feeding.
The feed pipe was connected at the bottom end of recirculation pipe to obtain upflow feeding, whereas
a sampling port was installed at the upper part of the recirculation pipe. The reactor was operated at
room temperature and the feed solution was stored at 40C in a refrigerator.
5
1
1. Reactor Body, made of

glass
3
2. Recirculation Pump
3. Feed Pump
4. Influent Reservoir in
refrigerator
4
5. Effluent Reservoir
6. Gas Meter
7. Sampling Port
Figure 1 - Schematic diagram of anoxic fluidised bed reactor
30
Start up and acclimatization of reactor

The seed sludge was taken from the activated sludge unit of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plant,
Karlsruhe, Germany. The reactor was fed initially with synthetic wastewater containing only glucose as
carbon source. After the acclimatization to glucose, phenol was added in the feed at an initial
concentration of 2.1 mmol/l (200 mg/l). When the steady state was reached the phenol concentration
was increased stepwise.
Analytical procedures
The samples for analysis were taken with a syringe from the sampling port of the reactor. Chemical
oxygen demand (COD) of the reactor liquor and influent were determined by the method of Wolf and
Nordmann (1977). Influent and effluent nitrate and nitrite concentrations were quantified by UV/VIS
Spectrophotometry using 2,6- Dimethylphenol (APHA 1992) at 324 nm and the N-(1-naphthyl)
ethylenediamine dihydrochloride method (APHA 1992) at 540 nm, respectively. Phenol concentrations
were ascertained by either using a Spectrophotometer (LKB Biochrom, model Ultrospec II) and 4
aminoantipyrine technique (APHA,1992) at 510 nm or by GC-FID (Chrompack, model CP 9001). For
GC-FID method, VF-Xms WCOT Fused Silica column (Varian) was used at an oven temperature of
1050C to 1450C, rise 100C/min, injector temperature of 2750C and a detector temperature of 2500C,
using nitrogen as a carrier gas.
Reactor Operation
The reactor was operated over 400 days for the present study. The main operating parameters
studied during reactor operation were influent/effluent COD, phenol, nitrate and nitrite at different
HRTs and OLRs (results shown from 350 days onwards). A maximum of 98.5% of COD removal with
100% of 1.9 mmol/l phenol removal at 2 day HRT and OLR of 2.1 g COD /l.d was observed. The NO3
N removal was 74% of 1.55 g/l in influent. The observed COD/NO3-N ratio at this point was 4.3. Eiroa
et al. (2005) reported > 93.4% dentrification at 4 to 4.5 COD/ NO3-N ratio. While maintaining this ratio
they had increased stepwise phenol concentrations up to 755 mg/l and reported phenol removal
efficiencies at > 90.6 % at loading rates between 0.03 g and 1.0 g COD/l.d. In the present study, till
day 414 before the increase in phenol loadings in the influent, the reactor was operated at steady
state conditions of OLR ~ 3 g COD/l.d and ~ 2.2 mmol/l phenol concentration in the synthetic
wastewater. The COD and phenol removal were > 92% up to almost 100 % respectively. On day 414 ,
OLR of reactor was increased to ~ 5.2 g COD/l.d and the phenol concentration to 3 mmol/l.
Effect of Shock Loading on COD Removal

The COD in the reactor came mainly from glucose and phenol. The reactor was operated at steady
state. The data presented (Fig 2.) starts from day 350 of the reactor operation in order to give the
background of the reactor performance. The phenol addition till day 414 of reactor operation was ~ 2.2
mmol/l. As soon as the phenol concentration was increased from 2.2 mmol/l to 3.5 mmol/l and the
OLR from ~3 g COD/l.d to ~ 5.2 g COD /l.d, there was a drop in the COD removal efficiency from 94.8
% to 71.6 % (Figure 3). The removal efficiency improved gradually and it reached again 95.5 % on day
425. Therefore, the phenol concentration was further increased. This time COD removal was
decreasing from 90.8 % to 81.1 % at 4 mmol/l phenol and reached 45.5 % on day 444 after phenol
increment from 4 to 4.5 mmol/l. Uygur and Kargi (2004) also reported a decrease in removal from 95
% to 79% of 1200 mg/l COD when phenol concentrations were increased from 400 mg/l to 600 mg/l in
a four step (anaerobic/oxic/anoxic/oxic) sequencing batch reactor. The COD concentration in their
synthetic wastewater was < 4 times than our influent COD concentration. Nevertheless one can
observe the inhibition effects of phenol on COD removal at concentrations greater than 4 mmol/l.
When the feed phenol was lowered to 2.5 mmol/l on day 444 retaining the same OLR (5.2 g COD/l.d),
31
COD in effluent was decreased and COD removal efficiency reached 96.7 % on 452nd day. This
shows that inhibition in COD removal caused by increasing the phenol concentration was reversible.
Other authors (Tay et al. 2001) studied phenol shock loading on UASB reactors and stated that
reactors were able to recover fully when the shock loading of phenol was returned to the pre-shock
level.
Fig 2. COD Removal in Anoxic Fluidised Bed Reactor
6000 100
5000 90
% Removal
COD (mg/l)
4000 80
3000 70
2000 60
1000 50
0 40
345 355 365 375 385 395 405 415 425 435 445 455 465
Time (days)
COD (in) COD (out) COD removal(%)
Fig 3. Variation in Percent COD Removal with Phenol
Concentration
5.0 100
4.5 80
% COD removal
concentration
4.0
(mmol/l)
Phenol
60
3.5
40
3.0
2.5 20
2.0 0
410 420 430 440 450 460 470
Time (days)
Phenol (in) % COD Removal
Effect of Shock Loading on Phenol Removal

Influent phenol concentration in the reactor before applying to the shock load, was 2.2 mmol/l and ~
98.6 % phenol was removed at steady state conditions (Fig 4.). Immediately after shock load, phenol
removal efficiency was decreased down to 77 % of 3 mmol/l on day 415. On further increase of the
phenol concentration to 3.5 mmol/l, still ~ 77 % removal was observed. The phenol removal efficiency
remained to be so till day 425. However there was improvement in COD removal. Maier (1988)
studied the biodegradation rate using a mixture of two different substrates, one readily biodegradable
and the other refractory. When fed two substrates with high strength, the microbes would utilize the
readily biodegradable substrate rapidly, followed by the refractory compound. The phenol load was
further raised to 4 mmol/l which resulted in continuous decrease in phenol removal efficiency to 60.5
% till day 436. The influent phenol concentration was further increased up to 4.5 mmol/l. The phenol
removal efficiency deteriorated further and dropped to 48.2 % by day 444 with a corresponding
decrease in COD removal. It indicated that the microbial population needed a reasonable growth and
acclimation period to degrade the increased phenol load. In the current study glucose monohydrate, a
32
readily biodegradable substrate was provided along with phenol. The increase in phenol dropped
down the COD as well as phenol removal indicating that phenol has also toxic effect on those bacteria
which can readily degrade glucose. Otherwise only the COD contributed by undegraded phenol
should have remained in the reactor and the COD from readily degradable substrate like glucose
should have been completely or largely absent.
According to the oxidation stoichiometry, COD of 1 g glucose monohydrate is 0.969 g and COD of 1 g
phenol is 2.38 g. Taking data of day 444 (Table 1), it could be deducted that the majority of COD in
effluent is from residual glucose rather than phenol. To minimise the effect of phenol toxicity, phenol
loading in the reactor was lowered back to 2.5 mmol/l on day 445. The phenol removal improved
rapidly and reached 96.7 % by day 452. Chakraborty and Veeramani (2005) also analysed the effect
of phenol shock load injection in an anaerobic, anoxic and aerobic suspended growth continuous
system. The shock load injection was applied to the anaerobic reactor, the effluent from this reactor
was influent for the anoxic reactor and contained 1.4 times more phenol (620 mg/l) than the usual
loading and by the time, when the influent coming from the upstream anaerobic reactor reached a
steady state value of 480 mg/l , the phenol removal efficiency decreased to 33-49 % .The anoxic
reactor achieved its previous phenol removal efficiency in 7-9 days. In our study the OLR was
increased from 3 to 5.2 g COD/l.d and the phenol load was continuously increased from 2.2 to 4.5
mmol/l (423 mg/l) but as soon as only phenol loading was lowered it attained the previous values in
less than 9 days. This is due to subsequent lower toxicity exerted by phenol on microbial population.
Table 1 - COD contribution from glucose and phenol in reactor effluent
COD COD COD Phenol COD (Effluent COD (Effluent

(Influent) (Effluent) Removal (Effluent) from phenol) from glucose & nutrients)
(g/l) (g/l) X (%) (g/l) (g/l) Y (g/l) X-Y
5.321 2.897 45.46 0.2192 0.521 2.376
Fig 4. Phenol Removal in Anoxic Fluidised Bed Reactor
5 100
4,5
90
Phenol (mmol/l)
4
3,5
% Phenol
80
Removal
3
2,5 70
2
60
1,5
1
50
0,5
0 40
345 355 365 375 385 395 405 415 425 435 445 455 465
Time (days)
Phenol (in) Phenol (out) % Phenol Removal
33
Effect of Shock Loading on Denitrification

Under anoxic conditions NO-3-N acts as an electron acceptor. Complete denitrification is the
sequential reduction of nitrate (NO-3) to nitrogen (N2) as follows (Gallert and Winter 1999):
2e- e- e- e-
- -
NO 3 NO 2 NO 0.5N2O 0.5 N2
For the reduction of 1g NO-3-N > 2.85 g COD is required (Bernet et al.1996). However we had
observed 1 g NO-3-N reduction with ~ 4 g COD till day 414 at 2.17 mmol/l phenol. After increment of
loading, the COD/ NO-3-N was 4.32 on day 415. The observed mean COD/ NO-3-N ratio (Fig 5.) was
3.93 from day 415 to day 445 (the period of 3 to 4.5 mmol/l phenol concentration in the influent feed).
After decrease in phenol from day 446 to 460, the mean COD/ NO-3-N observed was still 3.9. Ratios
varying from 3.4 to 6 have been reported in literature (Sarfaraz et al. 2004, Eiroa et al. 2005) for
denitrification. Since the carbonaceous nutrients are required as the carbon source for the biomass
synthesis as well as an energy source, the amount of carbon required for the dissimilation of a given
amount of nitrate is in practice larger than the stoichiometrically calculated quantity. This has been
confirmed by other studies (Winkler 1984, Nguyen and Shieh 1995, Sarfaraz et al. 2004). Thus
increment of phenol concentration in influent caused reduction of COD removal with a corresponding
reduction of NO-3-N removal as mean ratio was maintained at previous value. During the study
insignificant amounts of NO2-N were found in the samples (results not shown). Also Eiroa et al. (2005)
did not find any nitrite accumulation in spite of the lack of carbon source, except for the assays with
the highest phenol concentration (580 mg/l) in which concentrations up to 12.2 mg NO2-N/ l were
detected.
Fig 5. Variation in Nitrate Reduction and
COD/NO3-N Ratio with Phenol Concentration
6 1,5
(mmol/l), COD(g/l),
COD/NO3-N ratio
5 1,3
concentration
NO3-N (g/l)
Phenol
4 1,1
3 0,9
2 0,7
1 0,5
410 420 430 440 450 460 470
Time (Days)
Phenol (in) COD Removed COD/NO-3-N NO-3-N reduced
Conclusion
The effect of phenol shock loading was investigated in an anoxic fluidised bed reactor. The reactor
was already in operation for > 400 days operating at steady state at an OLR of ~ 3 g COD/l.d and ~
2.2 mmol/l phenol in the synthetic wastewater (containing glucose monohydrate and phenol as carbon
sources) with ~ 95 % and almost ~ 98 % COD and phenol removal efficiencies, respectively on days
before shock loading. A shock load was provided by increasing the OLR to ~ 5.2 g COD/l.d. While
34
keeping it constant, phenol loading was continuously increased from 2.2 to 4.5 mmol/l. There was a
decrease in COD, phenol and NO3-N removal efficiencies. The observed mean ratio of COD removed
to NO3-N reduced was ~ 4. The phenol degradation was not complete and the residual phenol caused
inhibition of the microbial population resulting in low COD and nitrate removal. When phenol
concentration was brought down to 2.5 mmol/l, there was an improvement in the reactor performance.
Within 7-9 days removal efficiencies of COD and phenol reached the values similar as before the
shock loading. Thus it was concluded that the effect of shock phenol load may be irreversible at
concentration of > 2.5 mmol/l phenol in wastewater and an OLR of ~ 5.2 g COD/l.d.
Acknowledgment
The PhD scholarship for this research work was provided by DAAD (Deutscher Akademischer
Austausch Dienst), Bonn.
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35
Brain EST analysis of endocrine system molecules in mummichog killifish

Makoto Ohkubo1,2, Akio Shimizu2, Futoshi Aranishi1
1. Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Miyazaki University, Miyazaki, Japan, Phone: 81-985
58-7224, Fax: 81-985-58-2884, Email: aranishi@cc.miyazaki-u.ac.jp
2. Stock Assessment Division, National Institute of Fisheries Science, Yokohama, Japan
Abstract
Mummichog (Fundulus heteroclitus) is a small killifish that has the utility as a model animal of vertebrates and
aquatic organisms in studying environmental, fisheries and reproductive sciences. For the purpose of developing
mummichog as a bioindicator to detect endocrine-disrupting substances in aquatic environments, we identified
functional genes involved in endocrine systems by means of expressed sequence tag (EST) analysis of mRNA
expressed in mummichog brain. A total of 1,770 ESTs consisted of 612 singlets and 313 contigs comprising
1,158 ESTs. An array of ESTs were identified as genes encoding endocrine system molecules, such as
allatostatin, bradykinin-potentiating peptide/CNP precursor-like protein, putative pheromone receptor CPpr2, and
gonadotropin-releasing hormones I and II, using the BLAST homology search program. In addition, other 2 ESTs
were determined to encode the somatomedin B domain using the InterProScan functional motif scanning. These
results indicate that EST analysis is a powerful tool for collecting endocrine system molecules, some of which
have been suggested to alter their expression profiles in the presence of endocrine-disrupting substances.
Introduction
Mummichog (Fundulus heteroclitus) is widely distributed along the eastern coast of the North America.
This small killifish has a utility as a model animal of vertebrates and aquatic organisms in studying
evolution, embryology, physiology and reproduction, likewise well-known model freshwater fishes such
as zebrafish (Danio rerio) and medaka (Oryzias latipes). There are many advantages in mummichog
as a model animal, because of spawning a large number of eggs, well-understood reproductive
biology and easy rearing, enabling to easily keep fishes alive in laboratory (Cochran et al. 1988;
Shimizu 1997; MacLatchy et al. 2003). Otherwise, mummichog shows an extremely tolerance to
environmental stresses. It can resist not only to the steep cline of salinity and temperature in the
inhabiting water but also to the foul environments such as in the presence of artificial pollutants and a
lack of oxygen (Paschall et al. 2004; Podrabsky & Somero 2004). These characteristics support that
mummichog could be an ideal species for studying adaptive variation in the gene expression and
molecular evolution (Pierce & Crawford 1997; Oleksiak et al. 2002, 2005).
Since many kinds of artificial chemical compounds, e.g. heavy metals, organic phosphorous and
polyaromatic hydrocarbons, were suggested to possess an ability to induce the developmental
abnormality and reproductive dysfunction in a variety of animals ranging from invertebrates to
vertebrates, the effects of these pollutants on endocrine systems in aquatic organisms has been
studied. The unique characteristics of mummichog described above have recently been attracting
many experimental interests of the environmental scientists. Several intensive studies were performed
on the physiological responses in mummichog to exposure to the endocrine-disrupting substances
(EDSs), such as heavy metals (Blanchard & Grosell 2005), steroid hormone antagonists (Urushitani et
al. 2002; Sharpe et al. 2004) and organo-halogens (Timme-Laragy et al. 2006), and then
demonstrated that endocrine systems in mummichog could be useful for detection of the EDSs in
aquatic environments (Zhou et al. 2000; Dube & MacLatchy 2001; MacLatchy et al. 2003). In addition,
several authors reported that the mRNA level of vitellogenin in mummichog liver significantly
increased by exposure to 17 ß-estradiol (Urushitani et al. 2003; Garcia-Reyero et al. 2004). It is
proposed that the expression profiles of functional genes involved in endocrine systems may serve as
a sensitive indicator to detect the EDSs in aquatic environments. In the present study, we identified
36
novel functional genes involved in endocrine systems by means of expressed sequence tag (EST)
analysis of mRNA expressed in mummichog brain.

Materials
Mummichog of the Arasaki strain was reared under the natural photoperiod and temperature
conditions in outdoor tanks supplied with natural seawater at Yokohama, Japan. Fifty of adult fishes
were sacrificed under the anesthesia by m-aminobenzoic acid ethylester methanesulfonate (Sigma, St
Louis, USA), and brains were immediately frozen on dry ice and transported to the laboratory followed
by store at -80 °C until use.
EST analysis
Total RNA was isolated from mummichog brain using a Nucleospin RNA purification kit (Clontech
Laboratories, Inc., Palo Alto, USA) according to the manufacture’s instruction. The cDNA library was
constructed using a Creator SMART cDNA library construction kit (Clontech) according to the
manufacture’s instruction. The pTriplEx2 plasmid vector carrying the constructed double-strand cDNA
was transformed into XL2-Blue competent cells by electroporation, and then inoculated onto
LB/Amp/IPTG/X-gal agar plates. A total of 1,770 single white colonies were randomly picked for
construction of cDNA library, and their plasmids were amplified using a TempliPhi DNA amplification
kit (Amersham Biosciences, Tokyo, Japan). Nucleotide sequences of cDNA were determined using a
DYEnamic ET terminator sequencing kit (Amersham Biosciences) in a MegaBACE1000 DNA
sequencer (Amersham Biosciences).
Sequence analysis
The scheme of EST annotation was shown in Fig. 1. Analysis of nucleotide sequences of the
mummichog brain ESTs was carried out using bioinformatics tools such as CLUSTALW multiple
alignment, TIGR gene indices clustering tools (TGICL) (Pertea et al. 2003), BLAST homology search
program, and InterProScan functional motif search program. First, the brain ESTs were assembled
into contigs, which were the cDNA transcribed from a single mRNA using TGICL. Second, EST
sequences were compared with the NCBI nonredundant database (Genbank) using BLAST homology
search program, and the ESTs containing homologous sequences to gene information on the
Genbank were identified as functional genes. On the other hand, the ESTs containing no significant
homologous sequence to the Genbank were compared with two mummichog EST databases such as
TGIR killifish gene index (http://www.tigr.org/tdb/tgi/) and FunnyBase expressed gene database
(http://funnybase.umkc.edu/super_craw3/) (Paschall et al. 2004) using BLAST homology search
program. When the homologous EST sequences were found in these mummichog EST databases,
both sequences were aligned by CLUSTALW multiple alignment to obtain the consensus sequences.
The consensus sequences were then reviewed in the Genbank, and the ESTs showed significant
match were identified as functional genes. The nucleotide sequences of unidentified ESTs during the
above procedures were deduced to amino acid sequences followed by applying to the InterProScan
functional motif search program, and the ESTs containing functional protein motif were identified.
Finally, all of identified ESTs were subjected to alignment test to verify the coding regions of functional
genes.

Mummichog (Fundulus heteroclitus) has been used as excellent materials for studying the
environmental control of reproductive endocrine system (Shimizu 1997; Urushitani et al. 2002). In the
present study, we carried out EST analysis of mummichog brain to identify novel functional genes
involved in endocrine systems as an indicator to detect the endocrine-disrupting substances (EDSs) in
37
aquatic environments. Overall feature of the cDNA library analyzed was summarized in Table 1. The
average nucleotide length of a total of 1,770 mammichog brain ESTs sequenced was estimated to be
421 bp. Of 1,770 ESTs, 1,158ESTs were clustered into 313 contigs, and remaining 612 ESTs were
singlets, and the average nucleotide lengths of the contigs and singlets were estimated to be 728 bp
and 410, respectively. However, 90 singlets less than 100 bp in a nucleotide length were excluded
from the following analysis. Based on these results, we obtained at least 835 unique sequences of
mRNA expressed in mummichog brain.
Sequence arrangement Homology search
Mummichig brain EST

Genbank FunnyBase
TGIR killifish gene index
Trimming vector sequence EST sequence Low homology
EST sequence
CLUSTALW
EST sequence EST sequence
Homology search Homology search
Clustering alignment BLAST BLAST

Consensus
TGICL
sequence
EST sequence
+ EST sequence
Resubmit to +
Genbank ID Genbank search
Singlet sequence Sequence ID
Alignme nt sequence
Contig sequence Consensus sequence
+
Dataset information
EST sequence
+ High homology EST sequence Low homology
Genbank ID
Alignment verification Functional analysis
EST sequence EST sequence

+
Genbank ID
Functional motif ID Deduced amino
EST sequence acid sequence
+
Inte rProScan ID
Multiple alignment
Functional motif search
CLUSTALW
Inte rProScan
Identified EST EST sequence

with +
Structural information Inte rProScan ID
Fig. 1. Schematic procedure of annotation of mummichog brain EST. EST annotation procedure was
composed of 4 analytical steps; sequence arrangement, homology search, functional analysis and
alignment verification. Arrows indicate data flows. EST sequence and annotated data are showed in
white boxes. Analysis using bioinformatics tools are showed in gray boxes.
The mummichog brain ESTs identified as functional genes were summarized in Table 2. Some
functional genes, such as GABA receptor associated protein, creatine kinase B, glyceraldehyde 3
phosphate dehydrogenase, and ubiquitin, were also identified during the brain EST analysis of several
fish species (Davey et al. 2001; Shiue et al. 2004), and their expression profiles also seemed to reflect
their functional roles in mummichog brain. In addition, the proportion of functional categories of the
identified ESTs (Fig. 2) was closely similar to that of brain ESTs obtained from other vertebrate
38
species (Nobis et al. 2003), and then the cDNA library constructed in the present study was suitable
for discovering novel functional genes expressed in mummichog brain.
Endocrine system
11%
Others
32%
Signal
transduction
24%
Unknown
2% Energy
metabolism
Immunity 6%
1%
Morphogenesis
Metabolism and development
18% 6%
Fig. 2. Proportion of the identified mummichog brain ESTs in functional categories.

Table 1. Summary of EST datasets from mummichog brain
Feature
Total number of cDNA sequenced 1,770
Maximum nucleotide length of ESTs 790 (bp)
Average nucleotide length of ESTs 421 (bp)
Number of EST clustered into any contig 1,158
Number of contig 313
Maximum nucleotide length of contigs 1,496 (bp)
Average nucleotide length of contigs 728 (bp)
Number of singlet 612
Maximum nucleotide length of singlets 756 (bp)
Average nucleotide length of singlets 410 (bp)

39
We identified novel functional genes involved in endocrine systems, such as bradykinin-potentiating

peptide/CNP precursor-like protein, putative pheromone receptor CPpr2, somatomedin B,
gonadotropin-releasing hormone I and II, in mummichog brain (Table 2). Several studies suggested
that endocrine systems in mummichog might be useful for determining the effects of the environmental
pollutants. For example, the exposure to bleached kraft pulp mill effluents, which is actuality
discharged into the river, lake and sea waters as anthropogenic activity, depressed plasma
testosterone in mummichog (Dube & MacLatchy 2001; Hewitt et al. 2002). In addition, Garcia-Reyero
et al. (2004) reported that male mummichog exposed to 17 ß-estradiol contained levels of vitellogenin
mRNA up to 30 times higher than in untreated females, and concluded that mRNA levels of endocrine
system molecules in male mummichog could be used for more precise detection of the EDSs in
aquatic environments. It is suggested that novel functional genes of endocrine system molecules
identified in the present study might be useful for further studies dealing with the effects of the EDSs
on endocrine system in mummichog and for detection of the EDSs in aquatic environments.
Table 2. List of the identified ESTs in mummichog brain.

Accession ID* Name Closest species E-value Score
Endocrine system
AF076961 gonadotropin-releasing hormones-I Haplochromis burtoni 1e-20 105
DQ023158 gonadotropin-releasing hormones-II Anser anser 7e-05 54
Q1AHE3 allatostatin Macrobrachium rosenbergii 7e-10 66
BC044153 scaffold attachment factor B Danio rerio 3e-05 52
Q9PT52 bradykinin-potentiating peptide/CNP precursor-like protein Gloydius blomhoffi 1.7 34
Q5I5D5 putative pheromone receptor CPpr2 Cyprinid sp. 2.2 35
IPR001212 somatomedin B
Signal transduction
AJ304801 cyplasin S Aplysia punctata e-173 615
AY190697 GABA receptor associated protein Pagrus major 1e-08 70
Q3ZCC0 guanine nucleotide binding protein Bos taurus 6e-25 115
AF111084 latrophilin 2 Bos taurus 2e-63 244
Q6U7I5 neural adhesion molecule L1.1 Danio rerio 3e-04 47
P79826 myelin proteolipid protein Oncorhynchus mykiss 9e-23 109
Q7ZVL9 GDP dissociation inhibitor 2 Danio rerio 1e-42 176
Q5PR72 cGMP-stimulated 3',5'-cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase Mus musculus 2e-27 131
Q28D06 / PTHR22776 chemokine-like factor super family Xenopus tropicalis 9e-11 69
Energy metabolism
M11306 / IPR000749 creatine kinase B Oryctolagus cuniculus 8e-37 163
Q90XF8 triosephosphate isomerase B Danio rerio e-107 396
AF123727 / IPR000173 glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase Astatotilapia burtoni 4e-05 58
IPR000794 ß-ketoacyl synthase
PTHR10357 maltase
Morphogenesis and development
Q6NWF6 / PTHR23239 keratin Danio rerio 8e-28 125
Q9P0K1 metalloprotease-disintegrin Homo sapiens 3e-33 144
Q29071 mucin Sus scrofa 8e-20 100
Metabolism
P56595 / IPR006781 apolipoprotein C-I Canis familiaris 0.004 46
Q5GA11 O-GlcNAc transferase Danio rerio e-103 376
AF018267 / IPR006204 GHMP kinase Columba livia 1.7 42
AB117756 / IPR001148 carbonic anhydrase Oncorhynchus mykiss 8e-07 60
AY513652 / IPR002223 Kunitz type proteinase inhibitor Ostrinia nubilalis 3e-05 58
Q4UHQ9 / IPR000626 ubiquitin Theileria annulata 2e-53 213
IPR008985 concanavalin A-like lectin/glucanase
SSF53901 thiolase
IPR000425 transmembrane channel protein
Immunity
IPR001007 von Willebrand factor
Unknown
Q98TI8 transposase Pleuronectes platessa 2e-20 102
O36977 pol polyprotein Walleye epidermal 4e-09 64
hyperplasia virus
*, Accession ID on the databases of the Genbank / InterProScan.

The mummichog brain library was abundant in genes involved in GTPase mediated signal
transduction including guanine nucleotide binding protein (G protein), cGMP-stimulated 3',5'-cyclic
nucleotide phosphodiesterase, and GDP dissociation inhibitor 2 (Table 2). These molecules are
40
important modulator of linking extracellular signals to cellular responses in endocrine glands. Several
studies reported that the gene expression of these molecules in higher vertebrate brain was regulated
by administration of several chemical substances and suggested that it might be a cause of the
abnormality in signal transduction of endocrine glands (Hallak & Rubin 2004; Alfonso et al. 2006). It is
noteworthy that a unique functional gene encoding Ca2+ independent specific receptor for black widow
spider venom, latrophilin, was identified in mummichog brain (Table 2). Latrophilin belongs to the
secretin/calcitonin family of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), which are one of peptide hormone
receptors coupled with heterotrimeric G proteins, because it has many structural features thought to
be important for GPCRs such as seven hydrophobic transmembrane segments, possible
phosphorylation sites (Lelianova et al. 1997). Although the physiological roles of latrophilin have not
been clear, the mechanism of a black widow spider venom action to neuronal cells via latrophilin have
been well characterized (Hlubek et al. 2000; Lajus et al. 2006). These facts suggested the utility of
latrophilin as tools for studying the mechanisms of neuronal and endocrine deficient occurred by
exposure to the toxic chemicals including EDSs (Mee et al. 2004).
It is well known that heavy metals possess not only a reproductive toxicity in aquatic organisms but
also an ability to induce cellular oxidative stresses. In the present study, novel functional genes
encoding two energy metabolizing enzymes such as creatine kinase B and glyceraldehyde 3
phosphate dehydrogenase were identified (Table 2). Both enzymes are known to be sensitive to
cellular oxidative stresses owing to a significant decrease in their catalyzing ability by oxidation of thiol
groups present in the molecules (Butterfield et al. 1988; Ishii et al. 1999). The enzymatic activities of
creatine kinase in porcine brain and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase in cultured neurons
were reported to decrease by exposure to oxidative stress-inducing substances including heavy
metals (Hall et al. 2000; Zhang et al. 1996). Therefore, it is suggested that these enzymes could be
biochemical markers for the presence of heavy metals in aquatic environments.
In the present study, we identified novel functional genes, which could to be useful as an indicator for
detection of EDSs in aquatic environments, by comprehensive analysis of expressed genes in
mummichog brain. Since few studies are available on the responses in the gene expression of
endocrine system molecules in fish brain and other tissues, further studies on their expression profiles
in mummichog are necessary.
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43
Prospects of natural colorants and study of their application in the field

of paper coloration
M. I. Savvidou , D. G. Economides
National Technical University of Athens, School of Chemical Engineering, Division IV: Synthesis and
Development of Industrial Processes, Laboratory of Organic & Chemical Technology, 9 Heroon Polytechniou
St., Zografou Campus, Athens, Greece GR-157 80. e-mail: msavidou@mail.ntua.gr
Abstract
In this paper a presentation of some recommendations in order to establish competitive production

processes of natural dyes is given, as well as a short review of their applications. A new application of
natural dyes, this one in the field of paper coloration is also examined. Several plant materials, mainly by-
products of agricultural activities, were investigated as sources of natural dyes. The production of natural
dyes was achieved by aquatic extraction of the plant materials in order to apply an environmentally friendly
method of producing the dyes. A broad variation in shade and color depth was achieved, which was found to
lie mainly in the first and also in the second quadrant of the a*b* plot.
Introduction
Today, the protection of environment has become a challenge for the chemical industry. All over
the world, environmental regulations are becoming stricter and forcing the shift of technology
towards less or practically non-polluting areas of technological development. The dyestuff industry
is under increasing pressure to minimise the damage to the environment, which is caused by the
used production and application processes and their effluents. Synthetic dyestuffs have also come
under severe criticism on the grounds of causing toxic and allergic reactions to humans.
Considering the above, the scientific interest and the consumer’s preference have been turned
towards the use of natural products as substitutes of the synthetic petrochemical counterparts. The
use of natural colorants seems to be a way of exploiting renewable resources that cause minimum
pollution to the environment and have a low risk to human health. Many natural dyes and
pigments, derived from natural sources such as plants, animals and minerals have been known
and used for thousands of years, without any reports showing that they are harmful. However, no
substance can be regarded as being totally harmless, whether natural or synthetic and correct
adherence to regulations appropriate to the specific hazards involved will always be important. This
is the reason why modern tests are applied in order to verify the safety of natural dyes, particularly
in the field of food industry.
Natural colorants processed for the market do not undergo any chemical operations. On the
contrary, the operations involved are purely physical (grinding, water or solvent extraction, spray or
vacuum drying,), and so they do not create serious environmental problems. Furthermore, natural
dyes can exhibit better biodegradability and generally have a higher compatibility with the
environment compared to their synthetic counterparts. According to public opinion the resurgence
of natural colorants can also be a way to understand and protect the cultural heritage bequeathed
by previous generations (Vankar et al., 2006; Paul et al., 2005; Kamel et al., 2005; Gulrajani et al.,
2001; Ishigami and Suzuki, 1997; Gupta and Gulrajani, 1996).
Despite centuries of interest in natural colorants, our knowledge of their distribution, availability and
properties is limited. Worldwide, 70% of all plants have not been investigated at all, and the
chemical composition of only 0.5% has been exhaustively studied. Therefore, our ignorance of
what exists in nature explains partly the limited use of natural colorants.
As a replacement for conventional plant growing techniques, some experts promote plant cells and
tissue cultures. However, since plant cell growth rate is rather slow, it is doubtful that such
manufacturing techniques are of economic interest for only the purpose of pigment production.
Some others claim that the microbial production of pigments from fungi could have the advantage
44
of producing higher yield; however, microbially produced pigments require costly toxicological
research, manufacturing costs, and acceptance by consumers.
On the other hand, technologists claim that natural dyes are significantly more sensitive to heat, pH
and light than their synthetic counterparts. Thus, these drawbacks limit their use in modern coloring
applications. Although, this is not true for all colorants and conditions, these facts are rather
surprising for biologists because in vivo these colours seem to be reasonably stable. In contrast to
chemical synthesis of stable molecules, plants seem to have developed other strategies to protect
their colours. Further understanding of their biological environments is maybe the key for
controlling the stability of plant colorants. Taking into account all the above, workers in the field of
product development ask for alternative sources of coloring materials, as well as new fields of their
application (Durán et al., 2002; Wissgott and Bortlik, 1996).
In this paper, an initial presentation of the potential strategies to establish technically and
commercially competitive production processes of natural dyes is given, as well as a short review
of their applications. Finally, a new application of natural dyes, this one in the field of paper
coloration is also examined.
Focal point of paper coloration is the achievement of a desirable shade for aesthetic purposes in
combination with the necessary properties required by the paper product end use (Britt, 1984).
Additionally, one important prerequisite for many paper applications is the fact, that the dyed
product must be easily decolourised in order to be recycled. The bleaching of coloured papers is a
major problem of paper recycling industry, because many dyes are resistant to deinking and to mild
oxidative treatments, such as treatment with hydrogen peroxide. Hypochlorite and chlorine are
often effective in destroying dyestuffs, but their use may be discontinued for environmental reasons
(Lacorte et al., 2003; Saliba et al., 2002; Berry, 1998; Dence and Douglas, 1996).
Consequently, ecological responsibility has become a very strong criterion that guides the field of
research and development of new paper dyes. In paper dyeing operations the technical drawbacks
of natural dyes (water solubility and poor fastness) can become an application advantage
considering, that the final natural coloured paper can be recycled without the use of dangerous
chemicals or at least with minimised amounts of them. Furthermore, in the case of mechanical
pulp, which is mainly used for the production of short life paper products, such as newsprint and
advertising stock, the poor light fastness of natural dyes does not become an application
hindrance.
Recommendations
Since the 90s, research institutions in Germany, Italy, England, France, the Netherlands and
Austria have been dealing with research for the re-introduction of natural dyes. The reasons for this
new scientific interest are based on the growing awareness to find sustainable non-toxic
alternatives to synthetic dyes and the search for additional, economically viable alternative crops
for farmers. In Southern Europe there is a recent demand for the development of alternative crops
designed to increase the profitability of farming systems. Plant producing dyes represent potential
alternative crops, which may be of high value and quality. Several research projects have so far
been carried out to evaluate the techno-economic feasibility of today’s alternative dye crops.
At the Thüringer Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft (Germany), 108 dye plant species were
assessed on the basis of their suitability for modern cultivation systems, on yields, and on dyeing
quality. Of these species, 19 species were considered as useful for cultivation and dyestuff
production. Rubia tinctorum, Reseda luteola, Solidago Canadensis, Anthemis tinctoria, Polygonum
tinctorium are considered to play a decisive role in future dye plant cultivation and processing.
Nevertheless, other species may also become important for dyeing (Hartl and Vogl, 2003; Angelini
et al., 1997).
45
The following research areas are the most important:
Â To understand the physiological and agronomic factors affecting the quality and yield of
colorants from the plant, such as:
(i) Careful selection of the suitable site for cultivation, taking into account parameters of soil
and climate.
(ii) Use of appropriate provenances (seed purity, germinating power, homogeneity, yield,
dyestuff content, suitability for dyeing, technological suitability).
(iii) Selection of the optimal harvesting time, height of cutting.
(iv) Gentle post-harvest treatment, which guarantees good quality (influence of temperature
and drying time on dyestuff content, influence of the degree of reduction on dye yields during
extraction).
(v) Cultivation of units large enough to achieve constant quality (Hartl &Vogl, 2003).
Â To improve the quality and yield by selection, conventional breeding, genetic manipulation and
transformation.
Important aim in research is to screen and select species, which fit for modern sustainable
cultivation techniques as well as for dyeing on a large scale. Furthermore, it is necessary to
improve the quality and yield of natural dye substances in order to accomplish the successful
introduction of natural colorants in global market (Hancok, 1997).
Â To develop efficient systems of dye plant production (e.g., nutrition, pest, weed and disease
control, husbandry, suitable rotations, harvesting systems and soil types).
Weed control in dye plants is necessary especially in the early growth stages. For conventional
cultivation methods no herbicides are legally permitted in Europe and therefore the risk of
damages due to the use remains with farmers. The Thüringer Landesanstalt, as well as the
Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft des Landes Brandenburg are conducting research on the use of
herbicides in dye plants. The published cultivation instructions also explain techniques of
mechanical weed control. These techniques are the classical procedures of proper mechanical
weed management used by farmers.
Regarding harvesting systems, the same equipment that is used in herb and spices cultivation can
also be used for dye plants. High harvesting costs are caused by the harvest of flowers, roots,
leaves or whole plants. Dye plants of which the whole plant or the leaves are used for obtaining
dyestuffs can be harvested with the harvesters that are also used to harvest fodder. Nevertheless,
it is important to note that the storage box of the harvester is not large enough and so it needs
emptying regularly. The increase of temperature in densely stocked piles reduces quality by the
decomposition of phytochemicals (Hartl and Vogl, 2003).
The following areas are also of interest:
Â A promising concept for production of natural dyes with lowered specific cost involves the use
of:
(i) Cheap by-products from other agricultural activities, e.g. bark from timber industry,
shells, leaves from abundantly available plants etc., with the knowledge that many vegetable
residues contain significant amounts of potentially interesting compounds. The use of these by-
products as potential sources of natural colorants accomplishes the recovery, recycling and
upgrading of wastes to higher value and useful products.
46
(ii) Dyestuff-containing wastes, e.g. those released from the food and beverage industry
free of charge. In many cases these highly coloured plant residues contain considerable amounts
of natural dyes. The huge amount of such wastes released from industrial food and beverage
production could be an important sustainable source for extraction of natural dyes as colorants for
many applications. The process of dyestuff extraction could be inserted between the stage of
release of waste and the final step of waste handling, e.g. animal feed, biodegradation or compost
disposal. According to the pertinent literature, only aqueous extraction is acceptable at present
because application of solvent/chemicals in the extraction step will prevent further use of the
extracted matter for cattle feed or composting (Bechtold et al., 2006; Laufenberg et al., 2003).
(iii) Combined utilization of plants – extraction of other useful organic compounds in addition
to dyes, such as antioxidants, essential oils, pharmaceutical compounds etc.
(iv) The residual plant material from the extraction processes as soil conditioner, animal
feed, as well as absorbent of chemical load from industrial effluents.
Â The efficiency of extraction of the dye from the plant material.
Natural colorants can be extracted from plant material with the use of a solvent (e.g., water,
alcohol). Several reports suggest various extraction methods, such as the use of supercritical fluids
and ultrasonic assisted extraction, in order to increase the yield and also reduce the temperature
and the duration of the extraction process (Kamel et al, 2005; Cadoni et al., 2000).
Applications of natural Colorants

Colorants may be applied on manufactured articles or into a range of colour application media for a
variety of reasons, but most commonly the ultimate purpose is to enhance the appearance and
attractiveness of a product and improve its market appeal. Colours play an important role for
customers in making decisions on what they like and dislike. They evoke various emotional
feelings such as excitement, energy and calmness. Natural colorants can be applied in the
following fields:
Â Textile dyes: All natural dyes colour natural fibres to a greater or lesser extent, depending on
the fibre and its structure. Wool and cotton are the fibres most widely dyed by craft and traditional
dyers. Cotton takes up dyes differently to wool. Natural dyes are equally good at colouring silk and
they do not harm the fibroin or insoluble protein of each silk filament (Hancok, 1997). Regarding
synthetic fibres, there are some reports of good results of natural dyes on nylon and polyester
(Gupta et al., 2001; Lokhande and Dorugade, 1999).
Nowadays, the interest in natural dyes in textile applications is further increased because of their
recently discovered useful medicinal functions, such as their antibacterial and antifeeding effects;
in addition to the positive feeling that people have about their safety (Kato et al.,2004). Textile
materials and clothing are known to be susceptible to microbial attack, as these provide large
surface area and adsorb moisture required for microbial growth. Natural fibres have protein and
cellulose, which provide basic requirements such as moisture, oxygen, nutrients and temperature
for bacterial growth and multiplication. This often leads to objectionable odour, dermal infection,
product deterioration, allergic responses or related diseases. This necessitates the development of
clothing that could provide a desired antimicrobial effect. Textiles dyed with natural dyes can be
very useful in developing clothing for infants, elderly and infirm people to protect them against
common infections. They will be equally useful in bed linen, carpets and other home textiles, which
are major propagators of common infections (Singh et al., 2005).
Significant characteristic of textiles is also their ability to protect people during their exposure to
sun. High, short-term exposure to ultraviolet radiation (UVR) from the sun causes sunburns and
long-term exposure leads to skin cancer. The American Cancer Society estimates that more than
one million cases of skin cancer are diagnosed each year in the United States. Therefore,
knowledge of the factors that contribute to the protective abilities of textiles is vital. Important
47
factors include fibre composition, fabric construction and wet-processing history of the fabric, such
as colour and other finishing chemicals that may have been applied to the textile material. A
plethora of previous studies have concluded, that good UVR protection can be provided by
synthetic fibre dyed with high concentrations of synthetic dyes. However, synthetic fibres are
generally deemed to be not comfortable for wear, and also several reports of allergic contact
dermatitis to synthetic textile dyes make these dyes undesirable. Sarkar (2004) investigated the
ultraviolet properties of natural fabrics dyed with natural colorants. The results of this research
suggested that dyeing with natural colorants dramatically increases the ultraviolet protective
abilities of the fabrics and can be considered as an effective protection against ultraviolet rays
(Sarkar, 2004; Dawes-Higgs and Freeman, 2004).
Â Food and Beverages: Natural colours have always formed part of man’s normal diet and have,
therefore, been safely consumed by countless generations. The desirability of retaining the natural
colour of food is self-evident, but often the demands of industry are such that additional colour is
required. Contrary to many reports, natural sources can provide a comprehensive range of
attractive colours for use in the modern food and beverages industry.
Colours may be added to foods and beverages for several reasons, which may be summarized as
follows:
(i) To reinforce colours already present in food and beverages but less intense than the
consumer would expect.
(ii) To ensure uniformity of colour in food and beverages from batch to batch.
(iii) To restore the original appearance of food and beverages, whose colour has been
affected by processing.
(iv) To give colour to certain foods and beverages, such as sugar confectionery, ice lollies
and soft drinks, which would otherwise be virtually colourless.
The natural food colorants industry is experiencing annual growth rates of 5-10% (compared with
3-5% for its synthetic counterpart). Leading internationally operating suppliers of natural colorants
are Chr. Hansen’s Laboratories (Denmark), Warner-Jenkinson Europe Ltd (UK), Kalsec Inc. (USA)
and Quest International (The Netherlands). The demand for natural colorants is expected to
continue. Producers of confectionery, soft drinks, alcoholic beverages, salad dressings and diary
products are the most significant users of natural colorants.
Natural colorants are widely permitted all over the world. However, there is no universally accepted
definition of this term and many countries exclude from their list of permitted colours those
substances that have both a flavouring and a colouring effect. Thus spices are generally not
regarded as colours. The European Union permits a wide range of colours, some of which are of
natural origin and these are listed in Table 1. The USA has a different set of natural colorants. One
of the advantages of using natural colours is that they are generally more widely permitted in
foodstuffs than synthetic colours (Wissgott and Bortlik, 1996; Hendry and Houghton, 1996).
Table 1: Natural Colorants (and colorants of natural origin)

listed by the EU (Hendry and Houghton, 1996).
Number Colorant
E100 Curcumin
E101 Rriboflavin, riboflavin-5’-phosphate
E120 Cochineal, carminic acid, carmines
E140 Chlorophylls and chlorophyllins
E141 Copper complexes of chlorophylls and chlorophyllins
E150a Plain caramel
E153 Vegetable carbon
48
Table 1: continuation
Number Colorant
E160a Mixed carotenes and β-catotene
E160b Annatto, bixin, norbixin
E160c Paprika extract, capsanthin, capsorubin
E160d Lycopene
E160e Β-Apo-8’-carotenal (C30)
E161b Lutein
E161g Canthaxanthin
E162 Beetroot red, betanin
E163 Anthocyanins
Â Photovoltaic cells: Several natural pigments have been utilized as sensitizers in photovoltaic
cells due to their capability of injection of electrons from excited pigments to the conduction band
anchored material. Most pigments utilized in photovoltaic cells undergo rapid photodegratation.
Natural pigment cyanin is known as more photo-stable than other pigments in the application of
photovoltaic cells (Sirimanne et al., 2006). Polo and Iha (2003) achieved the successful conversion
of visible light into electrical output by using natural dyes as wide-bandgap semiconductor
sensitizers in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (Polo and Iha, 2003).
Â Medicine and cosmetics: Since ancient times, plants have been used in virtually every culture
throughout the world as a source of folk medicine, as well as in cosmetics. Over two millennia ago,
the father of medicine Hippocrates mentioned about 400 medicinal plants and advised ‘let food be
your medicine and let medicine be your food’. In recent times, focus on plant research has
increased all over the world and a large body of evidence has collected to show immense potential
of medicinal plants used in various traditional systems. A lot of these medicinal plants also belong
to the class of dye plants. Most of their plant extracts contain besides the colorants essential oils
and pharmacological active compounds that can increase their commercial value and lead to a
multifaceted utilization of them. For instance several studies refer to the potential use of saffron
(Crocus sativus L.) in cancer therapy and chemo prevention trials or to the cardioprotective,
antithrombotic and antioxidant effects of flavonoids, which are present in most of the dye plant
sources (Abdullaev and Epsinosa-Aguirre, 2004; Dahanukar et al., 2000; Cook and Samman,
1996). Due to the pedologic conditions, Greece exhibits an abundance of aromatic and medicinal
plants. Unfortunately, this high natural production remains unexploited. It is believed that the
utilization of these unique natural resources could gain the interest of cultivators, investors and
national agents and thus become a dynamic national economical factor (Σαρλής, 1999).
Â Colorants for application in Thermoplastics: Van den Oever et al. (2004) evaluated a series
of colorants based on renewable resources and food-grade colorants for use in polypropylene (PP)
and polyvinylchloride (PVC). They found that most of the examined colorants can be processed in
PP at 200oC or even 260oC while maintaining good colour intensity and colour brightness. The
colorants evaluated cover a large part of the colour spectrum and exhibited satisfactory light
stability. The best performing natural colorants meet the technical requirements for applications
where moderate properties concerning heat resistance and (UV) light stability are required, such
as indoor PP applications and PVC water drainage pipes (Van den Oever et al, 2004).
Case study: Application of natural dyes in the field of paper coloration

Experimental
Production of the deinked mechanical pulp
For the production of deinked pulp, a wastepaper laboratory wash deinking process was followed.
The old newspapers selected for the production of deinked mechanical pulp had an age of 30 days
at the time of deinking. Deinking of the furnish was carried out in three steps:
49
(1) Impregnation: The appropriate amount of wastepaper (calculated as 80g of oven dried paper)
was torn into small pieces by hand and added into the reagents solution in a plastic pot so that the
resulting pulp stock consistency (s.c.) was 15% w/w. The reagents used and their addition ratios
(reported on dry fibre mass basis) were: 1.2% NaOH, 1% H2O2, 2.5% waterglass (sodium silicate
as a 33 to 37% w/w solution supplied by Merck), 0.6% dispersant (Lutensol A08, an ethoxylated
synthetic alcohol, supplied by BASF). Warm (45oC) de-ionised water was used for dilution. The
resulting slurry was mixed with the help of a plastic rod and remained for 10min at 45oC in a
waterbath.
(2) Pulping: The slurry was diluted with warm (45oC) tap water to 4.3% w/w s.c. The mixture was
added to a Maelstrom laboratory pulper and was pulped for 20min without any external heating.
(3) Washing: Washing was conducted in a 5.8l (18 by 18 by 18cm) laboratory washing cell
(Helmling, 1986), which was constructed in our laboratory. The frame of the cell was constructed
from Plexiglas; square screens (12 by 12cm) constructed of copper gauze with openings of 80μm
were placed on its peripheral sides and the cell was placed into an outer Plexiglas pot equipped
with an overflow outlet. For proper function of the washing cell each batch consisted of 80g of oven
dry pulp and the stock consistency was 1.5% w/w. The stock was agitated with a propeller at
1700r.p.m., the washing time and the wash water flow were 20min and 0.8l/min respectively.
(4) At the end of the deinking procedure the produced pulp was filtrated through a Büchner funnel
in order to reduce the amount of the retained water. The moist pulp (with approximately 83% w/w
s.c.) was then stored in an air - tight plastic pot at 4oC.
Selection, storage and extraction of plant materials

A variety of plant materials, which are available from various regions of Greece were examined as
potential sources of natural dyes. Most of the examined plant materials are by-products from
agricultural activities (i.e. barks, husks and leaves) and some of them are wastes released from the
food industry (i.e. hulls). Among the examined plant sources, there are also herbaceous plants,
such as Dittrichia graveolens L. Greuter, which can be also used for its essential oils and
pharmacological active compounds (Petropoulou et al., 2004; Blanc et al., 2004; Öksüz and Topçu,
1991). The roots of Rubia tinctorum L. is one of the several quite interesting sources of natural
dyes, evaluated according to recent reports for their techno-economic feasibility of today’s
alternative dye crops (Angelini et al., 1997). Finally, some of the examined plant materials, like the
whole Rytiphlaea tinctoria plant and the husks and hulls of Amygdalus communis are examined for
their dyeing properties for the first time.
The selected plant parts were air dried in a dark place at room temperature. Before the extraction
the used plant parts were ground to pieces. The production of natural dyes was achieved by
aquatic extraction of plants, in order to apply an environmental friendly method of producing the
dyes and also to allow the further use of the extracted matter for animal feed or composting.
Extraction was performed using a liquor ratio of 72:1(ml/g) (for 0.69g of oven dry plant material a
volume of 50ml of deionised water was used) at 84oC for 60min. The insoluble residues were
separated by filtration through a copper filter fabric (120mesh). The resulted plant extracts were
used in the dyeing experiments. Table 2 shows the used plant materials, their grain size, as well as
their main dyeing components according to the pertinent literature.
Dyeing
Dyeing was performed using a liquor ratio of 32:1(ml/g) (for 1.5g of oven dry pulp a dyebath
volume of 45ml was used) at 45oC for 12min. Every dyeing experiment was repeated three times
and one handsheet was prepared from the dyed pulp of each experiment.
Colour measurement
The shade achieved by the dyeing procedure was examined on the handsheets prepared from the
dyed pulp according to SCAN-C-26-76 and SCAN-C-M5-76 methods using a Lorentzen and Wettre
50
(Sweden) sheet former model SCA and a laboratory sheet press. The oven dry mass of the
produced round handsheets was 1.5g and their diameter was 165mm. The prepared wet
handsheets were dried for 17sec at 180oC in a Lorentzen and Wettre Rapid Dryer, model Code
257 and then stored in a dark place, at room temperature, for 24h before the determination of their
colour.
The colour of the produced handsheets was described according to the CIELAB system. The
chromatic coordinates were measured using a Dr. Lange colorimeter. Three colour measurements
were performed on the top side of the prepared handsheets. The average value of the three
measurements was chosen as the final value of the chromatic coordinates of each handsheet. The
assessment of colour difference was done with the determination of total colour difference ΔΕ*ab
between the handsheets prepared from the dyed pulp and a reference sample. Handsheets
produced from the moist deinked mechanical pulp were used as reference samples for the
calculation of ΔΕ*ab. The total colour difference is given from the following equation (Gilchrist and
Nobbs, 1999):
ΔΕ*ab=[(ΔL*)2+(Δa*)2+(Δb*)2]1/2
where
ΔL* = L*sample – L*reference
Δa* = a*sample – a*reference
Δb* = b*sample – b*reference
Table 2: Characteristics of the plant materials used as potential sources of natural dyes for
the paper dyeing operation.
Plant Used Grain size Main dyestuff components
part (mm)
Dittrichia graveolens L. leaves 0.50-1.00 Flavonoids: sakuranetin, kaemperol (Petropoulou
(Greuter) et al., 2004; Blanc et al., 2004; Öksüz and
Topçu, 1991).
Juglans regia L. bark 4.00-6.30 Flavonoids: myrecetin, myricitrin, sakuranetin,
sakuranin and neosakuranin (Schweppe, 1993).
husks 0.63-0.80 Napthoquinone: juglon (Schweppe, 1993).
leaves 4.00-7.00 Naphtoquinone: juglon (Schweppe, 1993).
hulls 3.00-6.00 -
Rytiphlaea tinctoria whole 0.40-0.70 Phycobilin: florubine (Jean and Rene, 1947).
plant
Castanea sativa Mill. bark 2.00-4.00 Gallotannins: Hamamelitannin (Schweppe,
1993).
Eucalyptus globulus bark 2.00-3.15 Flavonoids: eriodictyol, naringenin, quercetin,
taxifolin (Kim et al., 2001).
leaves 1.50-2.00 -
Crocus sativus L. pollen 0.20-0.40 Carotenoids, flavonoids, anthocyanins (Chia-
Ying and Tian-Shung, 2002).
Rubia tinctorum L. roots 0.63-3.15 Main anthraquinone alizarin and 36 other
anthraquinones (Derksen and Van Beek, 2002).
Amygdalus communis husks 0.63-0.80 -
hulls 3.00-6.00 -
Quercus bark 2.00-4.00 Flavonoids: quercetin (Schweppe, 1993).
Pinus halepensis bark 2.00-4.00 -
Fagus sylvatica bark 2.00-4.00 -
Ficus carica leaves 4.00-7.00 Flavonoids (Saeed and Sabir, 2002).
Morus alba leaves 4.00-7.00 Flavonoids: rutin (Schweppe, 1993).
Vitis vinifera leaves 4.00-7.00 Flavonoids: rutin, kampferol, luteolin, quercetin
(Schweppe, 1993).
Cydonia oblonga Mill. leaves 4.00-5.00 Flavonoids, carotenoids (Dinu et al., 2002).
51

Figure 1 shows the ΔL* and ΔΕ*ab values between the produced handsheets from the pulp dyed
with the plant extracts and the produced handsheets from the undyed deinked mechanical pulp.
The different plant materials are ranked in order of increasing total colour difference. For the
construction of the bars showing the ΔΕ*ab values, the photos of the colored handsheets were
used.
The plant extract of the following plant materials: Amygdalus communis – hulls, Vitis vinifera –
leaves, Juglans regia L. – hulls, Fagus sylvatica – bark, Quercus – bark, Ficus carica – leaves,
Pinus halepensis – bark and Morus alba –leaves, did not exhibit any significant dyeing ability. On
the contrary, the rest of the plant materials appeared to be interesting sources of natural dyes, as
their aquatic extracts caused intense coloration of the pulp fibres. The extract of the roots of Rubia
tinctorum, as well as the pollen of Crocus sativus exhibited the most intense dyeing ability.The
darkest shade was achieved by the use of the extract of the roots of Rubia tinctorum, whereas the
extract of the leaves of Dittrichia graveolens gave the most vivid shade. The rest of the plant
extracts gave intermediate values of lightness.
ΔL* ΔΕ*ab
-1 1.3
Αmygdalus communis : hulls
-0.3 1.6
Vitis vinifera : leaves
-2 2.2
Juglans regia L. : hulls
Fagus sylvatica : bark -3.7 4.2
Quercus : bark -4 4.5
Ficus carica : leaves -3.9 5.0
Pinus halepensis : bark -5.2 6.4

Morus alba : leaves -2.3 6.7
Amygdalus communis : husks -5.5 9.5
Eucalyptus globulus : leaves -5.3 9.8
Castanea sativa Mill. : bark -9.5 10.6
Juglans regia L. : leaves -9.2 12.3
Cydonia oblonga Mill. : leaves -6.5 12.5
Juglans regia L. : bark -9.1 13.5
Juglans regia L. : husks -13.5 14.5
Rytiphlaea tinctoria : whole plant -9 15.0
Dittrichia graveolens L. Greuter: leaves -2.7 17.0
Eucalyptus globulus : bark -17.1 20.3
Crocus sativus : pollen -5 34.4
Rubia tinctorum : roots -23.6 35.9
Figure 1: ΔL* and ΔΕ*ab values for all samples.

The colour gamut produced by the application of the plant extracts on the deinked mechanical pulp
is shown in Figure 2. The achieved shades lie inside the area, which is obtained by joining the
extreme points on this plot. Apparently, the yellow-red region covers a larger area compared to the
yellow-green region.
The inspection of the achieved colours and the main dyestuff components of the plant materials
(Table 2), reveals that those which according to the literature contain flavonoids, napthoquinones
and carotenoids can give hues, which range from greenish-yellow to orange. Only the leaves of
Rubia tinctorum and the whole Rytiphlaea tinctoria plant, which contain anthraquinones and
phycobilins respectively, can give intense red shades. New plant materials, which contain different
dyestuff components are needed in order to expand the produced colour gamut by the application
of natural dyes on pulp.
52
In order to compare this colour gamut with the commercial colour gamut produced by the
application of synthetic dyes on mechanical pulp used in newsprint, colour measurements were
contacted on colored paper used in Greek newspapers. The a* and b* values of seven samples
corresponding to the main commercial shades used in Greece (yellow, green and orange) are
shown comparatively in Figure 2.
The colour gamut for both the natural and synthetic dyes lies in the same quadrants of the a*b*
plot. Apparently, there are some common chromatic areas, even though the produced shades by
the application of the natural dyes cover a larger area in the yellow-red region compared to the
area covered by the shades produced by the application of the synthetic dyes. On the other hand,
the synthetic dyes can give more intense greenish shades than their natural counterparts.
60
50
Yellowness
40
30
20
10
b*
0
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Greeness a* Redness
Undyed deinked mechanical pulp

Vitis vinifera - leaves
Morus alba - leaves
Quercus - bark
Amygdalus communis - husks
Amygdalus communis - hulls
Ficus carica - leaves
Fagus sylvatica - bark
Pinus halepensis - bark
Rytiphlaea tinctoria - whole plant
Crocus sativus - pollen
Juglans regia L. - husks
Juglans regia L. - hulls
Juglans regia L. - leaves
Juglans regia L. - bark
Castanea sativa Mill. - bark
Cydonia oblonga Mill. - leaves
Rubia tinctorum L. - roots
Eucalyptus globulus - leaves
Eucalyptus globulus - bark
Dittrichia graveolens L. Greuter - leaves
Commercial colored paper used in newsprint, produced by mechanical pulp dyed with synthetic dyes
Figure 2: a*b* plot showing the colour gamut of deinked mechanical pulp dyed with natural
dyes, as well as the usual colour gamut achieved by the application of synthetic dyes on
mechanical pulp used in newsprint in Greece.
Conclusions
For the successful introduction of natural dyes in market, new strategies are required in order to
establish technically and commercially competitive production processes. The cost of such dyes
53
has to be lowered and the quality level of the dyeing needs a substantial improvement. Several
reports refer to their promising application in textiles, thermoplastics, medicine and cosmetics, as
well as in food and beverage industry.
The experimental results presented in this paper, revealed that another potential application of
natural dyes is in the field of paper coloration. Most of the examined plant materials, which were
mainly by-products from agricultural activities, appeared to be interesting sources of natural dyes.
The produced colour gamut by the application of the plant extracts on the deinked mechanical pulp
lies in the first and second quadrant of the a*b* plot. The achieved shades cover a quite large
chromatic area, especially in the yellow-red region, which appeared to be close to the one
corresponding to the usual shades produced by the application of synthetic dyes on mechanical
pulp used in newsprint in Greece.
However, the total replacement of synthetic colorants for the present is not possible, but certainly
there is a place for natural colorants in applications, where safety limitations, special requirements,
sustainability and environmental friendliness meet the commercial demands of today’s market.
Natural and synthetic colorants are not mutually exclusive means of coloring. The coloring industry
is and will remain an equal opportunity consumer; thus, the market place is open to colorants from
all sources.
Acknowledgements
The project is co – funded by the European Social Fund (75%) and by the Greek National
Resources (25%) under the aegis of the Operational Programme in Educational and Initial
Vocational Training – HRAKLEITOS – EPPEAEK II.
References
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55
Earth’s climate: past, present and future

Efstratios Doukakis
National Technical University of Athens, Marine Sciences
9, Iroon Polytechniou Str. Higher Geodesy Laboratory, 15780 Zografos/Athens/Greece
Tel: 210-7722707 Fax: 210-7722670, Email: edouk@central.ntua.gr
Abstract
We are living at the present time in an Ice Age called the Quaternary. Glacial conditions were not interrupted
but occurred four times during this period, separated by intervals of milder climate in which the temperatures
in middle and high latitudes were somewhat greater than they are now. The kind of world climate which has
been most persistent in geological time is one in which warm conditions extended into high latitudes, and this
climate has been coupled with a geography in which the continents protruded less above sea level than they
now and had fewer areas of mountainous relief. The area covered by ice was greatest during the second
and third of the Quaternary glaciations, but the sitting of the main ice sheets was the same each time. At the
maximum glaciations large continental ice sheets and mountain glaciers covered 30% of the land area of the
world as compared to 10% at present. The growth of these extensive ice sheets abstracted and locked up
oceanic water on the lands, so that at each glaciation sea level fell, during the last glaciation probably by
about 100m below present sea level, causing an increase in land connections and the creation of new
shorelines. During interglacials the reverse process occurred, and as glacier melt water poured back into the
oceans, low-lying regions were submerged or broken up into islands and a high shoreline was created.
It seems that climatic change continued in historical times too. It is difficult to separate damage caused by
nature from those caused by people. The disappearance of forests from the southern and eastern
Mediterranean littoral can be assigned to climatic changes, just as much as to goats. Still, if we look at the
map of the area, we see that the north is rich, the middle, the Mediterranean littoral is poor, and the rest is
desolate. Before the last climatic change, the situation was the opposite. This cataclysmic reversal created
the agriculture, the civilizations and the monotheistic religions.
The state of our planet continues to deteriorate at an alarming rate. We have arrived at a situation where we
need to determine urgent solutions before we reach a point of irreversible deterioration. It is time to take
stock of our current situation and try to formulate constructive proposals and policies for a way forward.
Solutions involving collaboration across a wide range of disciplines are urgently needed before entering the
era of a ravaging Earth.
Earth’s climatic history

Climatologists have used various techniques and evidence to reconstruct a history of the Earth's
past climate. From this data they have found that during most of the Earth's history global
temperatures were probably 8 to 15° Celsius warmer than today. In the last billion years of climatic
history, warmer conditions were broken by glacial periods starting at 925, 800, 680, 450, 330, and
2 million years before present (B.P) [5].
The period from 2,000,000 - 14,000 B.P is known as the Pleistocene or Ice Age. During this period,
large glacial ice sheets covered much of North America, Europe, and Asia for extended periods of
time. The extent of the glacier ice during the Pleistocene was not static. The Pleistocene had
periods when the glacier retreated (interglacial) because of warmer temperatures and advanced
because of colder temperatures (glacial). During the coldest periods of the Ice Age, average global
temperatures were probably 4 - 5° C colder than they are today.
The most recent glacial retreat is still going on. We call the temporal period of this retreat the
Holocene epoch. This warming of the Earth and subsequent glacial retreat began about 14,000
years ago (12,000 BC). The warming was shortly interrupted by a sudden cooling, known as the
Younger-Dryas, at about 10,000 - 8500 BC. Scientists speculate that this cooling may have been
caused by the release of fresh water trapped behind ice on North America into the North Atlantic
Ocean. The release altered vertical currents in the ocean which exchange heat energy with the
atmosphere. The warming resumed by 8500 BC. By 5000 to 3000 BC average global temperatures
reached their maximum level during the Holocene and were 1 to 2° C warmer than they are today.
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Climatologists call this period the Climatic Optimum. During the climatic optimum many of the
Earth's great ancient civilizations began and flourished. In Africa, the Nile River had three times its
present volume, indicating a much larger tropical region. From 3000 to 2000 BC a cooling trend
occurred. This cooling caused large drops in sea-level and the emergence of many islands
(Bahamas) and coastal areas that are still above sea-level today. A short warming trend took place
from 2000 to 1500 BC, followed once again by colder conditions. Colder temperatures from 1500 -
750 BC caused renewed ice growth in continental glaciers and alpine glaciers, and a sea-level
drop of between 2 to 3 meters below present day levels. The period from 750 BC - 900 AD saw
warming up to 150 BC. Temperatures, however, did not get as warm as the Climatic Optimum.
During the time of Roman Empire (150 BC - 300 AD) a cooling began that lasted until about 900
AD. At its height, the cooling caused the Nile River (829 AD) and the Black Sea (800-801 AD) to
freeze [5].
The period 900 - 1200 AD has been called the Little Climatic Optimum. It represents the warmest
climate since the Climatic Optimum. During this period, the Vikings established settlements on
Greenland and Iceland. The snow line in the Rocky Mountains was about 370 meters above
current levels. A period of cool and more extreme weather followed the Little Climatic Optimum. A
great drought in the American southwest occurred between 1276 and 1299. There are records of
floods, great droughts and extreme seasonal climate fluctuations up to the 1400s.
From 1550 to 1850 AD global temperatures were at their coldest since the beginning of the
Holocene. Scientists call this period the Little Ice Age. During the Little Ice Age, the average annual
temperature of the Northern Hemisphere was about 1.0 C lower than today. During the period
1580 to 1600, the western United States experienced one of its longest and most severe droughts
in the last 500 years. Cold weather in Iceland from 1753 and 1759 caused 25 % of the population
to die from crop failure and famine. Newspapers in New England were calling 1816 the year
without a summer [5].
The period 1850 to present is one of general warming. The anomalies for the first 60 years of the
record were consistently negative. However, beginning in 1935 positive anomalies became more
common, and from 1980 to 1999 the anomalies were between 0.2 to 0.4° C higher that the
average for the 119 year period of study. In the 1930s and 1950s, the central United States
experience two periods of extreme drought. The 1980s and 1990s had ten of the warmest years
this century and possibly since the Little Climatic Optimum. Proxy and instrumental data indicate
that 1998 was the warmest year globally in 1200 years of Earth history. In the following year, a La
Nina developed and global temperatures dropped slightly. Nevertheless, the mean global
temperatures recorded for this year was the sixth highest measurement since 1880. Many
scientists believe the warmer temperatures of the 20th century are being caused by an
enhancement of the Earth's greenhouse effect.
Is it already too late?

Due to the enormous complexity of the atmosphere, the most useful tools for gauging future
changes are 'climate models'. These are computer-based mathematical models which simulate, in
three dimensions, the climate's behaviour, its components and their interactions. Climate models
are constantly improving based on both our understanding and the increase in computer power,
though by definition, a computer model is a simplification and simulation of reality, meaning that it
is an approximation of the climate system. The first step in any modelled projection of climate
change is to first simulate the present climate and compare it to observations. If the model is
considered to do a good job at representing modern climate, then certain parameters can be
changed, such as the concentration of greenhouse gases, which helps us understand how the
climate would change in response. Projections of future climate change therefore depend on how
well the computer climate model simulates the climate and on our understanding of how forcing
functions will change in the future.
The IPCC Special Report on Emission Scenarios determines the range of future possible
greenhouse gas concentrations (and other forcings) based on considerations such as population
57
growth, economic growth, energy efficiency and a host of other factors [6]. This leads a wide range
of possible forcing scenarios, and consequently a wide range of possible future climates.
According to the range of possible forcing scenarios, and taking into account uncertainty in climate
model performance, the IPCC projects a global temperature increase of anywhere from 1.4 - 5.8°
C from 1990-2100. However, this global average will integrate widely varying regional responses,
such as the likelihood that land areas will warm much faster than ocean temperatures, particularly
those land areas in northern high latitudes (and mostly in the cold season). Precipitation is also
expected to increase over the 21st century, particularly at northern mid-high latitudes, though the
trends may be more variable in the tropics. Snow extent and sea-ice are also projected to
decrease further in the northern hemisphere, and glaciers and ice-caps are expected to continue to
retreat.
There is an even more chilling possibility. Deep under oceanic continental shelves right around the
world, from Peru to Norway, huge quantities of methane are stored in "hydrate" form, kept solid by
a combination of low temperatures and pressure from the water and sediment piled above them. It
has been estimated that this methane hydrate store contains 10,000 gigatonnes - that is, ten
thousand billion tonnes - of carbon, more than double the world's entire combined fossil-fuel
reserves. Like carbon dioxide, methane is a greenhouse gas - in fact, it is 21 times more potent
than CO2 [1]. If even a small quantity were to escape into the atmosphere, runaway global warming
might become inevitable.
This nightmare is increasingly likely. Warming ocean temperatures will destabilize the hydrates,
allowing them to bubble up to the surface. This new methane will increase temperatures further,
leading to still more release from the sea floor in a potentially unstoppable spiral. In fact, geologists
increasingly think this feedback to have been the mechanism that drove the end-Permian
cataclysm: carbon dioxide from volcanoes first raised world temperatures enough to destabilize
methane hydrates, after which prehistoric global warming gained its own deadly momentum.
The first warning signs would have come from the sunsets. Weird splashes of red, yellow and
purple-painted evening horizons all around the globe. Only those living near the eruption site would
have seen the cause - vast volcanic outgassings of carbon dioxide, ash and sulphur. The end-
Permian apocalypse had begun. By its conclusion, up to 95 per cent of species had been wiped
out; the oceans transformed into black, oxygen-starved graveyards as millions of animal carcasses
and uprooted plants rotted in the inky depths. It was the worst mass extinction ever to hit the
planet, and it happened 251 million years ago because of global warming [5].
Today, the world stands on the brink of a similar cataclysm, with one crucial difference. The agent
of death at the end of the Permian period was volcanism. Now the agent of death is man.
But how close are we to this catastrophe? Is it still avoidable? In the pre-industrial era, levels of
carbon dioxide per cubic metre of air stood at roughly 278 parts per million (ppm). Today, they
have soared to 376ppm, the highest in at least 420,000 years, and probably much longer. This
means that every breath of air we take is chemically different from the air breathed throughout the
evolutionary history of the human species. And if the current rate of carbon accumulation
continues, the rise in temperature could be as much as 6o C by the end of the century, according to
the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [6]. That is roughly the same as the
temperature increase that delivered the coup de grace to the prehistoric world of the Permian.
All the efforts of the climate-change panel, all the international conferences and protocols, all the
green campaigning, are based on the assumption that, if we act now, the worst can be avoided.
Although some global warming is already inescapable, - temperatures will continue to rise for many
years, and there is no power on earth that can stop them - we assume, none the less, that it is not
too late; if we do the right things within the next couple of decades, temperatures will
eventually stabilise.
58
Once more, the earth's climate history gives a precedent: the planet swung between cold and
warm periods at the end of the most recent ice age in as little as a decade. Sudden, unanticipated
events could include, for example, the collapse of the west Antarctic ice sheet and the catastrophic
inundation of low-lying areas all around the world.
A better storyline might have run as follows. Rapid melting of the Greenland ice sheet causes the
offshore continental shelf to rebound upwards, releasing huge quantities of methane hydrates with
explosive force. The entire shelf is lifted downward, triggering 15m-high tsunamis right across the
north Atlantic, wiping out Reykjavik, Lisbon and so forth. The new methane adds rapidly to global
warming, causing mega-droughts and mass starvation across Asia, Africa and South America.
Don't forget: it's happened before, so it could happen again.
References
1. Boer, G.J., G.M. Flato, and D. Ramsden (2000): A transient climate change simulation with
greenhouse gases and aerosol forcing: Projected climate to the 21st century, Climate Dynamics
16:427-450.
2. Choi, O. and A. Fisher (2003) "The Impacts of Socioeconomic Development and Climate Change on
Severe Weather Catastrophe Losses: Mid-Atlantic Region (MAR) and the U.S." Climate Change, vol.
58 pp. 149
3. Gleik, P.H. (1987): Regional hydrologic consequences of increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide
and other trace gases, Climate change 10:137-160.
4. Gornitz V. (1990) ‘Vulnerability of the East Coast, USA to future sea level rise’, Journal of Coastal
Research, Special issue No. 9, 201-237
5. http://www.scotese.com/climate.htm
6. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2000) ‘Special report on emission Scenarios –
Summary for Policy Makers’ Special Report of the WGIII of the IPCC, URL:
www.Ipcc/pub/SPM_SRES.pdf.
7. Oerlemans, J. (2005): Extracting a Climate Signal from 169 Glacier Records, Science 308 pp. 675-
677.
8. Smith, T.M. and R.W. Reynolds, 2005: A global merged land and sea surface temperature
reconstruction based on historical observations (1880–1997). J. Climate, 18, 2021–2036.
9. UNEP summary (2002) Climate risk to global economy, Climate Change and the Financial Services
Industry, United Nations Environment Programme Finance Initiatives Executive Briefing Paper
(UNEP FI).
59
Our Peatland Future

Csilla Hudek, Edit Forro
Corvinus University of Budapest, Department of Soil Science and Water Management, Budapest 1118
Villanyi ut 29-42, Hungary, hudekcsilla@yahoo.com, edit.forro@uni-corvinus.hu
Abstract
What can we do with 500 million hectares of land, which holds 3-3.5 times more carbon than our tropical
forest? Contains millions of litres of acid and nutrient poor water. Historical sink for zoologists, botanists and
archaeologists. There are two ways to move; we can either give up on this land and leave well alone or use it
as a natural resource and develop it. There are several examples from the past when governments and
other bodies used the bog only for their own economic benefits without taking into account the negative
environmental effects. So what are we going to do with the remaining peat, what are our options? Do we
pursue the short-term economic benefits or encourage the long-term ecological well being of the land? Is
there a balance to be had between the two?
Introduction
When people hear the word wetland, it conjures up negative feelings. In countless fairytales,
stories and legends, bogs have always been portrayed as mysterious and even dangerous places.
And when people think of peat, they think of it only as a fuel. Wetlands have suffered from bad
public relations.
It is not necessary to explain why water is so important to our ecosystem, so it should not be
necessary to emphasise the vital role wetlands play. It is also not necessary to highlight the role
that greenhouse gasses play in climate change or the threat this poses to our environment, so why
the widespread ignorance towards such a significant player in both the hydrological and carbon
cycle? People can not see the positives wetlands afford us, so they don’t understand the
processes involved, there is a common lack of information. To the layman for instance, a stretch of
peatland is simply a patch of wasteland, waiting for drainage, for afforestation or agriculture, so
that it may finally become “functional”. People do not know the other benefits of peat when left in its
natural state. In many countries for example, the main source of drinking water originates from
peatlands. It also forms the biggest carbon store in the World, making it an enormous controlling
factor in the struggle to understand and manage climate change. Many species of flora and fauna
will only make their home in the distinctive habitat found in peatlands. Wetlands also support many
species of fish in their infancy and provide nourishment for countless other links in the food chain.
We should also not forget the archaeological importance of such areas. It is a unique ecosystem.
These are but a few of the positive aspects that wetlands possess, but unfortunately the population
as a whole are largely ignorant and indifferent towards this neglected biome. An agreement has
not even been reached on the exact area of peatlands World wide. Countries still exist which have
no clear data base or adequate information about their own wetlands. It is not seen as an important
environmental concern. How can we make our peatlands future brighter? Is it worth saving?
Lack of definitive data

The total size of peatlands in the world is estimated at 4-5 million km2. (Ramsar Convention. 2004)
There is no definitive database about the world’s peatlands. The reason for this is very complex.
There are still no agreed terms of definition for peatlands. Different countries have different
classification terms and parameters for each of the different wetland types. The parameters include
typology, scale and time; so the depth of the peat, the area of the land, and the submerged
periodicity of the land determine its soil type. There have been relatively few studies carried out so
any data we have is sparse and should be updated due to the altering nature of wetlands. You
60
can’t discount human errors in calculations or transcription so any reproduction of these mistakes
will only spread misinformation. If we seriously intend to chart and understand the possibilities
regarding our peatlands, we should clearly and universally define what we are dealing with. In the
meantime, the situation is too potentially damaging and irreversible to simply wait while this
information is gathered. The Wetland convention held in Ramsar, Iran over 20 years ago has one
of the first recorded recognitions of this problem. It was agreed that the terms and measurements
defining peat should be standardised and taught without variation to students from different
countries and cultures. This was believed to be the way to facilitate international co-operation and
research in the future, the most efficient route to forming an accurate global peat model and then
determining best practice concerning peat.
The frequent discrepancies between peatland studies worldwide don’t mean that these results are
unsound, merely that they are only to be used for identifying broad characteristics or trends. The
problem is the fragility of wetlands; the ever-changing elements that influence them differ from
region to region. We must first aim to define regional trends, before painting a global picture. The
data we must work with at present is still valuable (although not definitive) as an indicator of the
potential importance of wetlands to our environment. The questions this data raises should serve
to whet our appetites for further information, for further truths, for definitive answers to the
problems we and our peatlands face?
50% of all wetlands in the world are peatlands, half of these are under permafrost conditions most
of the year. Peatlands store 25% of the total global carbon deposits and also hold some 20% of all
liquid freshwater resources in the World. (Ramsar Convention. 2004) The majority of peatlands
originate in the northern latitude but it is not unusual to find them in the tropical or subtropical areas
either. In this case wetlands are called marshes and swamps.
The largest areas of peatlands are found in Siberia and Northern America. China, Indonesia, and
Malaysia have the biggest peatlands in the tropical zone. The peat in Indonesia is estimated to
have the same amount of energy as 65 million barrels of oil, and Scandinavia has the biggest bog
lands in Europe. Africa and Australia also contain several thousand km2 of wetland. The
information we have on wetlands is scarce, and should be treated only as an incentive to
determine the true value of this neglected biome.
Peat under cultivation

Approximately 40 million ha have been converted to forest or agricultural fields and a further 9
million ha have already been exploited for fuel, horticulture and various other purposes worldwide.
What did we gain from it?
The use of virgin peatland for agricultural or forestry requires a costly and time consuming
preparation process, and lets not forget the environmental disturbance to the area and the
surroundings. The water of the rivers is affected by the runoff water from cultivated peatlands and
the leaching of the fertilisers introduced into the soil. Nutritional enrichment from fertilizers causes
local eutrophication, as well as the sedimentation and acidification of rivers.
The major use of peatlands in agriculture is actually grazing, but this often leads to overgrazing
which has a severe negative impact on the peat surface. This results in the loss of endemic
species on the field and this encourages the proliferation of invading plants. Due to economical
necessity farmers often overgraze. Agricultural plants find the soil conditions of peat unappealing;
this is reflected in the low yield. In the tropical wetlands horticultural and agricultural crops are
more commonly grown. The chemical composition and material make-up of peat create an ideal
soil for intensive plant growth in Horticulture. They are free from weeds and parasites, with higher
levels of carbon and nitrogen. The potential nitrogen compounds of peat can help to prevent
overdosing from fertilisers, which is a common mistake in intensive Horticultural practise. Another
advantage of using peat in Horticulture and Agriculture is that the nitrogen stays in the lithosphere
as part of the biogeochemical cycle. This does not place a great demand on our peatland
61
resources, we already know that alternatives are being sought, but it is still noteworthy as a cause
of loss.(Forro 1997,1998).
Causes of peatland losses in the

non-tropical world km2
15 000 5 000
20 000
50 000
250 000
150 000
Agriculture Forestry Peat extraction

Urbanization Inundation Indirect losses
Data is from Wise use of Peatlands 2002
The cause of 30% of peatland losses in the non tropical world is the result of virgin or cutover
peatland afforestration. Not many wood species are able to thrive under these conditions. Yet
silviculture is one successful area of horticulture which can produce results on peat. To use cutover
bog for forestry with a fast growing wood species can save the soil surface from erosion, and
timber is one of the most important industries in the tropical zone. To save the remaining peatland
habitat in this part of the World will be an arduous task.
For hundreds of years peat gave us fuel, but in the last fifty years turf has become an energy
resource in a national level in countries like Ireland and Britain. This has cause the loss of almost
all of peatland areas in these countries. (IPCC 2001)
Many other important but small scale fields exist which involve peat. Like archaeology, balneology,
architecture, food industry, bio-filtrations, packaging, education, tourism, art. (Environmental and
Heritage Service Peatlands 2004) Our increasing utilization of peat has not seen an equal growing
concern for its lessening availability, or sustainability. Surely we must focus on research that
determines the best management practice before we continue to blindly exploit this resource that
once exhausted, cannot be restored.
Raising the profile of peatlands

The easiest way to cultivate public concern for peatlands, to push for greater peatland protection
and further research, is to highlight what peatlands do for us. Those people who only have an
indirect connection with peat have a different point of view of peatlands than those who live close
by or even own the land, these are the people who wish to cultivate and use land for their own
economic benefit. The motivation to preserve boglands in their natural state should be voluntary.
Only through this approach can we reach long-term positive results. We must find solutions to
satisfy the land owner and any environmental regulations they are subject to. Education is
essential. We must highlight the positive functions of an undamaged peatland and highlight the
potential danger of an unbalanced or disturbed peatland.
62
This unique landscape gives home for hundreds of rare, area specific life forms, and many more
new plant and zoological species are still being found. These lands have not only national but
international merit. The traditional or sustainable way of grazing has been closely connected to
bogs for hundreds of years. The organic natural filtration of the peat, transfers, filters and
processes agricultural runoff, especially phosphate and nitrates from this runoff before it enters our
rivers. Its slow rate of water absorption and seepage means that it also helps regulate water
quantity and quality. In this case it helps to prevent flooding and drought. (Ramsar Convention.
2004) To let people know why flooding in the last couple of years has become more common and
affected a larger area in some parts of the world might urge them to consider the role of peatlands
in the hydrological cycle. We can only recognise the danger, and start to care about aspects of the
environment once we know how they affect us. With cultivation and disturbance of the larger peat
deposits of the world, the same chemical and mechanical reactions that affect local peatlands and
their surroundings would ensue on a much larger scale. This would soon become an irreversible
chain reaction that could put us in serious danger.
Functions of peatland
Undisturbed peatlands have a balanced carbon cycle and accumulate carbon from the air at a rate
of up to 0.7 tonnes per hectare per year depending on the productivity of the soil. (IPCC 2001)
After the peat has been disturbed this balance is disrupted. Less carbon is absorbed and more
CO2 is released along with methane. This combined with other greenhouse gasses from the
burning of fossil fuels exacerbates the problem of global warming. If even a small percentage of
these lands were to be drained there would be a massive increase in the amount of CO2 put into
our atmosphere. The greenhouse effects caused by the release of carbon gases from drained
peatlands are a significant threat to our environment.
It has to be mentioned that all the functions of peatlands are not necessarily positive. Any change
in temperature or reduction in the local water table can result in an exposure of carbon rich soil to
aerobic decomposition, introducing large amounts of CO2 and CH4 into the atmosphere, and this
brings us back to our original complaint. How can we continue to exploit such a carbon rich, multi
functional ecosystem in such an unsustainable manner without any real, definitive knowledge as to
the consequences in both the long and short term? Pleading ignorance is no longer an option.
Technological advances in communication and measurement such as the internet and remote
sensing mean that prolonged, shared, more accurate data collection is now possible. We are fully
aware of the dangers of continual production of greenhouse gasses yet our largest natural carbon
store remains clouded in ignorance. The recent studies of Roulet (2000) and Biocap Canada
(2005) showed that the peatlands of Canada accumulate levels of carbon equivalent to 50% of
their pledged reduction of CO2 in the Kyoto Protocol, yet the man on the street will still look at
peatlands and only see wasteland.
Peatlands accumulate large amounts of carbon that would otherwise find its way into our
atmosphere. The repercussions of disturbing such lands have local, regional and even global
ramifications. To continue aggressive industrial and agricultural pursuits on this land without
adequate knowledge of the damage we are causing seems ludicrous. We are not trying to prove
that peatlands are more worthy of conservation than other ecosystems, only that the relative
neglect they endure is surprising given the obvious role they play in our everyday lives, in the
hydrological cycle and the carbon cycle. Do we not owe it to ourselves to identify the potential
irreversible negatives we are leaving as a legacy to future generations?
Conclusion
The onus at the moment is on the International Peat Society. It is the single largest group seeking
international standardisation of terms and parameters of classification and has been extremely
successful in this aim. It recognises that international co-operation and pooling of data and
resources saves time and money, a more efficient practice; so what is the problem? To initiate
further national policy changes regarding peatlands we must first make the public at large actually
63
care. The stigma attached to peatlands must be replaced with knowledge. Knowledge of the
positives peatlands possess and knowledge of the potential harm their continual exploitation can
bring, such as the doubling of the CO2 levels in the atmosphere. It is not only a source of fuel, it is
definitely not wasteland.
People have always been suspicious about peatlands. It was a place that people could not take
over or manage in the same way as other ecosystems. Travellers avoided the bog, thinking it
treacherous and hazardous, difficult and risky to cross. These circumstances have given peatlands
a bad reputation which has left them largely abandoned and misunderstood. Because of this
people don’t see the benefits of keeping peatlands in their natural state as the roles they play are
not so immediately obvious as other, more popularised sections of our environment, such as rain
forests.
Why can’t the next eco-fad be peatlands? Preserving individual peatland sites based on their rarity
is all well and good but this misses the point somewhat. It is more than a wildlife or plant reserve. It
is not a luxury but a main controlling factor in two of principal elements of our survival i.e. the
hydrological and carbon cycle.
Now we have the ability to better care for, or possibly restore partially degraded peatlands.
Restoring these peatlands can help return their positive influence to the area. E.g. improve nutrient
content of soil, surface water of near by rivers and any down stream ecosystems. But it is an
extremely difficult process. To return to the original ecosystem is almost impossible and very few
plant species are actually able to repopulate the cultivated area without our assistance, and even
then, the results are not much better. Only a few endemic species are able to regenerate and
begin to thrive again. Seeding can only be a solution for some aquatic plants, and rhizome
transplant seems to be the best solution for sedges.
Given the positive aspects of peatlands it should be easy to highlight their value and keep them in
the public consciousness, this is the first step. The proliferation of domestic waste management
policies has shown that if people are aware of the benefits, and are offered intelligent solutions,
they will support and push for what is more environmentally sound, even at some minor
inconvenience to themselves. This is vital for the future of peatlands as this is how conservation
movements get started, gain momentum and favour on a national scale. This is what leads to
further research, for accurate, globally significant research and this should be the goal of the
International Peat Society. Peat has suffered from bad publicity, so how do we move forward?
Indonesia has peatlands with the equivalent energy potential of 65 million barrels of oil. Do we
pursue the short term, economic benefit? Or can we make the world recognise the potentially
greater role of peatlands? Where do we go from here? Whatever the decisions that are made,
surely we owe it to ourselves to gain a true insight into the consequences of our actions.
References
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english/proceeding/Tropeat99.pdf [06.22.2006]
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sity.pdf [06.22.2006]
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Wetlands and the Carbon Cycle, Cryosphere. Milton Keynes: The Open University; 2006.
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Workshop Report No. 96-1 Brisbane, Australia
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Conference of the Contracting Parties to the Ramsar Convention. Ramsar Secretariat. Gland,
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65
Environmental education a must for facing global changes and

minimising environmental risk
Mădălina Aramă
INCD-ECOIND Bucharest - Sos Panduri no. 90-92, Sector 5, postal code 050663, tel. 04.021/410-0377/152,
fax: 04.021/410-0575 sau 04.021/412-0042, ecoind@incdecoind.ro attn. Madalina Arama
Abstract
In the actual more complex global environment the challenge to achieve the ambitious goal of sustainable
development has a strong component based on good and reliable knowledge able to educate society at all
levels in formal and informal ways to increase a healthy awareness for minimizing environmental risk.
The well-being of a society is just an illusion if we continue to live in polluted areas exposing ourselves to the
risk of diminishing life expectation. Regardless of the plenty of the daily bin the society should be educated to
understand both sides of the coin named societal progress: we should be able to produce more goods and
services of high quality but without decreasing the global ecological equilibrium and without compromising
the right of future generation to a decent life. The environmental risk becomes a central issue for decision
makers and a component of risk governance. The paper presents a proposal of topics that could be
presented for different target groups in order to increase societal response in minimizing environmental risk.
Introduction
The concept of sustainable development is for sure more than economic growth, it is more than a
basket full of products to be tried to check the product market diversification approach. Sustainable
development is a concept which allows the fulfillment of needs for present generations without
compromising the chance of future generations to fulfill their owns. Sustainable development
means to maintain open possibilities of choice for each individual to evolve in a civilized manner, to
fulfill his/her needs according to human rights principles. In the view of sustainable development
postulates, ensuring human rights means that “each member of the society has the right to human
life dignity and to the free development of his/her personality; democracy, legal stability and
cultural diversity are guaranteed.” These goals are to be reached only keeping education’ gates
open for understanding of our complex world in order to attain the economic growth by preserving
our environment especially the non-renewable resources. Strictly speaking environmental
education represents total formal and informal ways to raise awareness about environmental
concerns in our society at local, regional or global level.
The concept of sustainable development was expressed for the first time in the Report of World
Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) in 1987 named “Our Common Future”
also known as Brundtland Report.The concept is a dynamic one and it is evolving step by step
being sustained by a set of global actions in order to address its three basic components
economical, social, and environmental and to reach the corresponding targets of economic
efficiency, social solidarity, and ecologic preservation.
Sustainable Development
Sustainable development means to know what to do and how to do for the fulfillment of more than
basic needs for the majority of people for a longer time horizon. Individual should be permitted a
reasonable attitude in meeting material and non-material needs which extend beyond their basic
needs without however bringing prejudice to future generations in fulfilling their own. That means
that subjective living conditions should be also met and that is referring to satisfaction and
happiness “and socioeconomic and environmental change must not be achieved at the cost of the
physical and psychological well being of the individual. No-one shall be discriminated against, on
the basis of whatever external or internal characteristic, and each member of society should have
the same rights and opportunities. ”(cited Swiss Statistics, Newchatel 2004). The evolution of the
society and the economic development brought a lot of challenges to present generations.
Generally speaking, progress in large parcels is hard to be quickly digested so that each and every
one feels in the same time as being part of this progress and is benefiting from it. The last decades
66
were the decades of change. The strategic management approach is coping each day with a
variety of challenges coming from changes in: technology, human relations and work conditions as
part of our daily environment. The past economic development with little care about environment
determined a lot of vulnerabilities in our society. We are happy with the industrial progress but
sometimes we feel that is a little bit overwhelming. The explosion of information and products
brought a sort of choices saturation feeling. Each day everyone is facing with a lot of choices. To
be able to make good choices every one should have a minimum understanding of alternatives
and should have a reliable set of criteria upon which to be able to decide its own future. This
understanding is coming from education. The time crisis of modern people leaves little space for
continuing education after the formal one has been finished. The quality of received education is
also another important issues taking into account the question on what real basis we are able to
decide. Actually access to good and qualitative education is the key to fulfill better our needs and
desires and be able in the same time to not compromise those of future generations. Speaking
about choices, it should be noted that among choices our world was challenged to make during
industrial evolution, the environment was not on a criteria list to be considered until 20 years ago.
However, starting to feel the scarcity of non-renewable resources and the consequences of major
ecological disasters from the latest decades mankind gave a second thought on where should go
in the future and how would like their children to be raised. First of all people started to feel that
having a good recreational space is not the same thing as experiencing a “virtual” leisure
experience in the “virtual world” with a “virtual technology” in a real hi-tech exhibition. All of the
sudden we started to realize that having good air quality in our zones is not traded-off with
acclimatization system because we cannot survive in-doors under a glass globe. The
consequences of environmental cumulative impacts started to be present in many wealthy or poor
families from many globe regions affected by the negative industrialization era effects. That is what
is called the first warning sign of environmental damages. Step by step the people started to pass
from total ignorance, to formal caring and finally to real healthy awareness.The education
especially environmental education is the component of sustainable development programmes that
can achieve what is necessary to build a civilized world without paying the price of ignorance.
Learning from past examples and experiences is a useful thing. However, there are experiences
that probably no-one wants to reiterate. And that is what the good environmental education is
challenged to minimize: the trial and error empirical method. That is not possible all the time but for
sure, when it can be applied, a good anticipation is what is desired.
Environmental education for different target groups

In the actual context the quality of education should consider the way education responds to the
present society needs. Education is challenged to prepare unscarred generations able to face their
future by understanding it, not just by going trough it. In our days, technological explosion brought
a lot of information. To select this information and to transform it into a useful tool to preserve our
quality of life and our environment means to offer children good and reliable knowledge to teach
them principles to be applied for a sustainable development. If we want to have a healthy society,
the quality of education is an essential component. The present degree of atomization allows a
corresponding increase in production efficiency and creates the premises of new professions and
new jobs occurrence. The environment protection is the area where a lot of funds will be directed in
order to create professionals in this field and to increase environmental awareness.
Environmental sciences and environmental protection field are new emerging educational fields
gathering knowledge from many fundamental sciences. Starting with primary education, going
through high school, college and university the curricula of environmental studies should ensure
that appropriate knowledge are taught to respond to the job market.
Environmental protection means not only to create good professionals but also to create a civic
environmental sense to the entire population. The environmental education can be done in formal
and informal ways. A proposal for what should environmental curricula address as basic ideas at
different study levels is presented in the table with corresponding reference target group and the
corresponding type of environmental institution able to offer such studies.
67
Table 1 Proposed topics for environmental education for different target groups
Target Group Who is offering the Major Subjects Nrofweekly Minor Subjects weekly
(yearly plan) programme hours hours
FormalEducation
Grades 1- 4 Within Curricula Work – -Knowledge About 2 hours Civic 1 hour
school teachers Nature – knowing what environmental
is around us: air, water, education -
soil, plants, building, arranging
human etc school/home
-Practical works- garden and
knowledge about keeping it flourish
collecting household
wastes in a separate
manner. Avoid littering.
Grades 5 - 8 Within Curricula Work – -Knowledge about 1 hour Civic 1 hour
school teachers and environmental chemistry environmental
different other ( water circuit in nature education –
organizations and different pollutants) savings of water
resources – good
habits/wrong
habits – designing
flyers and
spreading them
within local
community.
Grades 9 - 12 Within Curricula Work – -Chemical products/ 1 hour Civic 1 hour
school teachers and substances and their environmental
different other potential harmful toxic education – How
organizations effects ( how to store, to raise civic spirit.
use and discard them) What is
-Keeping foods in consumer
hygienic manner using protection? How
them only within expired to avoid conflict of
date – avoiding interests in client-
wastes/avoiding littering supplier
relationship. Pay
attention to the
expired products
and advise
schoolmates to
avoid shops
where these
products have
been
commercialized.
Undergraduates Within Curricula Work – -International, European, 1 hour Major 1 hour
studies environmental studies Romanian environmental
programme -Universities Environmental Disasters and
Legislation how they affected
us, how to avoid
them in the future
–Environmental
legislation
protecting the
population civic
rights.
Graduates Within Curricula Work -As in table 2 of this Variable As in table 2 of Variable
studies environmental studies paper number of this paper number of
programme Universities hours hours
68
depending depending
on master on master
focuss focuss
Post graduates Within Curricula Work -As in table 2 of this Variable As in table 2 of Variable
studies environmental studies paper number of this paper number of
programme Universities hours hours
depending depending
on on prgram
programme me focuss
focuss
Informal Education
Professional Within National and -European and 30 hours Special 30 hours
development – European Funded Romanian Legislation, environmental
over 3 months Programmes with --Environmental programmes
training courses environmental Standards topics
for environmental components – different -Sustainable
professionals public and private Development
organizations Programmes and
Environmental
Protection
Short Training Different consultancy -EMS – Training 30 Special 30 hours

Courses 1- 10 organizations Courses hours environmental
days Audit Training Courses programmes
topics
Workshops Different National, -Environmental 18 hours Environmental 18 hours
European and Protection –Updates Protection –
International public and Updates with
private organizations specific interest
topics
Symposiums and Different National, -Environmental 30 hours Environmental 30 hours
Exhibitions European and Protection, Protection –
International public and Standardization and Updates with
private organizations Legislation themes specific interest
topics
In order to be able to function within a common space such is European Union the studies should
be conducted in a harmonized way and curricula should be adjusted to be able to face the
challenges of the common job market. Generally speaking the protectionist trends that exist and for
sure will persist also in the future should not impeded, based on national specificities, the selection
of those professionals able to do a good environmental technical job Environment is about
preserving and protecting it and that should not change from one country to another. For example
the generous national environmental legislation should not function as an obstacle in setting good
and reliable regional contextual emissions limits.
If at the primary level and even until grades 12 the environmental education is meant to raise the
awareness for environmental protection in general terms, starting with university studies it
becomes the way to develop environmental professionals able to teach environmental topics in
schools or to act as administrative or scientific task force to improve environmental conditions and
to be able to implement sustainable development.
In Europe and US, there are so called eco-school programmes that involve steps that any school
can adopt based on the elements of an environmental management programme inviting a lot of
interested parts starting with pupils, parents, teachers and finishing with local administrations,
ministries of environmental and education and different NGO’s. One such European programme in
Portugal included seven steps to be pursued and the establishment of an Eco-Schools Committee
to organize and direct the school activities. The Curriculum Work is design to sustain the
progamme activities some of them being focussed on developing practical environmental skills.
69
Local Agenda 21 referring to sustainable devleopment and environmental performance is

developed in this context in order to inform and to involve all members of local community.
“Schools are encouraged to make outside contacts and ties to enhance their learning experience
and to inform the wider public about their activities each school developing its own eco-code to
outline the school’s values and objectives and also to emphasize what the students are striving for.
After a period of participation, the success evaluation of these initiatives and of the methodology is
undertaken, and the whole eco-schools programme for each school is assessed. Successful
schools are awarded with the Eco-School Green Flag. Those kinds of programmes are meant to
educate people and make from this participatory programme an excellent opportunity for pupils to
experience active citizenship in school for a better environment. Those programmes try to increase
pupils and community environmental awareness and to promote contacts with other schools,
nationally and internationally, giving them the chance to share environmental education ideas and
to create the framework for cultural exchange and language improvement”.(Cited in International
Eco Scholls Co-ordination c/o FEE Portugal Foundation for Environmental Education 2004 )
In United States, Environmental Education started in ’60 in order to respond to environmental

concerns. During all these years the environmental education all over the US territory gained in
interest and as for present it is part of usual curricula up to grade 12. (year1997). A critical
overview made by a federal commission of specialists in the field, tried to evaluate also the quality
of this education and found some interesting directions to be followed in order to continuum the
improvement of the obtained performance. The basic recommendations are focused on acquisition
of good and reliable knowledge that best fit the purpose of gaining environmental education
through facts and principles. All the elementary grades can improve their natural world
understanding if knowledge from applied sciences will be taught in parallel with their environmental
applications. The role of educational materials is of paramount importance. That is why
professional scientific and educational organizations should recommend those materials only after
a detailed review. This review should be performed by experts that are challenged to evaluate
them from the point of view of scientifically accuracy. Even if those materials are presented in a
brief form according to each level of understanding to whom they are addressed they should be
clear for not creating misleading perceptions about phenomena and facts. Publishers must
carefully set their peer review process for environmental science textbooks and environmental
educational materials in order to find the best materials to sustain the environmental education. In
this idea the teachers are called also to select appropriate examples to reach the necessary
understanding to a very complex issue such as the environmental. Teachers need good
preparation in applied sciences, economics, and mathematics to teach environmental education.
The report found that an independent review process conducted by experts from the areas covered
in environmental education should be established to perform ongoing evaluations of curricula in
this field. The report concluded: “the environmental problems of the day will change over time, but
the environmental literacy gained in schools will last a lifetime” that’s why society as a whole
should help students to find the knowledge they lack in order to be able to realize a sustainable
environmental protection and preservation and to offer future generations the opportunities to live
in a good environment (cited in: http://www.marshall.org/ article.php?id=10#intro)
In the respect of same ideas as the above-mentioned examples have been presented is coming
the comment made by Barry McGraw, Director, OECD Education Directorate ( cited in OECD
Observer – published in March 2004).The question in stake is quality of education and in this
respect a set of other linked questions are raising such as: Higher grades, better students? Or
higher grades, lower standards? All those questions incite to comments in what claim credit should
be made if we should to have only the information offered by grades. In a common harmonised
market the issues of education is a long term debate that should address accordingly because a
decrease in the educational level due to an inappropriate system is making damages over several
students generations which is translated over several decades in the society progress. Can we
afford such a risk ? Is our society sustainable if the education is lowering standards for the sake of
temporary conditions? Barry McGraw comments: “When more students achieve high exam grades,
some claim the credit for supposedly better education systems. Other suggest that requirements
must have been lowered. Behind these suspicions, there is usually a belief that somehow there is
a natural ceiling to overall performance in education. This would be a mistaken view”. So
70
consequently for the sake of good general education system and also for the sake of
environmental education system, the standards should be set according to real necessities.
Romania being in a market transition situation is facing even more challenges in what is called
environmental education. For some years Romanian society rediscovered the satisfaction of
participatory democracy that is the continuum that fills and binds together our strong opinions and
convictions about almost everything. The environment is a very trendy subject as well as it is the
reform of educational system. This is an open forum where a lot of opinions might be heard.
However, the process of refining valuable ones can be, in most cases, a time consuming process if
it is not done in an organised and methodical way and that is not actually what democratically
debate is about. That‘s why professionals in the field should find more quickly common ground
because the education is not a process that can be postponed without chronically enter in
unexpected social sufferance. So this paper is trying to challenge the audience to strive on an
ongoing basis to review of what is good and should be kept and what should be improve by
keeping our good experiences and by learning from other good ones.
Looking in the curricula of other universities and adapting them to our own necessities by keeping
open the international equivalency possibilities for offered programmes the academic corpus
should design a flexible and competitive environmental education programmes not only for our
local students but also for the students all over the world. The curricula is recommended to be
focussed on following major subjects grouped by logic of the topics which can be coupled with any
other disciplines during specialized master studies. That should offer the possibility of students
who finish an undergraduate programme in polytechnic, economic, humanities or even medical
studies to complete their education with a specialization in the environmental field having the
desired focuss.The number of obtained recognized equivalent credits on agreed subjects should
regulate the possibilities of choice without lowering standards based on broadness of topics and
deepness of specialized undergraduate studies
Table 2 Proposed Curricula for Master Studies in Environmental Protection Specialization

• Focus on Environmental Monitoring (for continuing technical and medical studies)
Ecology, Environmental Chemistry-Analytical Profile, Environmental Chemistry –Technological
Profile, Ecotoxicology, Hazardous Wastes Environmental Legislation, Environmental Health,
Environmental Ethics, Biodiversity
• Focus on Environmental Technology(for continuing technical studies) - Ecology,
Environmental Chemistry-Analytical Profile Environmental Chemistry-Technological Profile,
Energy, Emerging Environmental Technology and green energy, Sustainable Development,
Water Resources, Environmental Monitoring, Environmental Forests and Landscape, Global
Changes, Air Pollution, Prevention and Recycling, Waste Management
• Focus on Environmental Management (for continuing technical studies and economic
studies) - Ecology, Environmental Chemistry-Analytical Profile, Environmental Chemistry
Technological Profile, Environmental Law, Environmental Economics, Environmental
Management Systems, Standards and standardization activities, Sustainable Development,
Project Management, Environmental Impact Evaluation, Environmental Risk, Risk Management
• Focus on Environmental Legislation and Economics (for continuing technical, economic,
humanities studies) - Ecology, Environmental Chemistry, Environmental Technology, Systems,
Standards and standardization activities, Sustainable Development, Project Management,
Environmental Economics, Standards and standardization activities, Environmental Law,
Environmental Taxation
Discussions
The question to be asked remains: “is any risk in not having professionals able to respond to the
environmental challenges in Romania in this moment?”.
And the answer is positive. The environmental risk exists because our daily activities pollutes. We
cannot stop the society evolution but we can use those technologies and methods that can
preserve our environment so to make a sustainable development. Not having professionals to be
71
able to generate such technologies or to improve environmental monitoring in order to enforce the
laws means to increase the environmental risk for ourselves and for future generations.
Therefore preparing a good environmental educational system we positively respond to the
challenge of building a sustainable development in the future not compromising or restricting the
options of future generations to satisfy their own needs in the spirit of intra- and inter-generational
justice.
Conclusions
Environmental education should be the goal of our society for the next decades of development.
Efforts should be made and results should be obtained to face the present and the future
challenges. Education is what is needed to preserve resources, to protect the environment and to
fulfil more than basic needs for present and future generations. Education is the key that Agenda
21 envisages in order to allow developing countries to access the results of progress and
development of XXI century.
Referrences
1. http://www.marshall.org/article.php?id=10#intro -Are We Building Environmental Literacy ?: A Report of
the Independent Commission on Environmental Education)
2. International Eco Scholls Co-ordination c/o FEE Portugal (Foundation for Environmental Education)
http://www.fee-international.org/Programmes/ecoschools)
3. Swiss Statistics – Andree de Montmollin et al. Sustainable Development in Switzerland Indicators and
Comments – Office Federal del a Statistique ARE (Swiss Federal Office for Spatial Development)
Newchatel 2004 – Swiss Federal Statistical Office ( SFSO) Swiss Agency for the Environmental Forests
and Landscape ( SAFEL)
72
Sustainable tourism in the Iron Gates Natural Park – necessity or

utopia?
Necşuliu Radu
Ph.D. student, University of Bucharest, Centre for Environmental Research and Impact Studies, Nicolae
Balcescu 1, 010041, Bucharest, Romania, tel/fax +40213103872, email: radun5@yahoo.com
Abstract
The Iron Gates Natural Park is a region with a very high tourist potential, given by its many elements of
natural and cultural heritage. As it is a newly declared protected area, the development of sustainable
tourism in its area is a necessity. The analysis of the perception of the local population and actors
concerning the development of their area as a tourist region allows the deciders make the better choices for
a social management of the natural park. The paper analyses the numerous projects of development
proposed by different institutions and private initiatives, some of which are exaggerated or even utopian.
Romanian Natural Parks. The Iron Gates Natural Park

The natural parks are protected areas, classified in the V category in the IUCN system – protected
landscapes (IUCN, 1994), that are meant to preserve the integrity of the traditional relations
between man and nature, that determined landscapes with a high esthetical, ecological and
cultural value, often with great biological diversity. They are the result of a new approach of nature
protection, which gives greater importance to the local population and to the elements of cultural
heritage, not only to the natural environment, that has already been changed and influenced by
human activities. In Romania, at present there are 13 natural parks declared between 2000 and
2004 (fig. 1).
Fig. 1 – The position of Romanian natural parks
73
The Iron Gates Natural Park is situated in the southwestern part of Romania, along the most
spectacular sector of the Danube, where the second-sized European river crosses the Carpathian
Mountains. The 128.000 hectares protected area, delimited by the Governmental Decision no.
230/2003, includes most of Locva and Almăj Mountains, a smaller part of the bumpy Mehedinţi
Plateau and 137 km along the Danube Valley and has a high density of natural, historical and
cultural-ethnographic tourist sights (fig. 2).
Fig. 2 – Iron Gates natural park tourist sights
Tourism in Romanian Natural Parks – general considerations

The natural parks are situated mostly in mountainous areas (Maramureş, Apuseni, Grădiştea
Muncelului – Cioclovina, Ţara Haţegului, Bucegi, Putna-Vrancea, Porţile de Fier), sub-mountainous
areas (Vânători Neamţ, Platoul Mehedinţi) or in wetlands (Lunca Mureşului, Lunca Joasă a Prutului
Inferior, Balta Mică a Brăilei, Comana). By the criteria of definition, all these areas have at least a
good tourist potential, and in some cases their potential is exceptional. Some parks receive a lot of
visitors each year, the potential having been already well valorised, sometimes for a long time
(especially Bucegi, Maramureş and Apuseni natural parks). Other parks have much less tourists,
mainly due to the lack of infrastructure, the isolation degree (Porţile de Fier, Grădiştea Muncelului –
Cioclovina), and the non-tourist image caused by the lack of information and promotion (Balta Mică
a Brăilei, Lunca Joasă a Prutului Inferior).
The development of tourism took place (in a greater or smaller degree) long before the declaration
of the protected areas, and there was little or no real connection between the number of tourists
arrived and the promotion of tourism linked to the newly declared natural parks. As the
administration of the natural parks, established only recently in 2004, has focused mainly on the
protection objectives, the efforts for a capitalisation of the potentially attractive tourist label of
natural parks were very scarce. The administrations still lack the know-how and the experience
needed to properly promote tourist products linked to the natural park label, plus there is no
coherent strategy for such promotion and no partnerships with tour agencies have been made. In
conclusion, the creation of the Romanian natural parks have not really influenced the tourist
activities, mainly because the conservation objectives are more important at present than the
development ones.
74
Tourism potential of the Iron Gates Natural Park

It is already established that the Iron Gates Natural Park has a remarkable potential for tourism,
due to the quality and great diversity of the tourist sites and objectives (spectacular landscapes,
especially along the Danube, caves and carstic landforms, historical, cultural and ethnographic
objectives, the accumulation Lake Iron Gates, great fishing sites, numerous rare flora and fauna
species, etc). The rich tourist offer of this perimeter has been acknowledged in several papers
(Albuleţu, 1982; Botoşăneanu and Negrea, 1976; Dumbrăveanu, 2004), which all concur that there
is a great potential for tourist activity in this area.
However, the authors above also agree that the development of tourism in the area has not
progressed in the late years, mainly because the infrastructure is almost inexistent. Thus, there are
very few possibilities of accommodation (although lately the offer has diversified, it is still quite
difficult to have proper accommodation in most villages in the park), the road connectivity rate is
very low, as there is only a national road along the Danube linking Orşova to Moldova Nouă (and
when accidents such as landslides occur, several localities remain almost completely isolated or
need to make detours of more than 150 km – this has happened two times in the past three years).
The tourist activities advanced slowly in the last 15 years, and the forms of tourism are not
sufficiently diversified. The only real change was the explosion of secondary residences,
constructed on the Danube border or in its proximity, which proves the great attraction exerted by
this area to people from outside the region.
Sustainable tourism in The Iron Gates Natural Park – a must

The Iron Gates Natural Park has no real alternative for a sustainable development, needed to keep
the abruptly decreasing and ageing population in the natural park perimeter (Necşuliu and
Necşuliu, 2005), although this area was the cradle of the oldest European stable settlements,
whose traces are found at Schela Cladovei and Lepensky Vir (Boroneanţ, 2000).
Thus, the industrial activities, that were based mainly located in the two polarizing centres of
Orşova and Moldova Nouă, are in decline, and the unemployment in the whole area had and still
has very high values (in 1999, when the disfavoured area Anina-Moldova Nouă was declared, the
unemployment rate was higher than 30 %, and the situation has not changed since then, at least
not positively). The extractive industry locations (the copper mining site at Moldova Nouă, the coal
mines of Bigăr, Cozla, Baia Nouă and the stone quarries) have mostly been closed, and as these
extractive activities affect the biodiversity and the landscapes, there are few feasible and
acceptable possibilities to continue or expand these activities.
The agriculture has limited potential, because a great area of the park is covered by forests
(CCMESI, 2001; Manea, 2004) and the agricultural terrains are not very fertile. There is no
possibility for efficient extensive or intensive agriculture. The only chance for the agriculture would
be the promotion of value-added agriculture (for example: organic agriculture, development of
natural park-labelled agricultural products such as jams, honey, etc). This can not be achievable
for the time being, as the national market for such products is not yet prepared, and the quality
standards needed for the external market are difficult to obtain. Anyway the organic agriculture can
only solve the problems of certain limited areas where interesting added-value products can be
developed.
In comparison with all these activities, the tourism is clearly the best solution for short and medium
term development. As the existence of the protected area imposes certain restrictions to all
activities, and the categories of tourists that will be more easily attracted by the "natural park" tag
will be more likely to perform environmental-friendly tourist activities, we can conclude that the
sustainable tourism is necessary for the proper development of the Iron Gates Natural Park
perimeter.
75
The projects within the Iron Gates Natural Park area

We have seen that there is a unanimous opinion about the existence of a great potential for
tourism in the Iron Gates area. The main problem has so far consisted in the inadequate
capitalisation of this potential. The problems concerning the general accessibility and services
(density of roads, water supply and sewer systems), the lack of tourist infrastructure, and the
inexistence of any tourism strategy and/or promotion have prevented most of the possible tourists
from discovering this spectacular area. The efforts were made lately in two directions: 1. strategies
for tourism development and 2. initiatives and projects for tourism development.
Strategies of tourism development. The strategies for the tourism development in the area lack,
as other policies in our country, the coherence with other development plans and the correlation
with the resources available. Several directive lines of development are found in the study
conducted for the Ministry of Tourism by National Institute for Research and Development in
Tourism that aimed to propose measures in order to valorise the tourism potential of the Danube
valley. Although the ideas inserted in this document are generally good for the development of a
tourist area, it is our opinion that the proposals are unrelated to the real life, especially for the poor
region of Iron Gates Natural Park. For the Iron Gates sector, the authors envisage a lot of
investments, in order to create a tourism infrastructure, such as the creation or rehabilitation of
some ports and marinas, along with the proposal of accommodation for a total of 2000 persons,
mainly in bungalows, chalets, camping sites and motels/hotels, and construction of restaurants
with a total of 1850 places. The majority of proposed accommodation structures have at least 100
places although, as we have learnt from the communist regime, big structures are not necessarily
more efficient. They are also a lot more difficult to create, especially since the types of
constructions, such as bungalows, chalets, camping sites, occupy large areas per tourist, and
there is a high risk of low and very low occupation until the flows of tourists will increase
sufficiently. Also, there is nothing wrong in proposing a centre for information and documentation at
Baziaş, as there is no such centre in the area westward of Moldova Nouă, but why propose a
computer-based information panel with a touch screen, when the local people had perhaps never
seen a computer before? In the same time, no proposals were made to address the lack of general
infrastructure, although the sewer system is inexistent in the rural areas, and the water supply
systems have their own problems during excessively dry or cold weather.
An important document, although not focused mainly on tourism, is the Iron Gates Natural Park
plan of management, elaborated by the natural park administration on the basis of the habitat
management plan designed by the University of Bucharest, Centre for Environmental Research
and Impact Studies in the frame of its Life Nature project Iron Gates Natural Park – Habitat
management and conservation. In the part dedicated to the tourism, the plan of management
stresses the importance of the need to develop the region’s infrastructure, both specific
(accommodation) and general (roads, facilities, etc). The promotion of several types of tourism
(such as scientific tourism, agrotourism, etc) and the concern for the sustainability of the tourism
are the main principles included in this document.
The initiatives for tourism development can be classified in the following categories:
1. The Life Nature projects, carried out by allochthonous organizations with European funds,
whose main goals were related to the conservation of biodiversity, but who have helped the
sustainable tourism by creating the infrastructure during the project:
The Iron Gates Natural Park – Habitat management and conservation project, carried
out by the University of Bucharest, Centre for Environmental Research and Impact Studies,
resulted in the construction of 2 bird watching observatories, and 4 well-equipped centres for
information-documentation spread in the park territory, information panels, signs for each natural
reserve, etc;
The Conservation program for Bat's Underground Habitats in SW Carpathians project,

which created at Dubova information panels and distributed promotion materials.
76
2. The projects whose objectives were directly related to the development of

sustainable tourism in the Iron Gates area; these projects were carried out by local
organizations, and were usually focused on parts of the natural park territory, due to the limited
resources available and to the territorial behaviour of the partners, who were only interested in their
county (Mehedinţi or Caraş Severin) of the park.
one older project, carried out by the County Council Mehedinţi, aimed the creation of
agrotourism pensions network in Eşelniţa and Dubova; the results were mixed, as in Dubova there
are now 8 accredited pensions, 5 years after the end of the project, but the offer is still rather poor
in terms of real agrotourism services;
another project (Ecological education by recreation - ecotourism within the Iron Gates
Natural Park) was carried out by a Drobeta Turnu Severin-based NGO, Association for Ecology,
Health, Sport-Tourism, with the support of the County Council Mehedinţi, aiming to reinvigorate the
ecotourism in the Mehedinţi half of the park. The result consists of 10 ecotourist itineraries that
were selected together with the park administration and were properly signalised. This are
important steps to normalize the situation, although the results in terms of tourist flows are invisible
for the time being, as the accessibility of the area has not improved, and the promotion was
insufficient to overcome the total ignorance about this part of the country;
an ongoing project, contracted by the Natural Park Administration, has as objective the
realization of ecotourist thematic itineraries in the Caraş Severin part of the park, in order to
balance the other project carried out in Mehedinţi county. The results will be: a new centre for
information documentation at Belobreşca, two cyclotourist thematic itineraries (one linking the
avifauna interesting sites from Pojejena to Divici, the other one on the Sicheviţa traditional
watermills), a centre to rent tourism equipment.
another ongoing project, elaborated by GEC Nera Oraviţa, an NGO based in Caraş
Severin county, has as objective the promotion of ecotourism in the Caraş Severin part of the park
and the elaboration of a tourism offer consisting of 7 days of Iron Gates Natural Park discovery. It
is this type of initiative that, with the right promotion, can really turn the Iron Gates region into an
attractive and frequented tourist area. For now, there are no results achieved, but it is expected by
the promoters that 2 information points, a tourist itinerary and information signs will be organized.
3. The initiative of external actors, whose information circulates in closed, rather exclusivist
groups. This is because of the presence of five villages with a majority of Czech population (fig. 3);
their connections with the Czech Republic helped them execute the first signalised itinerary, which
links the Czech villages between them and ends in Ciucaru Mare belvedere over the Danube
Gorges. The important flows of Czech tourists, seeking the spectacular landscapes, the peaceful
life and their roots (as it is the only place where it is possible for them to see the rural life of their
ancestors) lead to the creation of an informal network of houses providing accommodation and
food. The information concerning these accommodation sites can be found on leaflets written in
Czech language, but there is no material available in Romanian, because almost 100 % of the
tourists come from the Czech connection. The whole network is still unofficial, as there was no
need for formal documents and there was no official part involved in the process.
4. The private initiatives consisted mainly in the construction of tourism infrastructure

(accommodation and food public units) by private investors, either local or outsider. The example
of the initiatives presented since the first meeting of the Scientific Council (who has to evaluate and
authorize or not every activity taking place in the natural park) is representative: the 43 projects
presented for authorization to the Scientific Council in 2006 were evenly divided between tourism
projects (especially construction of tourist pensions, many in the region Eşelniţa-Dubova, but also
well spread in the other areas of the park), constructions of secondary residences (mainly in the
areas already highly occupied by such residences, that is Eşelniţa, Dubova bay and Pojejena-
Divici area), mineral extractive activities (most projects were meant for constructions rocks), all
these representing more than 80 % of the total initiatives. The other activities were mainly activities
necessary to overcome social problems (cleaning of clogged up riverbeds, road repairs,
77
rehabilitation of electric network, treatment of forest pests, etc), and only one project has asked
specifically for an agricultural enterprise (a pig farm). These proportions (fig. 4) demonstrate that
the tourism and extractive activities are the only current alternatives as far as the investors are
concerned.
Fig. 3 – Iron Gates Natural Park – Czech villages and Czech itinerary
other activities
16% agriculture
2%
extractive
activities
tourism
28%
projects
28%
secondary
residences
26%
Fig. 4 - Private initiatives in the Iron Gates Natural Park in 2006
One of the focal points of the late years was the division of the riverbank in small parcels and
the construction of secondary residences, which the local town halls considered to be a source
78
for the local budget. The village of Eşelniţa, whose length along the national route 57 (and
along the Danube) increased with approximately 6 km in a few years, is the most
representative, a second important point being in the Dubova small bay, and another one in the
western extremity, in the area Pojejena – Divici. The explosion of real estate prices and the
constant pressure from the outside of the region leads to more and more projects aiming in
their majority to construct secondary residences changing the Danube landscape (fig. 5).
Fig. 5 – Secondary residences on the Danube border at Eşelniţa
The most exaggerated project is the initiative supported by Moldova Nouă Town Hall, who
accepted the offer of more persons coming from the rich cities (Timişoara, Bucharest) to create a
group of secondary residences on the Island Moldova
Veche, although the island has been declared natural
reserve and is included in the national Natura 2000
network, as several important communitarian species of
avifauna (Egretta garzetta, Phalacrocorax pygmaeus,
Ardea cinerea) visit each year this uninhabited small
isle. Another unrealistic project, this one currently in
execution, is the enlargement of the Orşova promenade,
a very costly labour which does not seem to improve the
touristic attractivity, although it must be said that the
locals seem to agree with this investment. The lack of
no other recreation facilities in the town or even in the
proximity does not concern the local authorities, not to
mention the social problems of the town or the state of
the national road to Cazane and Moldova Nouă, that
has collapsed last winter and where landslides are likely
to resurrect, as can be seen from the fig 6.
From our point of view, these projects give no real Fig. 6 – Landslide affecting the
opportunity of development, as there are very little
national road near Orşova
79
benefits for the local communities. There are however many persons convinced that the
development of secondary residences is the best opportunity of the area. There is a utopian vision
about the abundant revenues from the land taxes that will greatly increase the local budgets.
Unfortunately, these taxes are even not high enough to help repair the roads that the increased
traffic affects, there are also investments needed to provide these new residential areas the proper
facilities. The other utopian scenario is claiming that these residences create opportunities of jobs
for the local people. In reality, the decline is too deep in the Iron Gates area for this to be a real
solution. The few people who are paid for guarding, gardening or household activities will not
however be hired regularly, and even more importantly, their jobs will most likely take the form of
unofficial agreements, thus eluding the taxes and giving no social benefit to the community or to
the people hired. It is true that the construction workers are hired from the area, but their wages
are low, they have limited work to do (the constructions will not last forever) and usually there are
no legal contracts, thus the contribution to the state budget and social security is almost null.
Ironically, we can conclude that it is the former owners of the piece of land that are now working as
servants to the rich out-of-towners who, in the end, only spend less than 20 % of the year in the
area, and will probably not even make their shopping in the Iron Gates area, as the variety of
products is probably unsatisfactory for the typical owner of a secondary residence.
Most importantly, in the end the local community loses (forever) one of the best resources it has –
the access and the visibility to the Danube. Already in the areas crowded with new residences,
usually with high fences, the tourists have less belvederes and less interest in these areas. The
architectural styles of these new houses have no connection to the older traditional houses, have
no resemblance between them (as this was not enforced by any urbanism or landscape
document), contributing thus to the decrease of the landscape value. In Eşelniţa, there are only two
places where one can reach the Danube border, luckily as there were former village roads and
they were common property and could not be solved. The Dubova bay is almost a close
community, as normal tourists do not have any option to reach the Danube, except for when the
lake is very low. The same pattern seems to affect the Mraconia bay, and if the Moldova Nouă
Town Hall project had approved, the whole Moldova Veche Island would have become a closed
area.
Analysis of perception of local population and local actors on tourism

development
In order to assess the tourism development feasibility from the social acceptance point of view, we
have conducted a survey on two groups of subjects: 22 local actors, members of the Consultative
Council, and 27 persons from the towns of Orşova and Eşelniţa. We have thus compared the
results of the two groups of subjects and we have analyzed the differences between their opinion
and the specialists’ opinion (as resulted of the Tourism Institute study).
Here are the main conclusions of this comparison:
everybody agrees that the Iron Gates region has a great tourist potential, that the development of
tourism is a good idea and that it will lead to increase of life standard in the region. The majority
also thinks the development of tourism may help reducing the unemployment in the area, and that
it may help maintain the traditions of the local people.
there are differences concerning the elements that are considered to be most attractive for tourists:
the local authorities tend to favour more the cultural elements (customs, traditional costumes –
more than 50 % considering it a factor), while the common people give it a much less importance
(only 15 %); on the contrary, the opinion of the local people on the influence of the pure air and the
Iron Gates accumulation lake is higher than the opinion of the local authorities.
on the promotion of tourist activities, the cruises on Danube are considered by both groups to be
ideal (95% of the total answers); next come sport fishing, excursions and development of nautical
sports (all three more valued by the common people) and the agrotourism (considered much more
important by the Consultative Council members – 68 % against 33 %) (fig 7).
80
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
cruises nautical sports guided fishing agrotourism hunting
excursions
Local authorities Local population
Fig. 7 – Types of tourism activities accepted by the local communities
There are also quite interesting differences regarding the accommodation structures that the
common people prefer to be built in their area (hotels and school camps, then chalets,
pensions and camping sites), while the local authorities focus on pensions, and then chalets,
school camps and floating hotels (fig 8);
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
hotels and motels floating hotels pensions chalets camping sites school camps
Local authorities Local population
Fig. 8 – Types of accommodation structures accepted by the local communities
81
The opinions on infrastructure elements needing improvements are more convergent, as the
roads (over 90 %) and the quality of services (75 %) are named by both groups of subjects.
The greatest difference comes in the knowledge degree on the natural park. The common
people still show ignorance on this subject, although the subjects come from the area with the
best coverage of information (Orşova is the town where lies the headquarters of the park's
administration, while in Eşelniţa is located the University of Bucharest's Captive Breeding
Center, the aims of the University research center should have been better disseminated).
Obviously, the consultative council members are better informed on the park creation and
objectives.
Conclusions
As we have demonstrated, the tourism is the only real alternative for the sustainable development
of the Iron Gates Natural Park. The creation of the park is supporting the development of tourism,
as it aims to protect the elements of natural and cultural heritage that are also the most important
tourist attractions, while also providing a new promotional label that should be valorized by the
tourism industry in the future. Thus, our first conclusion would be that tourism is a necessity for the
Iron Gates area.
However, the private initiatives have so far been focused on the construction of touristic pensions.
Thus, for the moment there are very limited possibilities for the tourism development, although
there is great potential. The cause is that this area is not identified by most tourists as a possible
destination, as there is no tourism infrastructure, no campaign of promotion of the park took place
so far, and the existing information has disseminated only in restrained groups. For many local
actors, the tourism development is a utopia. They believe that the presence of secondary
residences will increase revenues to the local community, and do not realize that if they do not
address the problem concerning the general infrastructure, the tourists will choose other
destinations, the most obvious one being the Serbian border, on the other side of the Danube,
much better organized as a tourist offer.
There are however several initiatives aiming on the long term to develop sustainable tourism in the
area, so the final conclusion is an optimist one, there has been some improvement in the last two
years and we can hope that the local actors will understand in time the importance of tourism
development and support the tourist activities in the Iron Gates natural park by feasible projects.
Acknowledgements
The research for this article was conducted in the frame of the research project for Ph. D students
funded by the National Council for High Education Scientific Research (CNCSIS). I would like to
thank the Center for Environmental Research and Impact Studies of the University of Bucharest,
who provided the information and supported me with their material base, and the colleagues that
helped me with the questionnaires. I also address cordial thanks to the Iron Gates natural park
administration and Scientific Council, for their support with information on the initiatives in the area.
I would finally like to thank all the members of Consultative Council of Iron Gates Natural Park who
expressed their opinions on the tourism development for their time and their kind answers.
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14. *** IUCN (1994), Guidelines for Protected Area Management Categories. IUCN, Gland, Suisse şi
Cambridge, UK.
15. *** INCDT (2001) Studiu de oportunitate privind valorificarea potenţialului turistic al Dunării. Faza a
II-a. Studiu elaborat de Institutul Naţional de Cercetare-Dezvoltare în Turism, Bucureşti.
http://www.mturism.ro/fileadmin/mturism/studii_nationale/Studiu3.2.pdf
16. *** CCMESI (2002) Inventarierea resurselor biotice şi abiotice din cadrul Parcului Natural Porţile de
Fier, raport intern în cadrul proiectului LIFE RO/00/7171, Bucureşti, Centrul de Cercetare a Mediului
şi Efectuare a Studiilor de Impact (CCMESI)
17. *** (2000) Legea 5 / 2000 privind aprobarea Planului de amenajare a teritoriului naţional - Secţiunea
a III-a - zone protejate. Monitorul Oficial al României nr. 152 din 12 aprilie 2000
18. *** (2001) Legea 462 / 2001 pentru aprobarea Ordonantei de urgenta a Guvernului nr. 236/2000
privind regimul ariilor naturale protejate, conservarea habitatelor naturale, a florei si faunei salbatice.
Monitorul Oficial 433 din 2 august 2001.
19. *** (2003) Hotărâre de Guvern 230 / 2003 privind delimitarea rezervaţiilor biosferei, parcurilor
naţionale şi parcurilor naturale şi constituirea administraţiilor acestora. Monitorul Oficial, Partea I nr.
190 din 26 martie 2003.
20. *** (2003) Ordin nr. 552 / 2003 privind aprobarea zonării interioare a parcurilor naţionale şi a
parcurilor naturale, din punct de vedere al necesităţii de conservare a diversităţii biologice. Monitorul
Oficial, Partea I nr. 648 din 11 septembrie 2003.
21. *** (2004) Hotărâre de Guvern 2151 / 2004 privind instituirea regimului de arie naturala protejata
pentru noi zone. Monitorul Oficial 38 din 12 ianuarie 2005.
22. www.antrec.ro
23. www.portiledefier.ro
24. www.iucn.org
83
Renewable energy risk and opportunity

Georgiana Drăguşin, Ionela Negrea, Serban Bobancu
Transilvania University of Brasov, department of design, Braşov, telephone: +40(0)746092279, email:
georgianadragusin@yahoo.com
Abstract
Renewable energy sources are inexhaustible and are used from old times. In present the renewable energy
industry stands in an initial stadium but in the same time is characterize like a fast development. In these
days the renewable energy systems find applications in many and different areas. As civilizations became
more sophisticated, architects began to design buildings to take advantage of the renewable energy by
exchanging the natural use of its heat and light, so reducing the need for artificial sources of warmth and
illumination. The most known renewable energy systems are: Solar energy, Wind energy, Geothermal
energy, Biomass, Wave energy, Hydro energy.
Solar energy
A huge quantity of solar energy arrives at earth surface every day. This energy can be trapped and
used like heat form in thermo-solar applications, or can be transformed directly in electricity with
help of photovoltaic cells (PC). For used of solar energy is need the conversion of energy in other
forms, the conversions are:
• The photothermic conversion – is obtain the heat from the water, steam, warm air in
other state (liquid, solid or gaseous). The heat in this way obtain can be used
directly or maybe can be transform in electric energy through thermoelectric station.
• The photoelectric conversion – can be fulfilled using the materials properties or

semiconductor from which is manufacture the photovoltaic rasp.
• The photometric conversion – is important for the moment spatial energy, where the
conversion based on light pressure give birth at engine "vela solara", necessary at
spacecraft fly.
• The photochemical conversion – which can be used in two ways the sun in a
chemical reaction, either direct for luminous excitations at a molecular body, either
indirect for intermediary plants (photosynthesis) or product transformation of animal
dejections
Applications in photovoltaic conversion

Worm water can be produce at small scale for domestic used or at large scale la for thermo-solar
electric station alimentation. The applications at small scale use in general collectors with plate
taller, in this time the electric station used concentrate systems for solar radiation.
1. Worm water for domestic use.
The installation of the system that uses solar energy for heating is economic and can satisfy 60
80% from the total necessary of worm water.
2. Pool heating
3. Commercial and domestic use.
4. Thermo-solar electric station.
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Used of parable or central recess, Thermo-solar electric factory concentrate the solar rays for
collectors which reach very big temperatures (sometimes till 600 C degree). Today, it exist a big
number of commercial stations which are active, other more big then this can be build.
Applications in photoelectric conversion

1. Domestic applications
Some houses use photovoltaic systems to replace or to supplement the conventional

sources of electric energy. An independent domestic system is used from solar board (A), a battery
(B) which stocks the energy in the night, and a mechanism(C) who admits conventional domestic
apparatus and must be charged with solar electricity. Some houses used special domestic
apparatus for electric solar energy.
2. Isolated input systems
Photovoltaic systems charge in present, all over the world, thousandth of isolated input systems.
Then can be represented of radio systems, telephone, control systems and many other.
In every year metal corrosion bring damages of million of dollars all over the world. To prevent this
corrosions is used the cathodic protection, often is charge by photovoltaic boards. Many system of
cathodic protection need 10 kW of electric energy.
The capacity of the battery is decrease if this are not used for a long time. To prevent this problem
the photovoltaic systems can produce to the battery a small and constant current.
The isolation system of warning can be also charged with solar electricity.
Medium aspects
The best advantage, in view of this used, is that will not produce pollution of the surrounding
medium, it is a source of clean energy; other advantage of the solar energy is the fact that this
source which is based this technology is free.
Wind energy
Wind energy it was one of the first source of humanity energy for goods transport, milling of the
grains and water pumping for many 1000 years. They used the force of the wind, it can be obtain
electric energy, with used of some installations which name are wind turbine. This wind turbine
transforms the kinetic energy of the wind in direct electricity through a generator.
The advantage of wind energy:
• Is accessible all over the world
• Is free
• Can be transform in mechanic and electric energy
• Can fulfil in big units for MW, but can be small between 2.10 KW
• The occupied surface are small
• Can be used with solar energy in hybrid systems
• Is an unpolluted source of energy
• Is unlimited in time
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The disadvantage of wind energy:
• Isn’t constant in time
• At powers between 5-10 kW, wind turbines, which are not connected to the
National Power System, is necessary to stock the energy in battery of accumulation,
will result bigger costs maintenance
• At wind turbines of big powers like 1MW, the blade moves and the characteristic
noise, can produce stress at the near houses around
Wind energy applications:

Examples of used of direct wind energy can be mentioned: the charged water pomp or a
compressor for the installation of water salt out. The big fluctuation in delivery of the energy from
the wind converters are characteristic and at the same time inevitable. This inconvenient can be
compensated in different situations with other generators (example: a hybrid systems which
consists from wind /biogas/ photovoltaic can be a good solution).
Biomass
The biomass is a substance of plants and animals, which react with the oxygen and the heat is
release, and can be named biofuel.
From the origin place the biomass can be classified in:
- Primary biomass, produce the activity of photosynthesis from the plants.
- Secondary biomass is produced by heterotrophic beings, the beings that used like food the
primary biomass. A big importance has the residual products from industrial activities or from
animals rise.
- Residual biomass is produced in human activities: straw, sawdust, residual from the butcheries,
urban residual.
- Fossil biomass: oil, natural gas and coal.
The energy from biomass is the energy that is obtained from burning of all tips of derived products
from plants: wood mass, plant crop, ranger residual.
Biomass applications
Can be used for domestic consumption, but in a big part can be used in industry. The industrial
applications include mixed systems of electric and thermic energy, boiler for rooms heating, small
industrial applications.
Industrial, the primary biomass is made to produce refined fuel derivative, which are biofuel
(example: from charcoal can be obtain methane gas, esters). In nature, the biomass can be
divided in elemental molecule with heat release of microbial process of natural decompose. In
present are used wood wastes – stratified and pressed. The advantage of this technology is that
can obtain products that have a big caloric power, are very easy to transport and is not necessary
a big space for storage.
Medium aspects
The emission of CO2 in the atmosphere is much reduced (in the time of combustion). The emission
of SO2 is very small by comparison with the other emission of special fossil fuel. If it is used in
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balance with the crop plants, the biomass represents a source of inexhaustible energy, which can
not affect the surrounded medium.
Hydroelectricity
It is based on transformed the kinetic energy of the water in electricity. In this way a turbine and a
generator transform the energy of the water in mechanical and then in electrical energy. The hydro
technologies of making electrical energy have high output and use the contact equipments with a
long life. There are two types of hydroelectric installations:
- on the strecun water using the energy of the water caught from rivers;
- through pumping : there are used two tanks placed at different heights, and the water
stored in the repper tank is released to the lower one.
Advantages:
- the efficiency of modern installations reaches 80-90% and it can be improved.
- The costs of the hydro installations rise with the dimension of the application. This way the
big installations became economically viable because can be accepted long periods of
repay through the responsible utilities companies.
Disadvantages:
Although the hydroelectricity is generally considered a clean source of energy it has emission of
gas (GHG) and it can have bad socio-economical influences.
Geothermal Energy
The geothermal energy, the natural heat from earth, resulted from the remained heat from the
centre of the earth, from the friction of the continental places which slide one by another and from
the radioactive elements decomposing which appear naturally in small quantities in all rocks.
The technologies of using the geothermal sources are classified in:
- Hydrothermal technologies – the earth emanates hot water or steams
- Technologies that use hot and dry rocks which in contact with water produce
steams and hot water.
Use of the geothermal energy

World wide, the geothermal capacity is: for electricity around 5 GW, and for heat 7 GW so the
geothermal energy it is used for heating the house, industrial for making electricity and in spas.
Environment aspects
It is a non-polluting energy and it can be said that until 2030-2050, the new technologies from the
geothermal domain will allow an important production of electricity in many countries which are
today considered as having important geothermal resources.
Wave energy
The huge waves of the oceans carry big quantities of the energy, but this energy is hard to exploit
cheap and efficient. There are different plans of exploiting the waves in obtaining energy. This
schemes work on the principle of the oscillating water column. A sank room, open in the lower
pant, is containing a water column with air above. With the passing of the waves the column is
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rising and going down, pushing and pulling out the air from a turbine connected at an electricity
generator.
Applications and environmental studies
There have been made experiments in Scotland to use the waves energy to generate 180 KW of
electricity. This type of energy is non-polluting.
Conclusions
Knowing that the resources of fossil fuel will soon be over regarding the known consume, it is
useful the using of the renewable energies.
Based on the dates given by British Petroleum the fossil fuel disappears like this:
Fuel Disappearing rate

Oil 40 years
Natural gases 62 years
Coal 224 years
Knowing that the technologies for exploiting the regenerating resources ( wind, sun, waves,
geothermal gasses etc.) are expensive it would be better that, for stating, there were used hybrid
systems formed of technologies used for fossil fuels and for regenerating resources.
This way the following will be reduced:
- the fossil fuels would have a higher disappearing rate
- economically the costs for the technologies used would be lower then the
technologies used in exploiting the regenerating resources
- the pollution of the environment due to the drop of the consume of fossil
fuels.
The objectives of UE in the domain of energy are:
- reducing by 8% of the CO2 in the period 2008-2012 composing to the level

from 1990 ( regarding the protocol from Kyoto )
- Doubling the RES contributing (the regenerating sources of energy) from 6%

in resent up to 12% at the end.
- Improving the energy efficiency through a rise of 18% until 2010, comparing
to 1995
- Providing the safety in supplying with energy.
References
1. Magdalena Momirlan, SURSE DE ENERGIE NECONVENŢIONALE REGENERABILE. OBŢINEREA
HIDROGENULUI PRIN FOTODISOCIEREA APEI, Institutul de Chimie Fizică “I. G. Murgulescu” al
Academiei Române.
2. Godfrey Boyle, “Renewable Energy. Power for a sustainable future”, Oxford 2004, ISBN 0-19-926178-4.
88
3. Peny L. Jones,Herbert J. Sutherland and Byron A. Neal “Sandia Report”, LIST/BMI Turbines
Instrumentation and Infrastructure.
4. Benoit Robyns,” Renewable Energy Sources”, realizare: Sophie Labrique traducere: Eduard Stroe, Florin
Mihai, Sergiu Ivanov.
5. Eric P. Usher, Michael M. D. Ross, “Recommended Practices for Charge Controllers”, Renewable Energy
and Hybrid Systems Group, August, 1998.
6. J. T. Bialasiewicz, E. Muljadi, „Modular Simulation of a Hybrid Power System with Diesel and Wind
Turbine Generation”, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, mai 1998.
7. Eduard Muljadi, IEEE, Jan T. Bialasiewicz, “Hybrid Power System with a Controlled Energy Storage”,
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, noiembrie 2003
8. “Renewable Energy World”, edited by James and James ltd, London U.K., may-june 2004,pag 60-83,
pages 140-149.
9. “The International Renewable Energy magazine. Refocus”, edited by Headly Brothers ltd., Kent, U.K.,
May June 2004, ISSN 14710846
89
Flood prevention by biological reinforcements

Ana Virsta
Ecoland – UNESCO Chair, Bucharest, Romania avirsta@gmail.com, Tel/Fax: +40-21-318-3076; Mobile
+40-744 750 244
Abstract
The paper deals with the results obtained on the ecological protection of flooded surfaces in major riverbeds.
The aerodynamic modelling represents an efficient, economic and easy way to work with. The main condition
of success the experiment is to respect the similitude criteria. Processing the obtained data as a result of
sediment transport and studying the local erosion one can observe the effect of the biological consolidation.
The benefits of the biological reinforcement consists mainly in the followings: maintaining the river course
and protection of the dikes against erosion; conserving the flow capacity nearly to the same value even if the
friction coefficient increases, since the rate of water flow is transported by minor river bed. The method of
forestation represents a natural way of protection that in appropriate conditions is able to reproduce by itself
in 2-3 years.
Introduction
The actual knowledge stage about floods as natural and anthropic hazards is precise and
dramatic. According to the publication Topics 2000, Munich Re Group, Germany, in the second
half of the twenty century occurred 234 floods what means 27% of the total number of natural
catastrophes that occurred worldwide. With those events died 1.4 millions people, the losses
reached 960 billions US$ and represented about 30% of the losses caused by natural catastrophes
on the world. From the same source, according to Topics Geo 2003 only in that year occurred 196
floods what mean 28% of total number of world natural catastrophes, with 3,890 fatalities and 13.
65 billion US$ losses what mean 21% of total losses, and according to Topics Geo 2004 in that
year occurred 154 floods what mean 24% of total number of world natural catastrophes, with 5,490
fatalities and losses of 14.5 billions US$ what mean 10% total losses caused by natural
catastrophes on the world. On the other hand in the World Bank publication [2] it is shown that in
Romania 57% of annual losses are due to floods and landslides. In addition, from [7] results that in
Romania 37.4% of the territory is a state of risk, 45.8% of people lives in a risk state, and 50.3% of
country’s budget, hence a little more than a half, is affected by the risk of natural catastrophes.
Unfortunately, the floods occurred in the year 2005 fully confirmed the estimations of World Bank.
The difficulties Romania is experiencing nowadays were also encountered by other countries. They
are extremely expensive and have strong effects on the environment. This is why the methods
based on the biological reinforcement of embankments are of special interest.
Aerodynamic modelling of riverbed processes

The main engineering works on river shed are river embankments. The control of soil erosion in
slopes, active and potential landslides, stability of hydrotechnical structures and transport capacity
of riverbeds are also of high concern.
Due to the lack of general similitude criteria and specific methods of modelling the phenomenon of
riverbed erosion can be reproduced mostly qualitatively than quantitatively on laboratory’s
hydraulics models. Some of the criteria of riverbed processes modelling are incompatible with
criteria of local erosions modelling. For this reason each laboratory has its own experience and
rules in hydraulics modelling. The problems are more difficult on the models under pressure air
stream. Laboratory’s practice and theoretical research have shown that riverbed processes
modelling are equally in the same time a science and an art.
Aerodynamic modelling supposes to replace free surface flow with under pressure flow. This fact
implies some changes in flow characteristics but aerodynamic modelling is preferably to hydraulics
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modelling because of low costs, small dimensions and an easy way to work with. The previous
researches have shown that on models under pressure the flow could be almost similar to the
natural flow, complete similitude being impossible to be reached. This is why the results are more
of qualitative value than a quantitative one [4].
The laboratory’s model has to be similar with the natural watercourse in respect of similitude
criteria: geometrical, cinematic and dynamic. Because of replacement of free surface flow with
under pressure flow, the similitude criteria have to be respected as follow[3]:
- By geometrical and head loss similitude, neglecting velocity distribution; one obtains:
ΔZ nat / (Δρ / γ )mod el

= 1
α v 2
(1)
and
α λ α l
= 1
α R
(2)
where Z is depth ; Δρ specific mass; γ specific weight; and α a coefficient of proportionality;
From this two criteria only one is independent, that is why one of them should be used for drawing
up the model.
-Vertical velocity distribution and allowing the deviation from geometrical similitude by uplifting the
fixed surface of model:
ΔZ nat
= αν∗2 (3)
(Δρ / γ )mod el
α λ∗ = α ∗ y / α x (4)
where v* and y* refers only to that part of total depth in which the similitude distribution of vertical
velocitity is fulfilled.
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Equipment and procedures

The experiments were conducted into a 600 cm long, 30 cm wide and 20 cm deep rectangular
flume as it is shown in the figure 1.
The upstream section consists of a reception area for sediments. A fixed bed to ensure the
turbulent boundary layer was fully developed before reaching the test section. The test reach was
composed of a movable bed with fine sediment to a depth of 10 cm. The downstream section
consists also in a fixed bed and has a sand trap. The sidewalls of the flume were made of glass,
while the flume itself was constructed on pillars. The airflow on the model is due by a fan working
in aspiration stream.
In two test section of the channel were measured the pressure and the velocity. After sediment
transport, the bed configurations were obtained with a profile indicator, which consist of a probe
with a needle, placed vertically in the section. A servomechanism maintains the tip of the probe at
a constant distance above the bed. The needle itself follows the configuration of the bed
continuously. The profile indicator was mounted on a four-wheeled carriage at a position
corresponding to the centre of channel. The recorded data were processed to calculate and
graphic represented of bed configurations [5], [6].
Figure 1: Experimental set-up – 1rectangular channel, 2 sand trap; 3 pipe D = 150mm; 4 flow
rate measurement section; 5 valve; 6 pressure measurement sections; 7 walls; 8 fan;
10 sand; 11glass.
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The sediment used for these experiments had a mean particle diameter of 0, 27 mm, which was
based on a sieve analysis, while the characteristic grain diameters were d50=0, 30 mm and
d90=0,49 mm. The figure 2 gives an overview of the sieve analyses of the sand.
Figure 2: Grain diameters distribution
Biological reinforcement modelling

The aim of the experiments was to study the effect of biological reinforcement to protect the dike of
major riverbed.
The experiments were conducted to study, first, the effect of sediment transport on mobile
riverbed, the major riverbed being consolidated with buried threshold. In the figure 3 one can
observe that, due to sediment transport, the erosions produced both, in minor and major riverbed,
with the same intensity. Studying the longitudinal profile of the model, one sees that the buried
threshold determined the deposition of the sediment upstream and the erosions downstream, as
shown in the figures 4 and 5.
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Figure 3: Erosion due to sediment transport in a field of two traverses, without biological
consolidation
Figure 4: Longitudinal profiles through the riverbed provided with two traverses, but
without biological consolidation
94
Figure 5: Erosions and depositions due to sediment transport in the riverbed without
biological consolidation
To avoid the phenomena of erosion in major riverbed biological consolidation, in three variants as it
was shown in the figure 6b, were positioned. The wide of areas occupied by vegetation was 7 cm
and 14 cm, the density of trees varying from 1 cm to 2 cm and the distance from dike is 3 cm. It
was used metallic bars of 2 mm in diameter. After sediment transport, using a profile indicator, the
relief of riverbed was visualized.
Figure 6a: Longitudinal and cross sections through the testing model
The positive effect of biological consolidation it is clearly demonstrated. In major riverbed doesn’t
appear erosion, being protected both the dike and the threshold. In this case, there is the possibility
to reduce the length of buried threshold. A distance represented 8% of total active riverbed surface
95
between the dike and the planted area it’s enough to avoid the damage of the dike produced by the
tree’s roots and the preferable streams. This distance allowed also keeping in a good shape the dike
Figure 6b: Biological reinforcement modelling
The benefits of biological consolidation are clearly shown in the figures 7, 8 and 9.
Figure 7: Biological consolidation on the half of major riverbed width, with a vegetation
density of 50%
96
In the case of high density of vegetation, the erosions in minor riverbed are stronger, while in the
major riverbed protected area it produced silt depositions. The experiments showed that at a
density of ½, the vegetation is enough dense to protect the dike and the major riverbed. A
plantation, occupied 20% of total active riverbed surface, leadings to a good protection of major
riverbed. Planting the whole areas of major riverbed, as shown in figure 9, the head losses are
almost doubling. Channel capacity is reduced and the water level increases. This supposes to
overgrow the dike that means supplementary costs.
Figure 8: Biological consolidation on the third of major riverbed width, with a vegetation
density of 100%
Figure 9: Biological consolidation on the half of major riverbed width, with a vegetation
density of 50%
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The biological reinforcement determines the increase of riverbed roughness. Since the density of
vegetation is ½, the channel capacity doesn’t change because of supplementary erosions
produced in minor riverbed.
The measurements of head losses allowed determining the roughness coefficient of biologically
protected area in major riverbed. The roughness coefficient based on the equation
C 2 h = K (5)
where C – Chézy coefficient, h – stream depth, K – coefficient for number of trees on m2 was
determined. The calculate value of the roughness coefficient was n = 0,6 for the ½ planting
density. In the figure 9 it can see the variation of roughness coefficient for the major and minor
riverbed and also for the entire active section.
Figure 9: Roughness coefficient in mobile riverbed
Conclusion
The data experimentally obtained can be applied in practice in respect of similitude criteria.
Geometrical similitude allowed to draw up the biological reinforcement, while the criteria of
hydraulics resistance, knowing the value of roughness coefficient, gives us information regarding
the maximum water level at different time period. t is obviously that the biological reinforcement
has as effect the rise of water level, due to supplementary roughness induced by trees. The water
level can be determine experimentally or theoretical and, if necessary, to estimate the costs for
overgrown dikes. But the positive effects of biological consolidation can also be quantifiable and
consist mainly in: reducing the dike erosion, check the structure of minor riverbed, putting in a good
use the area of major riverbed, forest biomass exploitation and improving the environment and
biodiversity by forestation.
References
1. Baloiu V., - Watershed and River Management, CERES Publishing House, Bucharest, 1980
2. Christoph Pusch, PREVENTABLE LOSSES: Saving Lives and Propriety through Hazard Risk
Management, World Bank, Washington DC, 2004
3. Hancu S., - Underpressure air stream modelling, Romanian Academy Publishing House, Bucharest,
1967
4. ] Hoffmans G.J.C.M.,Communication on Hydraulics and Geotechnical Engineering -Two-dimensional
mathematical modelling of local scour holes, Delft University of Technology, ISBN 0169-6548, 1992
5. Virsta A., - Dinamic of Sediment Transport in River, Doctoral Thesis, Technical University of
Bucharest, 2000
6. Virsta A., – Water Management, Cartea Universitara Publishing House, Bucharest, 2005
7. Natural Disaster Hotspots, Disaster Risk Management Series, Washington DC 2005
98
Learning to deal with natural disasters

Ramiro A. Sofronie, Ana Virsta
Ecoland – UNESCO Chair, Bucharest, Romania ecoland@ecoland.ro, Tel/Fax: +40-21-318-3076; Mobile
+40-722- 877- 889
Abstract
The paper deals with the five main natural disasters that became obsessive for the technological society:
1) Climatic changes; 2) Earthquakes; 3) Storms; 4) Floods; and 5) Landslides. Paradoxically, the
technology that nowadays governs the World globalization proved unable to face the consequences of
natural disasters. Statistically, the value of damages, the number of fatalities and the area of unbalanced
environment produced by such disasters are dramatically increasing. There is expected that the Higher
Education to interfere for preventing or mitigate the effects of the disasters that only generically are called
as natural. This is why recently UNESCO in Paris drew up three issues to be searched by Universities: 1)
Capacity of instructing appropriate investigators and creators for technological projects, 2) Productivity of
research for reaching the highest technological performances and 3) Utility in fulfilling the needs of the
newly society and protected environment built according to the technological trends. Therefore in the new
task of “Education for Research and Knowledge Creation” the five aforementioned disasters should be
included mainly due to the anthropic contributions. The paper concludes with the idea that for fulfilling this
task the Higher Education should be restructured according to the requirements of developing technology
and obviously of those of globalisation.
Global Colloquium
The UNESCO Forum on Higher Education, Research, and Knowledge organised on 29
November – 1 December 2006 in Paris a Global Colloquium. The Forum’s second international
Colloquium will be a key global event bringing together researchers, policy-maker, experts and
stakeholders from all parts of the world. The topic addresses the serious problems many
universities in many parts of the world have in sustaining adequate programmes of research
and enquiry. It considers both the reasons for, and the consequences of, a development that
increasingly seems to limit many universities to being institutions of knowledge dissemination
rather than knowledge creation. The topic also addresses the distribution of this phenomenon
across different kinds of societies, political regimes, and levels of socio-economic development,
and thus both allows for, and requires, a comparative approach.
The central premise for the Colloquium is that research is a key ingredient in the institutional
identity of universities and an indispensable prerequisite for a successful program of teaching
and public service. Universities that are deprived, or deprive themselves, of that ingredient risk
the intellectual erosion of their programs of study, lose their critical ability to assess claims to
knowledge, and become dependent on the outside supply of knowledge.
The principal question that the Colloquium will have to deal with is why these differences in
research intensity and capacity exist among the world’s universities, and what can be done to
moderate and overcome them. The role of research in higher education thus addresses a very
serious and pertinent issue. It covers and connects the three main themes of the Forum:
Universities, Research and Knowledge. The problem is particularly serious for developing
countries, which is also an important consideration for the Forum.
Universities in developing countries are under immense pressure to increase their enrolment in
order to meet the human resource development targets of their respective countries. In addition,
they are often forced to generate added revenue by increasing the number of fee-paying
99
students. Teaching is therefore becoming their first priority and often their only pursuit. Also,
because of scarce financial resources, they are unable adequately to equip and maintain their
research facilities or replenish their libraries. In addition, they are unable to recruit or retain well-
qualified faculty with strong research credentials who, for various reasons, prefer to move to
developed countries (brain drain). In most developing countries universities are the main and
often the only institutions to undertake research, and if these falter, knowledge production for
the country as a whole will be seriously affected. Statistics show the very poor research output
of many developing countries, and the most disadvantaged region is Sub-Saharan Africa. Other
pertinent issues include (a) how much of the research carried out in universities in developing
countries is directly or indirectly relevant to the development needs of the country, and (b) how
much of the findings gets effectively transmitted to the relevant users.
The issues in developed countries are slightly different. In those countries, there is a growing
tendency to have different categories of universities – research-strong (generally the “old”
universities) and “new” teaching-only universities. But is the term “university” at all appropriate
for an institution which does not do any research? How important is research to teaching at the
university level? Also, in many developed countries, research is increasingly being carried out
in private, corporate organizations rather than at universities.
Issues common to all regions include: the privatization and commercialization of higher
education, with serious and lasting effects on both the extent and the kind of research being
undertaken; the increasing number of open universities with vastly different levels of attention to
research; a growing trend of cross-border delivery of higher education with little or hardly any
research focus; and the role of the state and other agencies in providing funding for research to
universities.
Global climate change

Reliable measurements of the global mean temperature using scientific instruments have been
available now for about 140 years; the values of the last one thousand years can be estimated
with a reasonable degree of reliability as least for the northern hemisphere. In 1998 the global
mean temperature reached a new high, which far exceeded all the values of the last one
thousand years. The particularly steep increase in temperature in the course of the last few
decades cannot be explained by natural influences, such as fluctuations in solar activity. The
leading scientists in the field of climate research are now convinced that man is, at least partly,
responsible for a warming of the climate and that this will have massive repercussions.
As far back as 1896, a Swedish physicist named Svante Arrhenius described how the
temperature is affected by higher concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere. What makes this
early work so remarkable is the fact that it was done at a time when mighty glaciers in most
mountainous regions of the world provided still quite evident signs of a cooler phase that had
lasted for several centuries, the ”little ice age”.
This relatively cool phase lasted until the beginning of the 20th century and it was only then that
the imprint of anthropogenic global warming became increasingly visible. At first the
accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere had little impact because the intense
industrialization and the two world wars had given rise to a high level of pollution in the
atmosphere itself. The irradiation of the earth by the sun was reduced by this ”pollution filter” of
sulphur dioxide, nitrous oxides, other trace gases, and aerosols. It was only when air pollution
control began to improve in the 1970s that the impact of the man-made greenhouse effect
became more and more evident.
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As a result scientists and research centres increasingly devoted their energies to the complex
physical processes in the atmosphere. More and more evidence of anthropogenic climate
change emerged and it was then that people began to think about the possible effects. In the
year 1979 the United Nations issued its first official call upon the nations to finally take the
question of man-made climate change seriously. Today a network of distinguished scientists
spanning the world is investigating the greenhouse effect and the resulting climate change.
Numerous trace gases in the atmosphere are responsible for the greenhouse effect.
Consequently they are called greenhouse gases. Substances like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
have no natural sources and are entirely manmade. Their greenhouse potential, namely their
"warming potential" in the widest sense, is particularly high. Since the majority of greenhouse
gases stay in the atmosphere for a long time, man has created a problem that will be of concern
for many generations to come. Even if all emissions were stopped immediately, the gases would
continue to produce their damaging effects for years, decades, and even centuries in some
cases. Here too the completely synthetic products, CFCs, stand out very distinctly.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was set up in 1988 by the United
Nations and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). This panel is made up of renowned
climatologists from all parts of the world, supported by thousands of other scientists. It is only
when they have reached a consensus that their opinions are published in the form of IPCC
reports. The IPCC's 1990 and 1996 reports extrapolate future developments on the basis of a
series of scenarios. In its Third Assessment Report, published in 2001, the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) projects that global average surface temperatures will raise by
a further 1.4 to 5.8°C by the end of this century (Fig. 1).
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Figure 1: The process of continuous warming
This global temperature increase is likely to trigger serious consequences for humanity and
other life forms alike, including a rise in sea levels of an estimated 9 to 88 cm by the end of this
century, which will endanger coastal areas and small islands, and a greater frequency and
severity of extreme weather events. This involves not only the analysis of time series to uncover
trends but also the use of highly developed computer models. Before they are used, these
models are subjected to a control experiment to test whether they are capable of reproducing
the actual climate with the required degree of precision. Only then are plausible scenarios
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loaded and used as a basis for calculation. Some of the main results are presented here
together with a commentary:
In view of population growth and the economic development to be expected in the most densely
populated regions of the world, it is very likely that the emission of greenhouse gases will
increase in the future at an even faster rate than in the past. To this extent, then, a doubling of
the concentration of carbon dioxide even in the first half of the 21st century would appear to be
quite realistic (pre-industrial: approx. 280 ppm, 2000: approx. 360 ppm, forecast for 2030:
approx. 560 ppm; ppm = parts per million).
Figure 2: World map of the average temperatures recorded during the year 1890
Figure 3: World map of the average temperatures forecasted for the year 2010
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Figure 4: World map of the average temperatures forecasted for the year 2049
Figure 5: Table with the occurrence probability of the global warming effects
According to the IPCC, the mean global temperature will have risen by several degrees by the
end of the 21st century, with an uncertainty range of about 1-4 degrees. The 0.2-0.3 degree
average increase per decade represents a steep acceleration compared with the increase of 0.7
degrees every 100 years observed in the past. It is so fast that numerous ecosystems, including
many types of forest, will probably be unable to adapt quickly enough.
It is possible that sea levels will rise at a somewhat slower rate than originally feared. The
thermal inertia of the oceans and the buffer effect of the increase in snow fall in the cold regions
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(e.g. in parts of the Antarctic) make it difficult to make exact forecasts. A rise of about 50cm is
expected by the year 2100. If the worst case were to occur, involving a rise of just under one
metre, numerous islands (e.g. Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, and the Maldives), heavily
populated coastal areas (e.g. Bangladesh), and economic areas in river deltas (e.g. Nile, Niger)
would be confronted with a serious threat to their existence.
The dramatic retreat of inland glaciers in the majority of the earth's mountain regions will
continue. If the current rates of retreat are maintained, all that will be left of the once so mighty
Alpine glaciers at the end of the 21st century, for instance, will be a few meagre remains, with
the result that Europe will lose its largest reservoir of drinking water.
As far as changes in terms of extreme events are concerned, there is still a great need for
research. But the analysis of long-term measurements and computer models has already given
numerous new indications that the occurrence probabilities for extreme values of various
meteorological parameters have already undergone or will undergo significant change. And
since neither ecosystems nor human beings are very well prepared for extreme events, it is in
these changes that the largest loss potentials are to be found [1].
Natural disasters
Earthquakes
Of all the forces of nature, earthquakes are generally considered to be the most destructive.
Even if long-term global studies show that they are responsible for fewer deaths and above all
smaller economic losses than windstorms and floods, there is surely no other force of nature
that is capable of generating such a strong feeling of shock.
Ways over 90% of the world’s earthquakes occur in areas where large tectonic plates meet. But
very destructive earthquakes may also occur within the plates themselves even though there is
much less activity as such inside the plates than on the boundaries. There are three types of
plate boundary, defined in accordance with the movements of the plates relative to each other:
· convergent plate boundaries
where the plates collide with each other. The plate with the greater specific weight (usually an
oceanic plate) subducts below the lighter plate (usually a continental plate). Example: the
subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the continent of South America.
· divergent plate boundaries
where the plates move away from each other as a result of new crust forming on ocean ridges
and continental rifts. Example: the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
· transform faults
where the plates slide past each other horizontally. Example: the San Andreas fault in
California.
On account of the differences in the amount of stress that is built up, it follows that convergent
plate boundaries are where the largest earthquakes occur; then come the transform faults and
the divergent plate boundaries.
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The earthquake hazard is measured in terms of the intensity that is to be expected on average
once in a period of 475 years. In relation to a period of 50 years, the average "life expectancy"
of modern structures, the probability that this value will be exceeded is 10%. This definition of
hazard was selected in line with the probability level used most commonly in seismic building
codes throughout the world. For shorter or longer periods the exceedance probability is
correspondingly lower or higher. The hazard is graded in five earthquake zones and is
equivalent to the intensity that is exceeded on average once in 475 years.
Earthquakes have such effects as
· seismic sea waves (tsunamis)
after submarine earthquakes or landslides.
· amplification:
Numerous earthquakes in the past have shown that the damage they cause is not distributed
evenly and is often concentrated in certain places. One of the main reasons for this is the local
amplification of vibrations as a result of resonance phenomena. The amplification effect in the
case of soft subsoil stems in part from a change in the ground motion to longer - and hence for
buildings more perilous - vibrations. It is stronger further away from the epicentre than in the
immediate vicinity. Depending on the thickness of the sediment layers resonance effects may
occur which amplify the ground motion many times within a narrow frequency band (well-known
example:
Mexico City). Major cities in which such resonance effects have been observed or are probable
on account of the combination of subsoil conditions and distant large earthquakes are marked
with a special symbol on the map (Mexico City effect). Generally speaking, detailed local
examinations need to be carried out to consider these resonance effects and other secondary
ground effects (e.g. liquefaction, displacement, and subsidence, landslide).
· liquefaction:
softening of the subsoil by the dynamic stress of fine sand that is saturated with water during
earthquakes.
· landslide:
destabilization of layers near the surface as a result of dynamic stress. Earthquakes are capable
of generating hundreds of landslides over large areas (Philippines 1990, Taiwan 1999).
· displacement
(visible on the earth's surface) of crust blocks along the rupture.
· subsidence:
compaction of the soil by vibrations, usually in concert with liquefaction.
· fire following earthquake:
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single fires or large-scale fires as a result of earthquake impact and the subsequent short
circuits and/or escape of combustible gases or liquids. Well-known examples are the
earthquakes in San Francisco (1906) and Tokyo (1923).
Further amplifying effects are
· topographical focusing: focusing of waves on mountain ridges.
· "fling": pulsed ground motion in the near field of the fault.
· directivity: concentration of the quake energy in the direction of the rupture.
The tsunami hazard and the possibility of the Mexico City effect are depicted on the World Map.
The other phenomena mentioned here are too local to be depicted on maps of this scale (Fig.
6).
Figure 6: World map with seismic zones and main cities

Earthquake intensity is defined on the basis of the 1956 version of the Modified Mercalli
Intensity Scale, with the new European Macroseismic Scale (EMS 98) being used for central
and northern Europe. Intensity describes the effects of earthquake on the surface of the earth
and integrates numerous parameters such as ground acceleration, quake duration, and subsoil
conditions. In the EMS 98 Scale the definition of the various degrees of intensity is based on
uniform, more easily quantifiable, and hence comparable criteria. Despite the inevitable
subjectivity involved, intensity is the only way of incorporating historical earthquake reports in
the risk analysis and hence broadening the time base for the statistical analysis. The intensity
values refer to average subsoil conditions (consolidated sediments). Local subsoil conditions
may produce differences in hazard that are on too small a scale to be seen on a map of the
world or a specific country. Table lists the average changes in intensity for various subsoil
conditions. These values only apply to discrete locations. If used for larger areas, they should
be adjusted according to the average type of subsoil generally found in the area.
The Lisbon earthquake in 1755 was a catastrophe of global historical significance at the time.
Besides triggering a philosophical debate between the rationalist Voltaire and the naturalist
Rousseau - and even the young Kant had something to say on the topic - the quake was a
milestone in the development of science. Long-established interpretations of such events
marking the Day of Judgement were replaced by scientific observations on the causes, the
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possibility of issuing warnings, and countermeasures of a structural nature. These

countermeasures were adopted in the rebuilding of Lisbon. The outstanding events of the 20th
century were the earthquakes that shook San Francisco in 1906 and Tokyo in 1923, in which
large parts of the cities were destroyed by the subsequent large-scale fires. The earthquakes
that hit Kobe in 1995, Izmit in 1999, and Taiwan in 1999 highlighted in exemplary fashion the
new dimensions of the earthquake risk that evolve from urbanization and global networking.
Storms
Besides the three main types of storm, tropical cyclones, extra tropical or winter storms and
tornadoes, there is a whole range of other storm phenomena which occur sometimes alone and
sometimes in association with other natural phenomena. The most important of these - in terms
of their damaging effects - are: orographic storm (katabatic winds), thunderstorm and hailstorm,
monsoon storm, ice storm, fire storm, and sandstorm (Fig.7).
Figure 7: World map of storms and main cities
Orographic storm (katabatic winds) develops on the leeward side of mountains when the air on
the windward side is colder than the air on the leeward side. The cold air can then plunge down
into the valleys from the crest of the mountain simply through its greater weight, accelerating to
speeds of up to about 200 km/h in extreme cases. The speeds increase with the increase in
temperature and the height of fall. Particularly high speeds are attained if the wind is also driven
or accompanied by a strong large-scale current in the same direction. The most famous
examples are the Bora on the Adriatic coast of Dalmatia, Föhn in the Alps, Mistral in the lower
Rhone Valley, and Chinook in the Rocky Mountains.
Thunderstorms may be classified as multi-cell line storms, single-cell storms, and multi-cell
cluster storms depending on the original cause and its dimensions. What they all have in
common, however, is their driving force: the conversion of potential energy into kinetic energy
generated by the interaction of cold and warm air masses. If the energy exchange takes place
very suddenly, the wind speeds in gusts may reach up to 200 km/h as in the case of orographic
storms. Hailstorms, which develop from thunder cells, are particularly destructive. The damage
due to the effect of wind pressure and suction is enhanced by the kinetic energy of the
hailstones, which can reach the size of golf balls - and occasionally are even as big as tennis
balls.
Monsoon storm. When in the early summer and mid-summer months the great land surface of
Asia warms up under the sun, which at that time of the year stands almost vertically above the
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southern parts, it draws in the warm, moist air masses from the Indian and Pacific Oceans. This
circulation, without which the Indian subcontinent and the adjacent areas would be
uninhabitable desert areas, is intensified by the high, warming surface of Tibet. Over the
northeastern Indian Ocean this leads to a particularly intense current, which is directed from the
Arabian Sea to Pakistan and the northwest of India. This current is diverted and concentrated
off Cape Horn, which is therefore the only part of the monsoon area in which it can reach gale
force.
ce storm. When cold air masses and very warm and moist air masses come into contact -
particularly in moderate and higher geographical latitudes - large amounts of super cooled
droplets of fog and rain can form at temperatures just below freezing.These droplets
immediately freeze on contact with any kind of surface and cover them with a layer of ice
several centimetres thick within a matter of hours. The heavier the wind, the greater the amount
of ice. This kind of storm event is called an ice storm. The ice storm with probably the largest
geographical expanse in the 20th century gripped a huge area running from the states of New
England to Texas between 28th January and 4th February 1951, covering it with a layer of ice
10 cm thick in some places.
Fire storms that can develop in large conflagrations might be seen as the opposite of ice storms.
The air over these large-scale fires is heated up and ascends as in a gigantic convection cell,
sucking in air from the cooler surroundings. The causes of such large-scale fires may be forest
fires, bush fires, or brush fires, or even earthquakes which may lead to fires breaking out on
burst gas or oil pipelines. The wind speeds in such a continually self-intensifying convection and
storm system can reach hurricane strength.
Sandstorm. In desert areas, downdrafts, mostly in the wake of strong cold fronts, lead to the
sand swirling up and drifting. This process begins at about force 5 and is called a sandstorm
when force 8 is reached. At these speeds the sand is swirled up several hundred metres and
sometimes even kilometres into the air, filling the layers of air near to the ground so densely
with sand that light is hardly able to penetrate and visibility falls to near zero. Sandstorms not
only pose a threat to travellers in the desert but also, and more importantly, can inflict major
damage on agriculture, which in desert regions is constantly fighting for survival even at the best
of times. They also represent a great danger to machines - from cars to aircraft and from
industrial facilities to IT equipment - as the sand can get into the smallest of openings and then
substantially raise the amount of friction on all moving parts.
Regional storms have such effects as
· floods:
Prolonged storms with torrential rain in particular can trigger local flash floods and in extreme
cases are capable of generating large-scale floods.
· snow pressure:
In the winter small-scale storm systems can also contain enormous masses of moisture. In the
event of prolonged falls of snow, the higher load on structures and machines parked outside
may cause further damage in addition to the windstorm damage.
· ice pressure:
Freezing rain occurs especially when there are winter storms on the border between moist,
warm air masses and cold air masses. If the layer of ice that accumulates on buildings,
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machines, and overhead lines attains a thickness of several centimetres, the additional load is
often too heavy for them.
· soil degradation:
If areas are hit by sandstorms several times in short succession, the vegetation is unable to
recuperate sufficiently and the soil conditions are permanently changed.
With the exception of ice storms, all these types of storm affect areas that are limited in size.
In the case of thunderstorm, hailstorm, ice storm, and fire storm, however, the secondary effects
such as hailstones, ice load, and fire may contribute to an increase in the loss potentials.
These types of storm are often underestimated, but the extent of losses they may generate
are shown by the following examples: 1995 hailstorm in Texas; overall economic loss: US$2bn;
insured loss: US$1.14bn. 1998 ice storm in Canada and the United States; overall economic
loss: US$2.5bn; 1999: hailstorm in Sydney: overall economic loss: US$1.5bn.. The threat posed
by regional storms varies throughout the world and the possible damaging effects are often
underestimated. They have been responsible for the most expensive insured catastrophe losses
ever recorded in many countries (examples: the 1998 ice storm in Canada, the 1999 hailstorm
in Sydney). Thunderstorms and hailstorms as well as katabatic winds on the leeward side of
mountains are the most common among these types of storm.
Floods
Hardly any place on earth is safe from floods. They occur at more or less regular intervals along
rivers but also far away from them. The areas affected are linear strips of land rather than broad
expanses so that it is hardly feasible to represent them on small-scale hazard maps. Besides
storm surges the two main types of flood are river flood and flash flood. Then there are a few
special types like ice flood, backwater, groundwater rise, lake-level rise, and glacial lake
outburst floods. No other natural phenomenon occurs with such frequency throughout the world
or causes such expensive losses as flood in its many forms (Fig.8).
Figure 8: River shed model at high waters without human settlements
River floods occur in connection with prolonged and/or copious precipitation over a large area
and sometimes in connection with snow melt. A flood wave builds up in the water system and
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moves downstream. If the discharge capacity at any one point is exceeded or a dyke fails, the
river overflows. The source of this kind of flood is always a stream. It is usually related to the
conditions existing in the area and is therefore fostered by waterlogged or frozen ground.
As a rule river floods last for several days to several weeks and usually hit large areas. Since
forecasting and early warning are generally possible, floods usually only result in people being
killed when dykes fail, but in such instances the number of fatalities may be very large,
particularly if the surrounding area is flat (e.g. Yangtze Valley, Bangladesh). The World Map
does not depict high river flood hazard areas because in principle all rivers constitute a threat,
although the width of the areas at risk varies.
Flash floods occur after local torrential rain of great intensity, often in connection with
thunderstorms. As a rule they are largely unrelated to the current state of the ground in the area,
reaching their discharge peak within minutes and at most within a few hours and usually
dissipate again almost as quickly. Consequently, it is only possible to make a concrete early
warning in exceptional cases, possibly in the form of a general warning of imminent extreme
precipitation. Flooding caused by flash floods is not always linked to bodies of water. On sloping
terrain the water masses can turn the smallest of channels into raging watercourses; on even
terrain the water does not run off fast enough and accumulates on the surface. Flash floods are
a great danger to life and limb.
Extreme flows of water threaten the stability of hydraulic structures, particularly embankment
dams and dykes. If a dam or dyke fails, a river flood can therefore develop - in a similar way to a
flash flood - into an event of considerable magnitude either locally or over a large area and may
threaten the lives of many people.
Preventing such a failure is an even more important task than simply protecting an area from
flooding (Fig.8).
Figure 8: River shed model at high waters with human settlements
The following effects are to be expected:
· Erosion:
The water moves at considerable speed - at least in some parts of a flooded area and
particularly during flash floods - and causes erosion of the subsoil.
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· Sediment transport:
Flowing water nearly always carries sediment along with it. The amount of sediment that can be
transported depends on the flow velocity and the size of the sediment particles.
· Deposits and debris:
Sediments are often deposited outside the course of a river. Debris and refuse (trees, structural
components, cars, ice floes, etc.) may become wedged at bridge passages and cause
backwater which can lead to very high water levels even when there is only a small increase in
discharge.
· Debris flows
usually occur in connection with torrential rain. They are a mix of water and solids that advances
at speeds of 15 m/s and over and carries everything along with it that gets in its way, sometimes
even boulders several metres in diameter.
· Contamination:
Flowing water transports impurities which can lead to very unpleasant pollution. Leaking oil
tanks and flooded sewage plants in particular generate enormous problems.
· Landslides
May be triggered by torrential rain. The infiltrating water activates slip planes and at the same
time increases the weight of the upper soil layer by filling up the pores in the soil.
The scale of the damage caused by the water depends on the degree of contamination
involved and, most particularly, on the length of time objects, especially buildings are subject to
its influence.
To this extent, river floods are more problematical. Fast-flowing water and particularly the
coarse bed load and debris transported by it may also have a considerable mechanical impact
on structures. On account of the increase in population density in river valleys throughout the
world, which is usually linked with a narrowing and straightening of the river course, more and
more people with more and more assets are exposing themselves to the danger of flooding.
Often these assets are not only of great value but are also very susceptible to water.
At the same time, people are given what is often a false feeling of security by improved
protection measures designed to make flood events rarer and this makes the situation even
worse if a catastrophe occurs. For this reason, there are now loss potentials on many of the
world's large rivers which in an extreme event may be triggered all at once and may lead to loss
accumulation amounting to many billions of dollars. The 1998 flood catastrophe on the Yangtze
River in China, for instance, generated economic losses amounting to US$30bn.
Reports from the past about flood catastrophes of gigantic scale may be found in just about
every culture on earth. Even if recent research suggests that the biblical description of the Great
Flood does not go back to precipitation but to the breach of the isthmus between the
Mediterranean and the Black Sea, it may still be quoted as being representative of other
accounts. It must have happened about 7,600 years ago. The year 1342 was an extraordinary
year in Europe. Archives throughout the central European region contain reports of a great
"water disaster". This event may even have been greater than the flood scenarios that are used
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as a basis for PML calculations nowadays, above all on account of its large expanse. Events of
the recent past are more difficult to classify as outstanding; there have just been too many of
them all around the world. Can the "Great Flood of '93" along the Mississippi, which generated
an overall loss of US$16bn (of which US$6bn was insured), be considered such an event? Or
calamities like the floods that almost covered the continent of South America in the El Niño year
of 1998? Or the monsoon flood in Bangladesh the same year, which affected almost half the
country? Or should we even mention central and southern China, where flood catastrophes are
almost normal nowadays, but in some years (as in 1998) far surpass this level of "normality"? n
the final analysis, the perspective from which we observe an event is a deciding factor in any
selection: the perspective of those affected, the perspective of society (regional, state,
worldwide), or the perspective of the insurance industry [2].
Landslides
The term landslide includes a wide range of ground movement, such as rock falls, deep failure
of slopes, and shallow debris flows. Although gravity acting on a slope is the primary reason for
a landslide, there are other contributing factors, such as erosion processes, water saturated
soils after rainfalls and snowmelts, heavy loads deposited on slopes, e.g. by snowfall or from
ashes of volcanic eruptions and seismic activities. Human activities can cause landslides
because of artificial slope construction like roads, stockpiling or mining, and by other activities,
such as deforestation.
The term landslide comprises many geotechnical sub-terms that all have different causes and
effects. Also, different European regions use varying terms for similar phenomena in European
languages. For instance the Geological Survey of Bavaria, Germany, distinguishes between 6
different types of mass movements. The ESPON Hazards project uses the general term
“landslide” to express the hazard of gravity forced movement of material on a slope that could
lead to potential structural damages and accidents. On the other hand landslides can be also
caused by earthquakes (Fig.9).
Figure 9: Santa Tecla, El Savador, after the earthquake of 13 January 2001

In the case of landslides it is most difficult or even impossible to assess return periods or
probabilities of occurrence. Estimations for landslide probability due to metrological conditions
like rainfalls are possible for all areas sensitive to landslides. Also the probable occurrence of
earthquakes can be estimated. Although the physical cause of many landslides cannot be
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removed, local geologic investigations and good engineering practices, as well as effective
enforcement of appropriate land-use management regulations can reduce landslides hazards.
Landslides are local phenomena that should be managed by large – scale studies (Fig. 10).
Figure 10: The map of landslide hazard for European regions

The landslide hazard map for the European regions gives an overview on the existing potential
of soil movement but does not assess in any detail either in which parts of the regions some
landslides occur or their type of causes as geology, relief, anthropic interventions, etc. A striking
point in the map is the large extent of the landslide hazard in European regions, showing that
even though the total amount of losses due to landslides in Europe is, according to Munich Re
2004, not economically significant. However, the landslide hazard itself is rather widespread
over the entire European territory [3]
Globalisation
Definitions of globalization are almost all highly subjective, depending on the definers’ position
and experiences. A typical, but restrictive, definition can be taken from the International
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Monetary Fund, which stresses the growing economic interdependence of countries worldwide
through increasing volume and variety of cross-border transactions in goods and services, free
international capital flows, and more rapid and widespread diffusion of technology. Although that
definition is more narrowly related to economic globalization, most others appear to agree that
globalization is a more extensive civilization concept with diverse economic, political, cultural,
and technological aspects that may be closely intertwined.
Since the word has both technical and political meanings, different groups will have differing
histories of "globalization". In general use within the field of economics and political economy,
however, it is a history of increasing trade between nations based on stable institutions that
allow firms in different nations to exchange goods and services with minimal friction.
The term "liberalization" came to mean the acceptance of the neoclassical economic model
which is based on the unimpeded flow of goods and services between economic jurisdictions.
This led to specialization of nations in exports, and the pressure to end protective tariffs and
other barriers to trade. The period of the gold standard and liberalization of the 19th century is
often called "The First Era of Globalization". Based on the Pax Britannica and the exchange of
goods in currencies pegged to specie, this era grew along with industrialization. The theoretical
basis was David Ricardo's work on Comparative advantage and Say's Law of General
equilibrium. In essence, it was argued that nations would trade effectively, and that any
temporary disruptions in supply or demand would correct themselves automatically. The
institution of the gold standard came in steps in major industrialized nations between
approximately 1850 and 1880, though exactly when various nations were truly on the gold
standard is contentiously debated.
The "First Era of Globalization" is said to have broken down in stages beginning with the first
World War, and then collapsing with the crisis of the gold standard in the late 1920s and early
1930s. Countries that engaged in that era of globalization, including the European core, some of
the European periphery and various European offshoots in the Americas and Oceania,
prospered. Inequality between those states fell, as goods, capital and labour flowed remarkably
freely between nations.
Globalization in the era since World War II has been driven by trade negotiation rounds,
originally under the auspices of GATT, which led to a series of agreements to remove
restrictions on "free trade". The Uruguay round led to a treaty to create the World Trade
Organization or WTO, to mediate trade disputes. Other bi- and trilateral trade agreements,
including sections of Europe's Maastricht Treaty and the North American Free Trade Agreement
have also been signed in pursuit of the goal of reducing tariffs and barriers to trade.
There is much academic discussion about whether globalization is a real phenomenon or only
an analytical artifact (a myth). Although the term is widespread, many authors argue that the
characteristics attributed to globalization have already been seen at other moments in history.
Also, many note that such features, including the increase in international trade and the greater
role of multinational corporations, are not as deeply established as they may appear.
Some authors prefer the term internationalization rather than globalization. In

internationalization, the role of the state and the importance of nations are greater, while
globalization in its complete form eliminates nation states. So, they argue that the frontiers of
countries, in a broad sense, are far from being dissolved, and therefore this globalization
process is not happening, and probably will not happen considering that in world history,
internationalization never turned into globalization (the European Union and NAFTA are yet to
prove their case).
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However, the world increasingly shares problems and challenges that do not obey nation-state
borders, most notably pollution of the natural environment, and the movement previously known
as anti-globalization has transformed into a movement of movements for globalization from
below, seeking, through experimentation, forms of social organisation that transcend the nation-
state and representative democracy. Whereas the original arguments that globalization is
taking place can be refuted with stories of internationalisation, as above, the emergence of a
global movement is indisputable and therefore we can speak of a real process towards a global
human society of societies. Other authors have argued that we are in transition to a planetary
phase of civilization; the exact form and character of the global society is contested and will be
determined by the choices we make in the critical decades ahead. For example, the Global
Scenario Group has outlined alternative visions of the global future, with "market forces" or
economic globalization being just one option, contrasted with "policy reform," "fortress world,"
"breakdown," "eco-communalism" and a "new sustainability paradigm."
Some maintain that globalization is an imagined geography; that is, a political tool of ruling neo
liberalists, who are attempting to use certain images and discourses of world politics to justify
their political agendas. Writers of books such as No Logo claim that by presenting a picture of a
globalised world, the Bretton Woods institutions can demand that countries open up their
economies to liberalization under Structural Adjustment Programmes that encourage
governments to fund privatization programmes, ahead of welfare and public services.
Globalisation/internationalisation has become identified with a number of trends, most of which

may have developed since World War II. These include greater international movement of
commodities, money, information, and people; and the development of technology,
organizations, legal systems, and infrastructures to allow this movement. The actual existence
of some of these trends is debated.
Education for research and knowledge creation

Nowadays the university as “an institution of instructing students” finds itself under a strong
challenge of reshaping and radical changes are expected in its structure. The challenge comes
out from technology originally defined as “the science of the industrial arts”, and under the
present circumstances has developed into a leading Science in Society.
Technology is mirroring the results obtained by research. Obviously, the mirroring effect,
according to Plato’s Philosophy, should be metaphysically understood. Anyhow, the
development of technology is based on both applied and fundamental research. This is why the
research was directed towards university where rich sources of investigation and creation are
concentrating.
The idea of inserting technology into universities to induce applied research was first
experienced by the USA. Beside the former universities of European type lots of institutes with
technologic profiles were established. Japan followed the United States while Europe remained
conservative. By this time, when the process of World globalisation governed by technology is
progressing like an undeniable reality, there is no choice for university.
The performances of research in universities are determined by both internal and external
factors. Among the external factors are
- the prevailing divisions of labour in the international knowledge and research system,
- the distribution of research capacity across different kinds of institutions within a country
(universities, private research institutions, commercial companies, subsidiaries of
foreign/international entities, etc.),
- the role of the state in supporting, controlling, legitimating, and using particular kinds of
research,
115
- the sources of financial support for research, their volume and dependability as well as
the conditions attached to them,
- legal and institutional arrangements hindering or facilitating the dissemination of
research results,
- standards and mechanisms for monitoring the ethics of research,
- the role of, and the value attached to, foreign research training, and
- systems of incentives, rewards, and recognition for research and researchers (including
the relative validation of the national and international recognition of research).
The internal factors affecting research capacity, productivity, and utility include
- systems of university governance in which research interests and research competence
are or are not adequately represented,
- codes of academic recognition that do or do not reward significant research
contributions,
- employment terms of research personnel,
- internal systems for the distribution of resources (including overheads, if any),
- linkages between university autonomy and research productivity and utility,
- programs of the recruitment, training, and support of new researchers,
- synergies among research domains within or across institutions, and
- arrangements for quality control in research.
Research capacity
is defined as the aggregate of the human, institutional, and financial conditions for pursuing
research; research capacity is high when a university has competently trained researchers,
institutional and governance arrangements that facilitate the setting of research agendas and
the successful implementation of research projects, and the funding necessary to defray both
the direct and the indirect cost of research.
Research productivity
is the recognizable output of organized research and can be measured in the published record
within a given field, the national and international visibility of individual researchers and research
teams, the breadth as well as depth of an institution’s research program, and the number of new
researchers being trained. Research productivity is a function of research capacity, but also is
determined by the motivation and commitment of research staff, which in turn is influenced by
incentives and the society’s overall system of rewards and social recognition. An institution can
command adequate research capacity without being particularly productive of good research.
Research utility
has to do with the quality of research from the perspective of a society’s or a region’s specific
knowledge needs. Research that benefits primarily the knowledge needs of other societies
needs to be questioned in terms of its utility. An important consideration in assessing research
utility is where a country’s and an institution’s research agenda is set and determined: research
is more likely to benefit a society’s knowledge needs if its objectives and priorities are
determined in the country itself [4].
The role of the university is emphasised by the special task of “Education for Research and
Knowledge Creation” The future researchers should be carefully discovered and educated in
universities. The target of higher education is to prepare the students for the coming
competitions of selection what involves great responsibilities. Synergetic involvement of both
parts, academics and students, are required. Therefore, this complex task is susceptible of
different interpretations and alternative solutions might be temporarily adopted. On three
116
principles of the aforementioned task should be focused: 1) Freedom 2) Authenticity and 3)

Ethics of knowledge creation [5].
The common reason of the three principles comes from the act of creation which is strictly
individual and often achieved by consecration. Everything ever created belongs to individuals.
Never and nowhere something was collectively created. Usually, the knowledge creations are
gathered and even combined in different theories, but that does not change their paternity.
Once having accepted this reality the three principles appear as naturally selected. Indeed,
before anything the thinkers who are creating knowledge need freedom, spiritual freedom
together with material independence. The lack of freedom stimulates the well known
phenomenon of brain-drain. Freedom is also necessary to compete, take initiatives, share the
personal ideas and check the own assumptions or beliefs. However, the freedom of creation
should be understood only as the liberty to do what is worth doing and not chaotically, anything.
Goethe used to say that the great discoveries were already discovered once. That remark
shows the role of justice in evaluating the authenticity of any creation. Nowadays the technology
offers countless means of checking the authenticity of creations. Genuine creations are always
disclosing the true value of their authors. The criterions of authenticity are also used by the
Ethics of creation. The synergetic communication between university and technology, and
finally the communication of both with society should be based on the Principles of Ethics. The
progress of knowledge creation is unconceivable without a severe discipline built up on the
requirements of technology [6].
Conclusion
The planet is in danger. The main menace comes from global clime change. Natural disasters
like storms, floods and landslides are also associated with clime change. Only the earthquakes
occur independently. In spite of this gloomy prospect the globalisation is progressing. The
advanced technology did not show yet its capacity to prevent or at least to diminish the
menacing danger. Urgent practical actions to prevent irreparable catastrophes should be
decided. One of such actions is to develop the applied research through higher education. The
paper concludes that university has inherited enough resources of knowledge for avoiding the
condition of an endangered species. The magic word is adaptation. Any alternative solution
seems unacceptable. The brain of technology should be further hosted by all universities
strongly networked between them.
Acknowledgments
The support of Munich Re Group in Germany particularly that of Ms. Angelika Wirtz, in offering
scientific documents devoted to the higher education programs is gratefully acknowledged.
References
1. Munich Re Group World of Natural Hazards. Munich 2004.
2. Munich Re Group Weather catastrophes and climate change. Munich 2005.
3. ESPON Report 1.3.1 GTK 2006.
4. NESCO Colloq Forum December 2006, Paris July 2006.
5. ICOMOS/ISCARSAH Recommendations for the analysis, conservation and structural restoration
of architectural heritage. Paris, 13 September 2001.
6. Sofronie, R., Lessons from natural catastrophes for higher education. Proceedings of the First
International Conference on Environmental and Research Assessment. Bucharest, Romania,
March 23-27, 2003, paper #076, pp.611-626.
117
Sea level rise and Greenhouse effect: Do primary school pupils think
that the two phenomena are connected?
Nikos Voudrislis, Nikos Lambrinos
School of Education, Department of Primary Education, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki,
Greece, GR-54124, email: labrinos@eled.auth.gr
Abstract
Greek pupils gather much information from the Mass Media that cover the problem with extended articles.
This is the only source of information they can find because the Greek primary school curriculum mentions
nothing about the greenhouse effect.
That was the reason we decided to investigate the primary school pupil’s conceptions on the greenhouse
effect and its consequences.
The research took place in three primary schools of Thessaloniki city, North Greece. The participants were
112 6th form pupils who filled in a closed questionnaire of 12 groups of questions. For the statistical analysis
of the questionnaire the SPSS software was used.
The results have shown that 84% of the pupils think that the greenhouse effect is a very serious problem.
Although, they have an indistinct view of the real causes of the phenomenon and its consequences on both
the environment and humans. They are aware of the fact that there will be climate change and the
temperature of the planet will raise but they don’t connect this to the floods and sea level rise. In fact, they
blame other causes for the global temperature rise and confuse other environmentally dangerous factors
with the greenhouse effect.
Introduction
The last decades many scientists from various scientific fields are searching on the effects of the
greenhouse and the possible climate changes that the planet faces today or may face in the future.
The global temperature rise is a fact, taking into account that the average temperature rose 0.5ο C
since 1860. Consequently, the sea level rose from 10 to 25 cm. The most recent IPCC
(Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change) projections (January, 2001) are for a sea-level rise of
between 9 and 88 cm between 1990 and 2100 and a global average surface temperature rise of
between 1.4 and 5.8°C http://www.marine.csiro.au/LeafletsFolder/45slevel/45.html (accessed in
August 10, 2006).
The pupils should comprehend the environmental issues and their potential impact on the planet in
order to support any possible solution in the future. This comes in parallel to public awareness and
interest in environmental problems.
Many investigations have been compiled the last 12 years in order to find the preconceptions of the
pupils, students and/or their teachers on how and why the global temperature is rising and how
and why the greenhouse effect is accused (Boyes and Stanisstreet, 1993, Rye et al, 1997, Fisher,
1998, Koulakidis and Christidou, 1999, Meadows and Wiesenmayer, 1999, Papageorgiou and
Ouzounis, 2000, Papadimitriou, 2004, Boyes et al, 2004).
Most of these researches have studied the pupils’ ideas on the mechanism of this phenomenon,
the causes, the consequences and the activities to undertake in order to eliminate the problem.
The results show that school and college students’ understanding about global warming is severely
limited and embedded with a number of glaring misconceptions (Boyes and Stanisstreet, 1993,
Khalid, 2001).
Also, show insufficient knowledge and their perception is not compatible to the scientific knowledge
(Meadows and Wiesenmayer, 1999).
118
These misconceptions and misunderstandings are probably due to, among other things, the
complexity of the science involved, the uncertainties and the controversies surrounding them
(Papadimitriou, 2004).
Greek pupils gather much information from the Mass Media, which cover the problem with
extended articles. This is the only source of information they can find because the Greek primary
school curriculum mentions nothing about the greenhouse effect.
That was the reason we decided to investigate the pupil’s perceptions on the greenhouse effect
and its consequences.
This research aims to find out if the pupils connect the global sea level rise to the greenhouse
effect. Also, aims to locate the misinterpretation and difficulties that the pupils face in connecting
these two phenomena.
Research materials
For this purpose the research was based on a questionnaire filled in by the pupils of three primary
schools of Thessaloniki city, North Greece, in particular, 112 6th grade pupils (12 years old) where,
53% were male and 47% were female.
The questionnaire had 12 groups of questions. Each group was consisted of 6 closed type
questions and the pupils could choose one answer out of four.
The groups of questions were dealing with the greenhouse effect, the factors that enhance the
impact of the phenomenon (either man made or natural), the consequences and the actions we
should take in order to eliminate the impact.
The answers were encoded and analyzed using SPSS ver.14 statistical software. The analysis
was based on bar charts and multiple response tables.
Analysis of the questionnaire

Bar Charts
A) The problem
The results show that 84% of the pupils consider the greenhouse effect a very serious problem.
B) Gas emissions (Fig. 1)
Most of the pupils (83%) believe that the CO2 emissions contribute to the enhancement of the
greenhouse effect. A relatively high number of pupils (63%) consider the sulfur dioxide (SO2) as a
greenhouse gas although it is related to the acid rain.
Methane (CH4) and nitrogen oxide (NO) are referred by the pupils as greenhouse gases (55% and
51% respectively) as well as CFC’s and ozone (56% and 58% respectively). In fact, the last two
gases are greenhouse gases and referred by the pupils of 11-12 years old and not by older
students who connect these gases to the destruction of ozone layer more than to the greenhouse
effect (Boyes and Stanisstreet, 1993).
Finally, water vapor is mentioned by 38% of the pupils although it contributes more than the rest of
the gases in the natural procedure. It not referred as one of the main gases for the enhancement of
the greenhouse effect because its existence is less affected by the human activities.
119
100
90 83%
80
70 63% 58%
55% 56%
60 51%
% 50 38%
40
30
20
10
0
CO2 SO2 CH4 NO CFC's ozon water vapor
Fig. 1. The contribution of gases in the greenhouse effect
C) The contribution (Fig. 2)
61% of the pupils believe that the forest fires (as a natural source) contribute to the enhancement
of the greenhouse gas emissions. Also, the volcanoes (49%), hot springs (46%), sea currents
(44%), typhoons (37%), wetlands (31%) and the earthquakes (28%).
100
90
80
70 61%
60 49% 46% 44%
% 50
37%
40 31% 28%
30
20
10
0
forest fires volcanoes hot springs sea currents cyclones wet lands earthquakes
Fig. 2. The contribution of other factors to the greenhouse gas emissions

D) Human activities (Fig. 3)
The pupils think that there are certain human activities that contribute to the greenhouse effect.
These activities include a) the burning of coal and oil (84%), b) propulsion gases (61%), c) the use
of pesticides (56%), d) smoke of cigarette (53%), e) oil spills (54%), e) use of fertilizers (49%) and
f) rice cultivation (34%).
120
100
90 84%
80
70 61% 56% 53% 54%
60 49%
% 50
34%
40
30
20
10
0
burning of propulsion pesticides smoke of oil spills fertilizers rice
coal and oil gases cigarettes cultivation
Fig. 3. The human activities that enhance the greenhouse gas emissions (according to the
pupils)
E) The consequences (Fig. 4)
The majority of the pupils (87%) believe that the greenhouse phenomenon will lead to the raise of
the global temperature. There are also a considerable number of pupils that think that respiratory
problems (52%) and monument erosion (40%) are serious problems, although these problems are
due to atmospheric pollution and the acid rain. Also, 46% of the pupils think that the lack of
drinkable water is due to the greenhouse effect.
100
87%
90 temperature rise
80
70 temperature reduction
60 52%
46% respiratory problems
% 50 40% 40%
40 monument erosion
25%
30
destruction of cultivated
20 land
10 lack of drinkable water
0
temperature temperature respiratory monument destruction of lack of
rise reduction problems erosion cultivated land drinkable
water
Fig. 4. The consequences according to the pupils
F) Connections (Fig. 5)
The majority of the pupils (79%) connects the greenhouse effect to climate changes, while 39%
connects it to the floods. Many pupils connect the greenhouse effect to other natural phenomena
like typhoons (34%), earthquakes (28%), tsunamis (32%) and desertification (31%).
121
100
90
79%
80
70 climate change
60 floods
% 50
39% typhoons
40 34% 32% 31%
28% earthquakes
30
20 tsunami
10 desertification
0
climate typhoons tsunami
change
Fig. 5. Natural phenomena connected to the greenhouse effect according to the pupils.
G) Global temperature rise (Fig. 6)
In case of global temperature rise, most of the pupils (88%) believe that the ice will melt, 75% of
the pupils believe in the loss of habitat, 53% in land erosion, 49% destruction of the ozone layer,
49% in acid rain and 48% in sea level rise. Pupils of this age (12 years old) connect the global rise
of the temperature to the destruction of the ozone layer spontaneously, making the two
phenomena one (Boyes and Stanisstreet, 1998, Rye et al, 1999).
88%
90
80 75% sea level rise
70 soil erosion
60 53% 49%
48% 45% destruction of ozone
50 layer
40 acid rain
30 ice melt
20
loss of habitat
10
0
sea level soil erosion destruction acid rain ice melt loss of
rise of ozone habitat
layer
Fig. 6. What is going to happen in case of global temperature rise?

H) The consequences because of the global temperature rise (Fig. 7)
Most of the pupils (74%) think that many animals will move to other places, many lakes and rivers
will be drained (69%), the deserts will expand (61%), areas near the sea will be flooded (56%), in
shore wetlands will be drained (56%), destruction of biodiversity (50%). Almost half of the pupils
(48%) believe that the global temperature rise will cause more acid rain.
122
100
90
80
74%
69%
70 61%
56% 56%
60 50% 48%
% 50
40
30
20
10
0
move of animals draining desertification floods loss of wetlands loss of biodiversity acid rain
Fig. 7. The consequences due to global temperature rise

I) Consequences due to greenhouse effect (Fig. 8)
The majority of the pupils (89%) believe that the rise of the global temperature will affect the
agriculture (89%), the stockbreeding (58%), the aquaculture (54%), the industry (47%), the tourism
(40%), the commerce (31%) and the services (36%).
100
89%
90
80
70
58% 54%
60
47%
50 40%
36%
40 31%
30
20
10
0
agriculture aquaculture tourism services
Fig. 8. The consequences due to greenhouse effect

K) Human activities in order to eliminate the problem (Fig. 9)
It seems that the pupils are not well informed on the activities undertaken by humans in order to
eliminate the problem because, 64% think that the problem will be less if humans decrease the
production of nuclear power. Half of the students (55%) believe that a reduction in the aviation
emissions will lead to the reduction of the global temperature (this is also what the Commission
has recommended in 2005 Environment Policy Review), 54% of the pupils think that the problem
will be less if we use less coal, while 52% think the same for oil consumption. The same
percentage is found for the recycling and less than that for the reduction in CFC’s usage (47%).
123
100
90
80
70 64%
55% 54%
60 52% 47% 47%
50
40
30
20
10
0
less nuclear less aviation less coal use less oil use recycling less CFC's
power gas emissions
Fig. 9. Activities to be taken against the problem (according to the pupils)
L) Action (Fig. 10)
Finally, 67% of the pupils think that we have to act immediately before it is too late, 21% believe
that we are exaggerating, 6% believe that it is too late to act and 5% that everything is reversible
and under control.
no answer
too late under control exaggerate
1%
7% 5% 21%
act now
67%
Fig. 10. Taking actions
124
3.2. Multiple Response Tables
a) Climate change – Global temperature rise and floods
The biggest problem related to the greenhouse effect, according to the 79% of the pupils (89 out of
112), is the global temperature rise. The temperature rise is directly connected to the greenhouse
effect (91% or 81 out of 89 pupils). The floods are also connected to the same cause (42% or 37
out of 89 pupils). Only 38% of the pupils (34 out of 89) who think that the climate is going to
change believe both in the rise of the number of floods and the global temperature rise.
b) Carbon Dioxide (Tab. 1)
Carbon dioxide is recognized as the main greenhouse gas by 83% of the pupils (93 out of 112).
Looking at the ideas of these pupils about the consequences and cures of global warming, only
half of the pupils (53%) realize that less use of oil will lead to the reduction of the gas emissions,
while less than half (29%) connect the greenhouse effect to the floods and desertification.
% of the 93
pupils
Less use of coal will help in solving the problem 84%
Less use of oil will help in solving the problem 53%
Global warming due to greenhouse effect 73%
Climate change due to greenhouse effect 67%
Floods due to greenhouse effect 34%
Desertification due to greenhouse effect 29%
Tab. 1. Some ideas of the pupils about the consequences and cures of global warming.
c) Global Temperature rise- Ice melt and global sea level rise
The 87% of the pupils (97 out of 112) think that in the short run the global temperature is going to
rise. 93% of these pupils (90 out of 97) believe also that the polar ice is going to melt but only 42%
(42 out of 97) connects the global sea level rise to this melting.
d) Global temperature rise – floods and global sea level rise
The 87% of the pupils (97 out of 112) think that in the short run the global temperature is going to
rise. From these pupils, 41% (40 out f 97) understand that floods will be frequent and 48% (47 out
of 97) the global sea level will rise. Only 26% (25 out of 97) connects the two phenomena (floods
and sea level rise).
Discussion – Conclusions
The results of this study show that the pupils have some ideas which do not coincide with the
scientific explanations. They have grown certain ideas and knowledge about the greenhouse effect
but they don’t fully understand the creation of the phenomenon and its consequences. This causes
misinterpretations.
The analysis shows that 64% of the pupils think that less use of nuclear power will help to minimize
the global warming. They find the nuclear power as not friendly to the environment and connect it
to any kind of environmental problem spontaneously (Boyes et al., 2004). The same happens to
the sea pollution where, 52% of the pupils believe that less sea pollution will help to solve the
problem.
125
The pupils find guilty any action that causes problems to the environment and is related to the
greenhouse effect. So, 56% believes that the use of pesticides and the oil spills (55%) contribute to
the greenhouse effect.
Also, it seems that they confuse other atmospheric problems (ozone layer, acid rain) to the global
warming problem because they consider that there will be more acid rain in the future (48%), the
ozone layer will get thinner (45%), we will have more respiratory problems (52%) and the
monument erosion will get worst (40%).
Other studies have shown that the pupils are not used to the concept of greenhouse gases and
don’t know their sources. The ignorance comes from the fact that many of these gases are
responsible for other environmental problems (Boyes et al., 2004).
The pupils think that global warming is possible due to greenhouse effect and they know that this
will cause the polar ice to melt. But they don’t connect this information to the global sea level rise
and the floods.
So, the pupils look impotent to connect these phenomena and realize the importance of the ice
melting for the humans and the environment in general. Their knowledge is partial and depends on
superficial characteristics without taking into account the underlying complexities of the situation.
As Papadimitriou (2004) mentions “Climate change is a very serious matter which needs our
attention. Containment of global warming calls for international cooperation and consensus and
changes in peoples’ lifestyles. For this reason there has been lately a great interest in public
understanding of climate change and in educating pupils, the future citizens, so as to enable them
to successfully cope with this threat”.
Environmental issues, like the greenhouse effect, should be present in the national curriculum
"…because the rapid development of science and technology emphasizes the need for
scientifically and environmentally literate citizens” (Koulakidis, Christidou, 1999).
The teaching of environmental issues must aim in the development of the appropriate skills in
solving problems and decision making, in the configuration of positive attitude against the
environment and in the understanding of the interdependence of the environmental factors (Brody,
1991, Ross, 1991, Bybee, 1993). The addressing of these educational aims presupposes the
organization of curricula founded on research data (Brody, 1994, Osborne and Freyberg, 1985).
So, it will be useful to investigate the pupils’ conceptions and proceed to the construction of
educational software that will help the pupils understand that the global sea level will rise because
of the greenhouse effect.
References
1. Brody, M., (1991). Understanding of pollution among 4th, 8th, and 11th, grade students. Journal of
Environmental Education, 22, 24-33.
2. Boyes E., Stanisstreet M., (1993). The «Greenhouse Effect»: children’s perceptions of causes,
consequences and cures. International Journal of Science Education, 15, 5, 531-552.
3. Boyes, E., and Stanisstreet, M., (1998). High school students' perceptions of how major global
environmental effects might cause skin cancer. The Journal of Environmental Education, 29(2), 31
36.
4. Boyes, E., Stanisstreet, M., and Daniel, Β., (2004). High school students beliefs about the extent to
which actions might reduce global warming. 15th Global International Conference and Expo, San
Francisco.
5. Bybee, R.W., (1993). Reforming science education-social perspectives and personal reflections.
New York: Teachers College Press.
6. European Commission, (2006). 2005 Environment Policy Review. Luxemburg: Office for Official
Publications of the European Communities, pp.80
126
7. Fisher, B.W., (1998). There’s a Hole in My Greenhouse Effect. School Science Review, 79(288), 93
99.
8. Khalid, T., (2001). Pre-service teachers’ misconceptions regarding three environmental issues.
Canadian Journal of Environmental Education, 6, pp 77-101
9. Koulakidis V., Christidou, V, (1999). Models of students thinking Concerning the Greenhouse Effect
and Teaching Implications. Science Education, 83, 559-576.
10. Meadows G., Wiesenmayer, R., (1999). Identifying and addressing students’ alternative conceptions
of the causes of Global Warming: The need for cognitive conflict. International Journal of Science
Education, 8, 3, 235-239.
11. Osborne, R., and Freyberg, P., (1985). Learning in science: the implications of children’s science.
London: Heinemann.
12. Papadimitriou, V., (2004). Prospective Primary Teachers’ Understanding of Climate Change,
Greenhouse Effect, and Ozone Layer Depletion. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 13,
2, 299-307.
13. Papageorgiou, G., Ouzounis, K., (2000). Studying the greenhouse effect: a simple demonstration.
International Journal of Environmental Education and Information, 19, pp. 275–282.
14. Ross, S., (1991). Physics in the global greenhouse. Physics Education, 26, 175-181.
15. Rye, J., Rubba, P., and Wiesenmayer, R., (1997). An Investigation of Middle School Students’
Alternative Conceptions of Global Warming. International Journal of Science Education, 19(5), 527
551.
127
Eco-friendly agricultural production for sustainable environment

development
Shehrawat, P. S.
Associate Professor, Department of Agricultural Extension, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125004,
India
Abstract
More that 800 million people do not get enough food. The number is likely to increase in next 50 years as global
population grows by three billion. They will all need clean water, other life sustaining essentials. As the pressure
on natural resources grows to meet both local & international demand, the environment suffers—forests are
cleared, water supplies diverted, rare plants are over-harvested. Our environment is at risk from an age of
exponential growth. Ecology-based farming minics nature to create an agro-ecology, where biodiversity is high,
plant nutrients are recycled, soil is protected from erosion, water is conserved and not polluted, and tillage is
minimised. But in developing countries like India, modern high-input intensive agriculture has produced great
increases in crop yields. But the social and environmental costs have been high. Loss of topsoil, water pollution,
loss of biodiversity, dependence on non renewable resources, rising production costs and falling prices of crops,
the decline of rural communities, and fewer and fewer farmers are some of unsustainable results of industrialised
farming. Agri-trends world-wide point toward a need for new thinking in order to meet the needs of an expending
population from an increasing constrained agricultural base. Land conversion has slowed as available arable
lands have been put in production or converted to higher valued non-agricultural purposes. Gains in production
have occurred largely as a result of the introduction of modern energy intensive technologies- mechanisation,
new crops varieties irrigation systems, fertilisers, and pesticides. Unfortunately, these practices have taken a toll
on soil fertility and integrity of agro-ecosystems. An estimate holds that two-thirds of agricultural land has been
degraded in last fifty years as a result of erosion, salinisation, nutrient depletion and pollution*. Confronted by
these challenges, it is necessary to promote dialogue on developing more adaptive and sustainable agriculture
that can represent a positive response to the limits and problems of both traditional and modern agriculture. This
results in integrated nature-based agro-ecosystems designed to be self reliant, resource conversing and
productive over both the short and long terms. In Eco-based farming production and activity and the supply plant
nutrients. The pollution in general and poisoning of food with harmful chemicals, and their effect on human
health and environment is making people to look for quality nutritive food. Consumers in developed countries
and in some developing countries also have become more health conscious and they have started spending on
greener, healthy and natural foodstuffs organically produced and labelled products. It is the right time to shift for
Eco-farming that enhances the environment balancing, sustainability, diversification, and creates more
employment opportunities in rural sector. Also there is people’s demand for quality nutritive added, residue free
and diseases free agro-products throughout the world. It is essential to create a form where participation can
share information about key issues, to work in partnership with professional decision makers and to
communicate through educators, to promote attractive landscapes, assuring a safe, nutritious local food supply,
maintaining strong rural community.
Introduction
More that 800 million people do not get enough food. The number is likely to increase in next 50 years
as global population grows by three billion. They will all need clean water, other life sustaining
essentials. As the pressure on natural resources grows to meet both local & international demand, the
environment suffers-forests are cleared, water supplies diverted, rare plants are over-harvested*. The
world’s natural ecosystems are under increasing pressure to supply an expending world population
with a sustainable supply of food, fibre, fuel, and other commodities while still providing biodiversity
and clean water and air. Our environment is at risk from an age of exponential growth. Populations
and the demand of our economies and lifestyles are eroding the Earth’s natural capital and
environmental services-possibly at an unsustainable rate. Some outcomes are too familiar: waste,
pollution, degraded land, destruction of habitats, extinction of species, climate change, and poverty.
128
Research in ecosystem processes earth observation and early warning is applied to natural resource
disciplines such as tropical agriculture, fisheries, forestry, wildlife, biodiversity and conservation.
Warning of natural disasters includes - drought, desertification, flood, volcanic eruption, and soil
salinisation. Environmental degradation can be linked to weaknesses in social market mechanisms,
policy failure, week institutions and regulatory frameworks, a lack of public awareness and
participation, underdeveloped technical capabilities, and rapid population growth. No doubt,
environmental degradation is one of the first indicators of unsustainable social and economic system.
Over the past several decades, farmers and researchers around the world have developed ecology-
based production system called an array of names. Organic farming, natural, low-input, Integrated,
alternative, regenerative, holistic, biodynamic, bio intensive, and biological farming systems all seek
sustainability.
Ecology-based farming minis nature to create an agro-ecology, where biodiversity is high, plant
nutrients are recycled, soil is protected from erosion, water is conserved and not polluted, and tillage is
minimised. But in developing countries like India, modern high-input intensive agriculture has
produced great increases in crop yields. But the social and environmental costs have been high. Loss
of topsoil, water pollution, loss of biodiversity, dependence on non renewable resources, rising
production costs and falling prices of crops, the decline of rural communities, and fewer and fewer
farmers are some of unsustainable results of industrialised farming. These losses force to us to
thinking and looking beyond the normal production pattern and with the advent of WTO and India
being a member, the country will be required to promote much more diversified sustainable Eco-based
farming system of agricultural production.
Increase in cropping intensity with inefficient and indiscriminate use of agrochemical has resulted in
accentuating the area under problematic soils and in disturbing hydrological balance. Natural resource
base is continually under a state of stress and degradation due to efforts for boosting agricultural
production. Further to increase food and non-food output with mounting pressure of population, we are
intending towards unprincipled use of scarce and precious natural resources, which are indispensable
for our socio-economic development and environmental soundness. This has created a threat to
sustainability. To find solution of these losses, scientists all over the world are looking for Eco-based
farming as a best alternative.
Sound environmental and natural resources management is necessary to sustainable development. If

available natural resources are subject to over consumption and the environment is severely
degraded, sustained social and economic growth cannot be achieved. There is growing awareness
that environmental protection and natural resources management are essential to long-term
development. Management of natural resources is the frontline of the struggle for more sustainable
and equitable development.
Agri-trends world-wide point toward a need for new thinking in order to meet the needs of an
expending population from an increasing constrained agricultural base. Land conversion has slowed
as available arable lands have been put in production or converted to higher valued non-agricultural
purposes. Gains in production have occurred largely as a result of the introduction of modern energy
intensive technologies- mechanisation, new crops varieties irrigation systems, fertilisers, and
pesticides.
Unfortunately, these practices have taken a toll on soil fertility and integrity of agro-ecosystems. An
estimate holds that two-thirds of agricultural land has been degraded in last fifty years as a result of
erosion, salinisation, nutrient depletion and pollution*. Confronted by these challenges, it is necessary
to promote dialogue on developing more adaptive and sustainable agriculture that can represent a
positive response to the limits and problems of both traditional and modern agriculture. This results in
129
integrated nature-based agro-ecosystems designed to be self reliant, resource conversing and

productive over both the short and long terms.
In Eco-based farming production and protection of crops mainly developed on indigenous wisdom
combat with latest scientific techniques such as bio culture and microbial fertilisers. Eco-farming
avoids largely excludes the use of synthetically fertilisers, pesticides, growth regulators and livestock
feed additives. To the maximum feasible, eco-farming system rely upon crop-rotation, crop
diversification, crop residues, animal manure, legumes, green manure, off farm wastes, and aspects of
biological pest control to maintain the soil fertility, soil productivity and the supply plant nutrients.
The pollution in general and poisoning of food with harmful chemicals, and their effect on human
health and environment is making people to look for quality nutritive food. Consumers in developed
countries and in some developing countries also have become more health conscious and they have
started spending on greener, healthy and natural foodstuffs organically produced and labelled
products. More over Eco-farming is an environment friendly production system that promotes and
enhances biodiversity, biological cycles and biological activities based on minimal use of off farm
inputs and management practices that restore maintain and enhance ecological balance. Hence, the
expectation that Eco-farming by reverting the use of manure, green manure carbon wastes can bring
sustainability to agriculture with eco-friendliness. It is imperative for researchers to develop alternative
viable strategies to supplant the chemical farming.
In India, traditionally, Eco-farming has been practised since ancient time but in non-systematic & non
scientific way and government has not given more emphasis to till date. No incentives for promotion,
any reward and encouragement for innovative farmers. Bio fertilizers and bio pesticides not popular in
India because of low demand, erratic supply and farmers are ignorant. Majority of farmers are not
known about the environmental degradation and its future consequences. National and International
organisation should come forward in developing countries like India to promote the Eco-friendly
farming system for sustainable environmental soundness.
It is the right time to shift for Eco-farming that enhances the environment balancing, sustainability,
diversification, and creates more employment opportunities in rural sector. Also there is people’s
demand for quality nutritive added, residue free and diseases free agro-products throughout the world.
On the other hand, many farmers, researchers and policymakers believe and fear that turning of Eco
farming would mean lower the yield and lower the profit, consumer on the other and, would not want to
pay higher price for agro-products, not feasible option to improve food security. It will be difficult to
differentiate between the effect of different factors on a eco-farming system, as results are not feasible
quickly in eco-management, many of changes may be observable only in long-term, such changes as
in yield or soil. Therefore, It is challenge for researchers and extension functionaries to change the
attitude of farmers towards eco-farming, while the yield of agro-products are low and prices are high. It
is need to create awareness among consumers about the dietary benefit of quality nutritive agro
products.
Also there are many constraints in eco-farming in developing countries, specially, in India pertaining to
technologies, information, communication, methods, marketing, consumption, policies and, programs.
There are only small research programs and institutional support for eco-based agriculture, insufficient
scientific dialogue, and lack of communication between scientists and eco-practitioners in India to till
date. Therefore, motivational extension programmes need to be organised to popularise the Eco
farming. Improved information management system may help as a key to the future of sustainable
eco-friendly agriculture. Hence, the challenge is to develop the system, which will facilitate acceptance
of eco-farming by farmers and the consumers. Therefore, There is strong need that scientist and
policy-makers peruse to help farmers find solutions that fit in their specific circumstances and balance
the environmental soundness.
130
The complexity of environment and natural resource management demands research to help achieve
-ensuring secure sources of food by focussing on institutional development, production technology,
local resource management and approach policy choices improving human health and well being by
managing ecosystems better, protecting local management and of biodiversity. It is essential to create
a form where participation can share information about key issues, to work in partnership with
professional decision makers and to communicate through educators, to promote attractive
landscapes, assuring a safe, nutritious local food supply, maintaining strong rural community. Keeping
in view the above facts and developmental changes in our biggest natural resource ‘The Environment’,
there is need to excel research and providing knowledge, policies, tools, scientific, technical analysis
for government, environmental protectors, and clients about technology development to reduce air,
water and soil pollution, proper management of solids wastes, balance of technical assistance and
compliance assurance activities, strengthening environmental management institutions to restore our
natural resource.
Emerging challenges to agriculture:

Soil related problems
Natural resources degradation phenomenon has reached an alarming stage due to intensive
agriculture. The deficiency of micronutrients in the soil is making nutritionally weak food chain, which
may resulting many physiological disorders in human and animal population in future due to depletion
of plant nutrients, soil fertility status is decreasing fast all over the world, which will result in declini8ng
the crop productivity.
Decreasing water availability: water is becoming a scare commodity. Agriculture share of water is
declining at a faster rate than previous years due to increasing completion for good quality water from
urban and industrial sector. Indiscrimation use of canal irrigation water and lack of natural drainage
has led to water table rise resulting in water logging and secondary soil salinisation problems. These
problems are being further aggravated due to over-exploitation of natural resources. The rainwater
harvesting is not in practice leading to very low level of recharge. Thus, in future water shortages are
likely to become acute.
Effect of sewage water and industrial effluents:

Soil contamination by sewage and industrial effluents has affected adversely both soil health and crop
productivity. The accumulation of toxic substances of industrial and urban origin is increasing and
contributed to land degradation. This not only causes reduction in yield of the crops, but also makes
nutritionally week food affecting the animal and human health.
Menace due to Use of Insecticides

With the intensive agriculture, the problem of insects’ pests and diseases are also taking complex
shape. The various viral diseases in fruits and vegetables are poisoning serious challenges to the
sustainability of agriculture. Farmers have started indiscrimate use of agro-chemicals to control
diseases and pests. The immediate effect has appeared on environment or ecosystem. Large scale
dying of birds is reported every year.
Profitability problems
The cost of produce and its quality are the major components, which affects the competitiveness in the
market. Indiscriminate use of agrochemicals led to resistance in insects’ pests and weeds. Farmers
have to spend huge money to manage insecticides. The cost of quality seeds, fertilizers and machine
has gone up. The availability of poor quality of inputs in market not only adds to the cost but also
create resistance species in the target.
131
Achieving the sustainability

Sustainability can be achieved by diversifying enterprises, reliable market, emphasising direct
marketing and premium speciality markets, adding value through on-farming processing, reducing the
use of synthetic fertilisers by increasing on-farm nutrients cycling, minimising tillage, using soil and
water conservation practices, preventing pest problems biologically, and maximising biodiversity on
the farm.
The development of Sustainable agriculture requires a basic research in ecology of agricultural

systems, more interdisciplinary, breeding of new kinds of crops and crop varieties and greater farmer
involvement in designing and carrying out research projects. A sufficient number of economically
viable crops to employ in crop rotation are essential for a sustainable agriculture. New crops could be
introduced not only for food uses, like new grains and edible oils, paper and energy crops.
The lack of training and stubborn attitude of farmers towards change in their farming system and
problems they foresee in bringing about such a change may be responsible for these imbalances.
These losses force to us to thinking and looking beyond the normal production pattern to the
diversification. Further with the advent of WTO and India being a member, the country will be required
to promote much more diversified agriculture.
Diversification in agriculture is generally seen at increasing the variety of farm products with a view to
bring about a shift from the prevailing production pattern, which provide stability in farm income and
minimise the risk factor. Commercially, the decision of the farmers to grow a particular crop or go for a
particular farm enterprise depends upon the level of prices, yields and the facilities for market
clearance.
Diversification can hedge against drought and economic pressures from increased inputs costs,
commodity price declines, and regulations that affect the supply of certain commodities. Diversified
farm strategies may also include premium-prices products. A diversified strategy also seeks to access
local, regional, national, and international market.
The crop diversification has been largely considered as a ray of hope for economic upliftment of the
farmers as safeguard against fall in price for a particular farm product. The diversification in
agriculture is also practised with a view to avoid risk and uncertainty due to climatic and biological
vagaries. Diversification in agriculture can be achieved by diversifying cultivation practices like cover
cropping, buffers, high organic matter inputs, intercropping, minimum tillage, rotations, strip cropping
etc.
Sustainable diversified agriculture needs new technologies that enhance farmers’ abilities to work on a
small scale with a variety of crops and livestock operations. Improved information management
system may help as a key to the future of sustainable agriculture. Hence, There is strong need that
scientist and policy-makers peruse to help farmers find solutions that fit in their specific circumstances
and balance the environmental soundness.
The country like India, where cereals mostly dominate cropping systems and 90 per cent of the food
requirements have to come from land based farming. Mushroom, horticultural crops, vegetables,
dairy, poultry offer a great diversity in diet. More over the diverse agro-climatic conditions prevailing in
India also favours the crop diversification. No country grows such a wide range of fruits, vegetables,
and flowers as India and yet it has no records worth mentioning in horticultural exports.
In future, with improved living standards, changing food habits, increase in purchasing power, more
and more people will look for quality and nutritional agro-products and economic globalisation have
132
put forth challenge for improving production of crops products to meet the domestic and exports needs
all over the world. A good beginning has already been made in this direction and in the years to come
horticultural crops, poultry products and dairy products will play a meaningful role in fighting hunger
and malnutrition. However, diversification has become increasingly important because of intense
international competition and changing consumer pattern.
So it is timely need for sustainable diversified farming shifting from paddy-wheat to horticultural crops,
poultry, dairy, piggery, bee-keeping, specie crops, oilseeds, medicinal, aromatic, fish culture, paper,
energy crops, agro forestry, and/or dairy farming etc.
Diversification in agricultural practices has become of almost important to manage the soil and water
resources. Soil health improvement programs should vigorously be taken-up. Adoption of suitable crop
rotation, use of organic manuring, vermin compost. FYM are basic requirements to improve the soil
health. Use of biofertlisers have proved to be beneficial to crop production and maintaining the soil
fertility. The use of biofertilisers can be useful to plants and in maintaining the soil health. It also
benefits to microbial activities to the soil.
To counter the issue of water scarcity, the first initiative should be to diversify the cropping system I
order to have efficient and lesser use of water in crop production.
Biological control is the use of organism to regulate the pests and pathogens below threshold level.
The indiscriminate use of pesticides has resulted into undesirable levels of persistence of pesticides in
various products., environment pollution and health hazards. Therefore, there is need to encourage
farmers to utilize these technologies.
Promotion of organic farming as diversifying agriculture for sustainability

In organic farming production and protection of crops mainly developed on indigenous wisdom combat
with latest scientific techniques such as bicultural and microbial fertilizers. Organic farming avoids
largely excludes the use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators and livestock feed
additives. To the maximum feasible, organic farming system rely upon crop-rotation, crop
diversification, crop residues, animal manure, legumes, green manure, off farm organic wastes, and
aspects of biological pest control to maintain the soil fertility, soil productivity and the supply plant
nutrients and to control insects, weeds and other pests.
More over organic farming is an environment friendly ecological production system that promotes and
enhances biodiversity, biological cycles and biological activities based on minimal use of off farm
inputs and management practices that restore maintain and enhance ecological balance. After green
revolution, this knowledge base has been slowly degraded. Organic farming reduces the cost of
cultivation and offers price premium, conservation of soil and water, prevention of soil erosion and
biodiversity, generation of rural employment, lowering the urban migration, improved household
nutrition, and local food security. Organic farming is also known for revival of inherent capacity of soil
via biological life, degraded due to synthetic chemicals, optimising health and productivity of
interdependent communities of soil life, plants, animals and people.
In India, traditionally, organic farming has always been practised since ancient time but no more
emphasis to till date, no government support and incentives for promotion. No reward and
encouragement for innovative organic farmers. However, India is largest producer of a variety of fruits
and vegetable in the world due to its diverse agro-climatic conditions. About 70 per cent area of
cultivable land is rain-fed in India, where no fertiliser is used and open for organic farming.
Approximately 600-700 million tonnes of agricultural wastes also available per year but most of it is not
properly used. Biofertilizers and bio pesticides not popular in India because of low demand, erratic
supply and farmers are ignorant. Another reason is heavy advantage of chemical pesticides and
133
chemical fertilisers in increasing the crop yields. So National and International organisation should
come forward in developing countries like India to promote the organic farming.
It is the time to shift for organic farming that enhances the environment balancing, sustainability,
diversification, and creates more employment opportunities in rural sector. Also there is people’s
demand for quality nutritive added, residue free and diseases free organic agro-products throughout
the world. Organic products also promise better prospects for market and trades. There is ever-
growing export market for organic products. The domestic market of organic products in India is
emerging.
Consumers in developed countries and in some developing countries also have become more health
conscious and they have started spending on greener, healthy and natural foodstuffs organically
produced and labelled products.
Promoting Agri-Tourism for health environment and eco-friendly soundness

Has recently emerged as an opportunity for many farm families to diversify their agricultural operations
into economic activity that occurs when people travel with agricultural products, services or
experience. Such on farm diversification is income generation, as well as increased awareness and
education of the non-farming public about farms and their products. More over ‘Agri-tourism’ can
contribute sustainability in agriculture through sustaining and better management of natural resources
in an Eco-friendly system. Agri-tourism is an expanding sector around the world and emerging a
growth agricultural industry. The ‘Agri-tourism’ has been in existence in Europe, USA and Canada for
more than 100 years and it is looked as a new area in developing countries like India.
Increasingly tourists want to experience rural life, meet and interact with the local people to get
experience about agricultural activities. People are travelling to family farm as a tourist destination for
peace and tranquillity, interest in the natural environment, disillusionment with overcrowded resorts
and cities, nostalgia for their roots on the farm rural recreation, an inexpensive getaway, and curiosity
about the farming industry and lifestyle.
Agri-tourism is based upon services, activities and/or products offered by an agricultural producer to
the tourist. For the tourist, there is a net gain in that he obtains a better understanding and knowledge
of the agricultural world; for the farmer, he has an opportunity to show an often predominantly urban
population an insight into the agricultural way of life and reap some economic benefit in the process.
The interaction between the farmer and tourist takes place on the farm or at other venues such as
fairs and exhibitions. Facilities, which promote and interpret the agricultural industry to tourists such as
heritage gardens, agricultural museums, county fairs, and food processing operations, may also be
considered part of the Agri-tourism sector.
Agri-tourism can include farm accommodation, farm vacations, direct sales, horse and carriage rides,
picnic and camping sites on farms, on-farm craft and food stores, educational tours, agricultural fairs
and farmer field days, farmers’ markets, boating &canoeing, petting zoo, roadside stands, flower
festival or show, U-picking operation, swimming, and the list goes on.
Agri-tourism businesses and other alternatives enterprises offer farmers the opportunity to earn higher
profits by replacing their traditional operations innovative, sustainable on farm. Agricultural tourism
takes many forms, including the drive-by, as in those who patronise farm and roadside stands and
farm stays, where people come and stay for several days. Agri-tourism presents opportunities for the
farming community to diversify and take advantage of the natural and cultural heritage resources both
on the farm and in the environs. This could involve the sale of new food and craft products, tours, fish-
out ponds, bird watching and nature appreciation.
134
Exploiting these opportunities requires a new set of skills, somewhat different than those typical of a
more conventional agriculture. It is direct marketing. Some benefits of agri-tourism are diversification
of the farm operation, adding a new enterprise such as farmer’s market, attracts customers to farms,
provides stability of the agriculture industry, excellent means of supporting rural communities and
businesses, an opportunity to increase agricultural awareness and education among the public, and
promote agricultural products.
Agri-Tourism provides environmental soundness, diversifying activities in agriculture, additional

income generation, more interaction, management of natural resources, and employment in rural
sector. Agri-Tourism also contributes to sustainable agriculture because the visitors gain a deeper
understanding about agriculture and the farmer derives an additional revenue stream from the farm.
In developing counties like India, such type of new agriculture has better scope and prospects,
especially, near to big and metro cities where customers found having high investment capacity for
fresh, nutritive added agro-products and agricultural show. Agri-tourism is an intensive investment
farm operation requires sound financial position of the farmers, high tech field operations, and nature
loveable customers that are lacking. Information management should be sound to provide training
included of customer service, local tourism opportunities, hospitality, public relations, first aid, and food
preparation, Hence, the Government, planners, and policymakers should take initiative for promotion
of Agri-tourism in developing an awareness of agriculture and a vision for the industry, acting as a
catalyst, visiting farms, setting standards for agri-tourism, and providing subsidies.
References
1. Agriculture situation in India ,2001
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6. Emerging challenges to Haryana Agricultural Economy via-a-vis Diversification in Agriculture edited by
Dr. B. S. Dahiha and dr. R. B. Srivastava, Directorate of Research CCS HAU, Hisar.
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Challenges of Market Reforms in south Asia. Paper presented at South Asia Initiative ICRIER-ICAR
IFPRI Conference on Economic Reforms and Food Security-The Role of Trade and Technology, New
Delhi, India from April 24-25, 2002.
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constraints and productivity-a prologue. Journal. Crop. Productivity. 3 (2): 1-26.
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Extension, June 2002. Volume 40 Number 3
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empirical results of 107 farms. Farm-Management.1996,9: 5.
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FAO, Rome.
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96. Book of Abstracts. Proceedings of 11th IFOAM Scientific Congress held at Copenhagen, Denmark
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Volume 41 Number 2
Table 1 : Pesticide Residue Persistence in Agricultural Produce and Food Commodities.

Commodity 2001 2002
Samples Contamination Sample Contamination
(No.) (%) (No.) (%)
Vegetables 712 61 529 63.5
12% above 8.5% above
(17 crops)
MRL MRL
At Hisar all Contaminated – 46% above MRL, Heptachlor and Cypermethrin

Fruits 378 53 (less than 329 47
(Approaching
(12 crops) MLR)
MR)
Fields in Faridabad – vegetables, fruits, flowers highly contaminated.
Source: Edited by Dr. B. S. Dahiya, CCS HAU, Hisar,
Table 2 : Pesticide Residue Persistence in Total Diet.

Commodity 2001 2002
(No.) (%) (No.) (%)
Vegetables 235 60 199 53
Non-Vegetarian 234 78 175 56
Total 469 374
HCH, DDT, Endosulfan 15%

63.3% contaminate samples @ 11.2% exceeded MRL values
Source: Edited by Dr. B. S. Dahiya, CCS HAU, Hisar, India.
Table 3: Residue Persistence in Animal Feed, Fodder and Irrigation Water.

Commodity 2001 2002
(No.) (%) (No.) (%)
Feed and 125 81 373 45
136
Fooder
HCH, DDT, Chlorpyriphos Endosulfan
Irrigation Water
• General Water 258 60 (HCH, DDT)
• Surface Water 251 73 (Endosulfan & Chlorpyriphos)
• Canal (Hisar) 10 All Contaminated (4 above MRL)
• Pond (-do-) 11 -do-
Table 4: Pesticide Residue persistence in Animal Products.

Commodity 2001 2002
(No.) (%) (No.) (%)
Milk 537 52 - -
94% HCH, 9% Endosulfan, DDT – residue

Above MRL (14% with DDT 18% HCH, 5% Endosulfan)
Traces of residues in animal feed and fodder

Butter - - 184 67.4
(DDT & HCH, Endosulfan at Hisar above MRL.
Table 5: World Markets for Organic Food and Beverages 1997.

Approximate % of total Expected Growth Rate over
Market Retail sales
food sales the Medium terms upto 2005
(US$ million)
Germany 1800 1.2 5.10
France 720 0.5 20
United Kingdo 450 0.4 25-35
Netherlands 350 1 10-15
Switzerland 350 2.0 20-30
Denmark 300 2.5 30-40
Wseden 110 0.6 30-40
Italy 750 0.6 20
Austria 225 2 10.15
Other Europe 200 - -
Total Europe 5255 - -
United States 4200 1.25 20-30
Japan 1000 - -
Total 10455 - -
Source: Agri-business and horticulture, November 2002.
Table 6: Organic Exports from India

Product Exported (t) Product Exported (t)
137
Tea 3000 Honey 173

(Block Tea, green tea)
Coffee 500 Mango pulp 952
Rice 2500 Pineapple juice 589
Wheat 1150 Banana puree 325
Pulses 300 Dry Banana 1890
Spices 700 Sesame 739
(manily pepper and giner)
Fruits 1800 Spices 100
(banana, pineapple, mango etc.)
Nut (Cashew walnut) 375 Mustard 2
Cotton 1200 Peanut candy 7
Herbal Products 250 Walnut 227
Source: AC Nielsen ORG-MARG Pvt. Ltd. 2002
Table 7 : Exportable Forms of Herbal Products/ Herbal diversity of products
Cut

Powdered
Froxen
Fixex oil
Carrior oils
Essential oils
Flower waters
Aqueous Extracts
Co2 extracts
Liquid extracts
Standardized extracts
Dry extracts
Tablets
Capsules
Herbal diversity of market sectors

Dyes

Food

Beverages
Health care
Animal Feed
Medicines
Industrial Crops
Gift/Miscellaneous
Cosmetic
Functional Food
Homoeopathy
Table 8 : India – A Leader in Several Argi- Categories
138
Category India’s Ranks

Spices 1
Milk 1
Rice 2
Sugar 2
Wheat 2
Vegetables 2
Fruits 2 (No. 1 in mango)
Table9 : Some Indian Major Agri-Products for Exports

Spices :
Black pepper Ginger
Celery Seed Nutmeg
Chilli Sofron
Clove Sesame
Coriander Tamarind
Cumin Seed Turmeric
Dill Seed Vanilla
Fennel Seed White Pepper
Fenugreek
Medicinal Plants :
Ashwagandha
Boswelia
Garcinia
Cambogia
Ginger
Gotu Cola
Gymnema
Henna
Myrrh
Neem
Psyllium Husk
Rauwolfia
Serpentina
Rose
Senna
Shatavari
Terminalia
Tribulus
Turmeric
Essential Oils:
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Black pepper
Citronella
Ginger
Lemon grass
Sandalwood
Other Items:
Durum and bread Wheat
Malt Barley
Coarse cereals
Guar
Rice (Basmati and others)
Vegetables, Fruits
Organic meat and other animal products.
Flowers.
140
The evaluation of the ecological and improvement of the environment

quality functions of the urban and metropolitan green areas quality
Cristian Ioja, Maria Pătroescu, Annemarie Ioja
University of Bucharest, Centre for Environmental Research and Impact Studies, 1 Nicolae Balcescu,
010041, Bucharest, Romania, tel/faxa +40 213103872, email: cristi@portiledefier.ro
Abstract
The evaluation of the ecological and improvement of the environment quality functions of the urban and
metropolitan green areas quality assume the knowledge of the relationships between the natural
components of the environment, human communities and economy. The quantification of the natural value of
green areas and its consideration in the terrain planning is very important for the equilibrium development of
the land. Due to this reason, using directly and indirectly methods of evaluation, the environment value of
green areas was estimated for the improvement of the urban climate, air quality, flow regime of the water,
creation of favorable habitats for species of plant and animal, etc. The environment value of green areas
(ecological and improvement of environment quality) is estimated at 42 €/tree/year, much more superior to
the maintenance expenses.
Introduction
Green areas represent important components of urban and metropolitan ecosystems, which
generates diverse services, which are however difficult to quantify in financial terms and to
distinguish on short term. They are green islands in built environment, enclaves of silence and
biological diversity (McPherson et al, 1997), and their importance is usually seen only when there
is a deficiency. (Pătroescu et al, 2000, Iojă and Pătroescu, 2005).
The evaluation of the green areas’ importance is valuable, because it express their vulnerability to
their functional changes, existing dysfunctions and the relation between the authority’s interests,
expressed through the allocated costs and the real value of the green areas. Not knowing their real
value in the urban and metropolitan ecosystems will lead to a bad management of these areas and
to an increased vulnerability to the land use (Dwyer et al, 1992).
The value of green areas is given by the net value of the profits obtained by every member of the
society that benefits from their usage (McPherson et al, 1997), this means the amount of all the
goods and services offered to human society by the green areas (Dwyer et al, 1992). The benefits
offered by the green areas vary in function of the structure and the changes in the urban
environment, of specific human communities and their needs. In this way, the correct evaluation of
the green area value, assumes the knowledge of the relationship between built environment and
natural environment, of the ecological processes and their projection in the population’s health and
in the economy.
For the appreciation of the benefits offered by green areas two categories of methods are used:
direct estimation (the beneficiary of every environment services) and indirect estimation (the
willingness to pay for a service, the willingness to accept additional costs, etc.).
Ecological and improvement of the environment quality functions

The ecological and improvement of the environment quality functions refers to the green area roll
in order to create favorable habitats for autochthonous and allochthonous plant and animal species
(Iojă and Pătroescu, 2005, CCMESI, 2006), to product oxygen (Rowntree and Nowak, 1993), to
consume carbon dioxide (Rowntree, 1989, Rowntree and Nowak, 1991, Nowak, 1993, Nowak and
Crane, 1998), to filter powders and other pollutants in the atmosphere (McPherson et al, 1997), to
reduce noise pollution (Cook and Anderson, 1984, Hertig, 1998, Iojă and Pătroescu, 2005), to
ameliorate the microclimate (Negruţiu, 1980, Huang et al, 1987, Oke, 1989, McPherson, 1994,
141
Muja, 1994, Katz, 1995, McPherson and others, 1997, Pătroescu and others, 2000, Ingram, 1998,
Nilsson and Randrupp, 1996), to reduce the quantity of energy used for heating/cooling
(McPherson, 1993, McPherson et al, 1997), regularize the drainage and infiltration of the water
from precipitations and to reduce the floods effects (Dwyer et al, 1992).
The ecological function

The ecological role of urban and metropolitan green areas is in function of the existing species,
diversity, age, location, but also in function of the existing pressure factors. The suitability for the
refuge of some species of plant and animal is function of the age of the green areas, the position in
the urban ecosystem and the amount of the maintenance works. Therefore, in the old parks of
Bucharest City the diversity of trees and shrubs is higher, and their older age permit the delineation
of some habitats more favorable for species of plant and animal than in the case of newly created
parks. Also, the peripheral position of green areas and the presence in proximity of some lakes is
favorable to attract some species of migratory birds or some species characteristic for the initial
natural ecosystem, which increase their conservation value. From this point of view the value of
metropolitan forests is higher, because inside these forests we can also find remnants from the
previous vegetation.
For the green areas along some stream river, it is also very important the maintenance role of
some ecological corridors that can be an advantage for the mobility of species of fauna. (Dwyer et
al, 1992). The conservation value of each tree is 30 € (Nilsson and Randrupp, 1996), which means
for the Herăstrău Park about 480,000 € (Table no. 1).
The function of improvement of the environment quality

The importance for the improvement of the green area environment quality is in function of green
area surface, age of trees, their density and current maintenance and the design (Rowntree and
Nowak, 1991, McPherson, 1992) (Table no. 1).
Air oxigenation
Green areas represent important oxygen sources for urban and metropolitan ecosystems. For
Bucharest City, green areas from north and southwest part of the city represent important
oxygenation of the urban air. To appreciate the role that green area for the oxygenation of urban
air, it is considered that 1 ha of green area produces 15 t/ year O2 and consumes 21 t/year CO2
(Negruţiu, 1980); it results that for example Herăstrău Park produces annually about 1500 t of O2
and consumes about 2100 t of CO2. McPherson (1992) evaluates that a tree consumes about 181
kg of carbon per year, which means about 2500 t of carbon for Herăstrău Park, plus the
consumption of shrubs and grass vegetation.
Storage and fixation of carbon.

The role of parks for the carbon fixation is definitely lesser than in the case of forests due to the
lower density of the trees, but also for the higher diversity and aggression of the stress factors that
the trees and shrubs are exposed. (Rowntree and Nowak, 1991). The role of parks for the
regulation of the proportion between oxygen and carbon dioxide is to be considered minor (Harris,
1992). In the case of Herăstrău Park, which has 62,9 % of the trees vegetation’s surface, 153
trees/ha, the quantity of dry biomass is about 60 t/ha, out of which 45 % is represented by carbon
(27 tons/ha, that correspond to a value of 2790 tons of carbon for the Herăstrău Park only through
trees vegetation, from which sequestrated will remain 21,7 tons carbon – 0,77 %) (Rowntree and
Nowak, 1991).
The reduction of the pollutants from the atmosphere

The industrial units and population spends annually important sum of money for the reduction of
pollutants from atmosphere, the installation of pollution reduction (filters, scrubbers), technical
inspection and maintenance for the vehicles, producing non-polluting fuel, streets maintenance.
Green areas constitute an important component of urban environment that contributes to the
142
improvement of the atmosphere quality through fixation of the powders and the by allowing some
chemical reactions that have as effect the reduction of the pollutants concentration in the
atmosphere (especially sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, ozone, carbon monoxide) (McPherson and
Nowak, 1993, Nilsson, Randrupp, 1996, Ingram, 1998). Aston (1979) appreciates that a tree can
retain annually 16 kg of suspension powders, which means for the Herăstrău Park 192 tons
annually.
Dwyer et al (1992) evaluate the role of each tree in the reduction of the suspension powder
quantity to 3,58 € per year, this value is superior in the case that the trees are part of the forests. In
this way, in the case of Herăstrău Park, the value of the trees vegetation for the reduction of the
suspension powder is estimated at about 57620 € per year. Comparing this value we can affirm
that Băneasa Forest has for the reduction of the suspension powders a value of about 250000 €
yearly.
Nowak and Crane (1998) considers that the large green areas contribute to the reduction of the
local concentration of suspension powder with 13 %, of sulphur with 14 %, nitrogen oxide with 8 %,
ozone with 15 % and carbon monoxide with 0.08 %. Through negative ions that they generate,
large green areas contribute to the reduction of the microorganism number in the urban
atmosphere.
Regularization of the drainage and infiltration of the water.

Green areas has an important role in urban and metropolitan hydrology, and they are islands
where water drainage and the infiltration of water from precipitation in natural and semi natural
regime are possible. This contributes to the limitation of the abundant rain effects, which in the
case of Bucharest City generates many problems due to the reduced capacity of the sewer system
to retain the rainwater. McPherson (1991) considers that tree storage is of 276 l of water annually
that means that for the Herăstrău Park it has a value of 3300 m3. Dwyer et al (1992) evaluate at
0,15 € per tree the role for the water drainage control and in the improvement of its quality, which
represents for Herăstrău Park a value of about 2400 € per year.
The dynamics of the average level of the sound

Regarding the noise pollution, a reduction of the average level of the sound was observed with
1-10 dB(A) to about 100 m from the source, this variation being influenced by the characteristics of
vegetation, land configuration and sound characteristics. Diminution of the average level of the
sound is insignificant on distances shorter than 50 m from the source, not taking into consideration
vegetation density (about 0,5 dB(A)) (Pătroescu et al, 2004). The green areas value for the
reduction of the sound level is about 0,15 € for each tree.
Climate moderator
Also important is the role of urban climate moderator through the significant diminution of the
wind speed, the increase of air humidity (superior with 10-20 % from the neighboring regions), the
attenuation of the temperature’s variation, diminution of the direct radiation at the topographic
surface (shadowed surface in Herăstrău Park is about 80 %). Besides, the presence of green
areas from the north part of Bucharest City and the air circulation stops the expansion of the heat
island, and through the urban breeze it can attenuate its effect (CCMESI, 1998, 2004, Iojă and
Pătroescu, 2004; Owak, 1995). Through the reduction of air temperature large green areas, it can
contribute to the reduction of the energy consumption (through conditioned air, ventilators, etc.)
and implicitly can reduce indirectly the amount of pollutants from the atmosphere (McPherson and
Rowntree, 1993, Nowak, 1995, Iojă and Pătroescu, 2004).
The reduction of the energy expenses

McPherson et al (1997) mention the fact that the presence of the large green areas can reduce
with about 10 % the expenses for air conditioning during the summer in the area for their direct
influence which means 8,6 € per season for every household that has such a machine (this
estimation was realized considering the existence of 40 days with higher temperatures, a
143
consumption of 1800 kWh and a price of 0,04 € per kW). Also, the existence of some trees that
can maintain shadow in the surrounding of the built environment will reduce the expenses for air
conditioning with 2-7 %, which represents 2,6-6 € for each household.
Nowak (1995) mentioned their role for the reduction of the heating expanses, due to the
reduction of the wind speed and climate moderation. In this way, the benefits for each household
are evaluated at about 4,3 € per year, which in the case of Herăstrău Park would generate an
income of minimum 6880 € per year. Dwyer and others (1992) evaluates that the lack of trees
could generate rising of the heating costs and air-conditioned of 25 € $ per inhabitant per year.
Table no. 1 - thee environment value of the urban and metropolitan green areas
The value of green areas Quantification Herăstrău Park
The conservation value 30 euro/tree/year (Nilsson and 480000 euro /
Randrupp, 1996) year
The noise reduction value 0,15 euro/tree/year 2400 euro / year
The pollution reduction value 3,58 euro/tree/ year (Dwyer et al, 1992) 57200 euro /
(only for powder in year
suspension)
The reduction of the air 8,6 euro per year for every household 8600 euro / year
conditioning costs value that has such a machine (McPherson et
al, 1997)
Regularization of the drainage 0,15 euro/tree/ year (Dwyer et al, 1992) 2400 euro / year
water value
Reduction of the heating costs 4,3 euro/tree / year 68800 euro /
value (McPherson et al, 1997) year
Relief stabilization value 1,2 euro/tree per year 19200 euro /
(Nowak, 1995) year
Environment value 42,15 euro/tree/ year 674440 euro/
year
Total value 615 euro/tree 8374440 euro
Stabilizer of the relief
Green areas contribute to the stabilization of the relief (especially in the areas with higher
slopes) and the attenuation of the drainage on slopes, important for the diminution of the problems
concerning eutrophisation and clogging of the lakes. In Tineretului Park the vegetation’s role for the
stabilization of the relief is more evident, as the slopes are more accentuated. In this way, taking
off the vegetation from the cliff would determine not only the acceleration of the lake clogging
(rising of the costs for cleaning), but also the accentuation of the phenomena on the slopes, which
can have in the future repercussions also on the residential area from the proximity. The estimation
of the park’s value for the stabilization of the relief can be appreciated at the equivalent of the
necessary value for the achievement of the consolidation works of the slopes and bank, but also
with the costs of cleaning the clogged lakes resulting a value of about 1,2 € per tree per year.
Conclusions
The environment value of the urban and metropolitan areas is estimated at 42,15 € tree per year
(0,35 €/ inhabitant of Bucharest City per year – environment value of the Herăstrău Park),
considered very rare in the urban and metropolitan. Neglecting the environment value increases
the vulnerability of the urban and metropolitan grass areas, which are regarded only as reserved
areas and considered obstacles for economical development.
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145
Post-seismic interventions to university buildings and balancing their

environment
Roxana Alexe, Alexandru Călin, Cătălina Călin, Claudiu Dragomir, Marilena Nicolae,
Ovidiu Pop, Camelia Slave
Technical University of Civil Engineering, Bd. Lacul Tei 124, Sect.2, RO 020396 Bucharest, Romania
email: alexeroxana@yahoo.com
Abstract
The paper presents the preparedness of university buildings and their environment for earthquakes. From all
natural catastrophes the earthquakes are the only unpredictable and the most destructive actions that in a few
seconds change the fate of people with their goods. According to the modern approach of preparedness the
post-seismic interventions should be clearly foreseen and properly planned in order to avoid additional damages
and fatalities as well as to save what remained worth to be further used. The post-seismic interventions should
be designed and organised according to the provisions of the ISO13822:2001. The clause 7.4 regarding the
plausibility of interventions should be carefully considered. It can be also extend on the rehabilitation of building
environment after a comparative analysis of existing solutions. Beside the cost as a selection criterion the
durability of intervention is recommended. All the aforementioned ideas are illustrated through a study case.
Introduction
The paper departs from premise as the universities do the part from the cultural heritage of each
country that is protected by UNESCO. In the USA and the Japan the universities are respected where
through except for education they do also applicative research. There exist already strategies for post-
seismic interventions to buildings and balancing their environment. The post-seismic interventions
should be designed and organised according to the provisions of the ISO13822:2001. The paper has
seven objectives: 1) Presentation of national context; 2) Presentation of international context; 3)
Provision of the codes and preparedness for earthquake; 4) The determination of dynamic
characteristics of the strenght structure; 5) Static and dynamic analysis of the space structure; 6)
Preparedness of the internal spaces for seismic events; 7) Rehabilitation of building environment.
Presentation of national context

According to the chart recently elaborated by European Committee of Seismology, Romania has one
of the most highly seismic intensity from the continent, across 60% from territory and population being
expose to the destructive earthquakes of Vrancea.
Figure 1: European seismic hazard map
146
To the earthquake from 1977 they were severely damaged the next academicals centres: Bucharest
the total destruction and the fire from the Faculty of Chemistry, the body O of the Polytechnic Institute,
Faculty of General Medicine, Kalinderu Museum from the Plastic Arte Institute, students hostel and
library from the Agronomical Institute, the amphitheatres and some students hostels from the
Academy of Economical Study, and among the relative new buildings, the seminary halls and the
dome from the new locale of Polytechnic Institute; Craiova - the central old building, eating hall from
University Centre and Agronomical Faculty; Iasi - the body A of Polytechnic Institute and students
eating hall.
The academicals centres shelter large concentrations of young intellectuals, which are well trained to
take over the society destinies in the near future. Besides education, in universities are carried on
activities of scientific research for the modern technology of the society. Are necessary seismic
protective measures of the buildings and plants in accordance to the new requirements as well as the
elaboration of assistance strategies and intervention for emergency situations similarly with those
tacked from the advanced technological countries. The priorities for the academicals centres are due
to respects clause 1.1.2 from Code P100-1:2004 who foresees the avoiding of the human life’s losses,
maintaining the activities and the limitation of the damages.
Seeing to the integration of Romania in the European Union it shall followed the application in the
university buildings, of the next three main objectives:
i. Reduction of the primary vulnerability, for instance the seismic intervention of the structures or to
the other non-structural parts, and the second’s vulnerability, for instance the fixation of furniture and
of the equipments, the education of the occupants toward protected and behaved rationally to
earthquakes.
ii. Reduction of the exposure to the seismic risk, for instance the limitation/reduction of the occupancy
rate or the public intake in some buildings from the academicals complex.
iii. Prevention of the production of effects in chain to the incidence of earthquake through the
reorganization and the disjunction of spaces and functions which comprise risk ness, for instance the
amphitheatres, inclusively through the awareness of students, teaching staff and technical
administrative personal.
Presentation of international context

In Japan, fallowing the earthquakes from 1995 to Kobe the and from 2003 to Miyagiken was produced
serious damages to the buildings of the academicals complex. In USA the earthquakes from the
California state from 1989 and the 1994 brought extensive damages of famous universities, the
University of Berkeley and Northridge - California and the University of Stanford. In Turkey, to the
earthquake from 2003 to Bingöl many buildings from educational field are collapsed, over 90%
becoming unusable. The collapse of a building from concrete steel has done 86 victims. In Italy, the
earthquake from 2002 has done 27 victims, through the collapse of the school from San Giuliano.
In the USA and Japan the universities are respected where through except for education they do also
applicative research. In Japan, MEXT Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology
has elaborated The Guide for Educational Endowment's Consolidation, in order to satisfy the
requirements of comforts and safety of life.
In SUA, Federal Emergency Management Agency FEMA in company with University of Berkeley
launched the project Disaster Resistant Universities Initiative, as pilot project for a national federal
program.
147
In Europe, JRC Joint Research Centre of European Commission from Ispra, Italy, comprise the
Institute for the Protection and Security of the Citizen. Also ICCROM - International Centre for the
Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property from Roma has diffused through the
UNESCO network the manual RISK PREPAREDNESS: Management Manual for World Cultural
Heritage.
In 2003 he adopted special for education The Declaration from Madrid – the Forum euro-
Mediterranean looking the reduction of disasters, which is based as much on the EUR-OPA Accord
and on the ONU Resolution 57/256 from December 2002, as regards ISDR - International Strategy of
Disaster Reduction.
Internationally the strategies elaborated for the seismic protection have as the priorities: the
educational spaces, the research spaces and the academicals campuses. In the particular mode for
academicals complex the requirements from the engineering codes are adverted to safety life and the
limitation of the damages. On the other hand are necessary measures of preparation for warehouses,
post seismic interventions and the participation to the community effort on the environment
regeneration after the disasters provoked by earthquakes.
Known objectives:
i. The regional and national implementation of recommendations formulated by international

organisms beginning with ONU and UNESCO for the diminution risks challenged of the natural
calamities.
ii. The international participation for the concentration of the efforts through preventive measures of
risks which result from the natural calamities.
iii. The promotion to the educational programs of prepare the academic communities, of publicly and
individual behaviour in the situations of natural calamities.
iv. The elaboration of informational programs concerning communications among authorities and the
responsible factors in emergency situations.
v. Measures of rehabilitation and bringing the environment in balance as a result of the natural
calamities.
At present Japan is most advanced country by reason of the systems of warning and population
instruction in case of earthquake. In certain academicals centres they even don't interrupt the courses
during the earthquake, therefore the safety feeling exist.
In USA are present the warning systems and the instruction programs of the population, but doesn’t
exist the same safety feeling in abreast of citizens.
Europe is still much attending USA and Japan in what look the protective measures and strategies of
limit the damages.
Provision of the code and preparedness for earthquake

The provisions of National Code P100-1:2004 and Eurocode 8 follows, that in case of a emergency
situations created by earthquakes, to assure the performance of constructions for: avoiding the loss of
human life’s or hurting the peoples; maintenance, without interruption, of the activities and essential
services for the continuum progress of the social and economical life, in and after the earthquake;
148
avoiding the production of explosions or the emission of dangerous substances; limitation of material
damages.
The constructions from university centres are due to respects the regularity criteria’s in plan and
elevation. In this context the construction must be approximate symmetrical in plan, in report with two
orthogonal directions, from the point of view of lateral stiffness distribution, capacity of resistance and
masses. Due to the subsidence’s and dislocations the buildings cracks and plus can appear
movements to the superior part of the building. Therefore must be check out the verticality of building
with help of the theodolite.
For illustrate we have applied the provisions of the two codes regarding to the regularity criteria’s in
case of a faculty building from Bucharest.
Figure 2: The front of the Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
The measurements for checking the building verticality of the Faculty of Civil and Environmental
Engineering have been carried out with an electronic tachymeter Nikon NE20S. The visas were taken
with a spyglass, in both positions. The marks placed on the superior corners of the building were
projected to its base. For each mark have been done measurements from two stations located at 100
degrees one from another.
149
Figure 3: Displacement at the top of the building
On the marks A4 and C1 the inclination of the building is zero. Due to the unfavourable situation from
the field it wasn’t been possible to accomplished measurements for checking the building verticality to
all the edges (A3, B1, B2, B8, B9, C3, C7). Yet we consider that they accomplished a sufficient
number of measurements for the estimation of building inclination.
Case 1 – The faculty building before the seismic intervention
Figure 4: The position of both centres CG and CR before the seismic intervention of faculty
building
150
The calculus for a current floor in the body A
The coordinates of the gravity and rotation centres
y CG = 10,57m yCR = 10,57m

z CG = 10,31m zCR = 10,31m
The eccentricities among the gravity and rotation centres
e y = yCG − yCR = 10,57 −10,57 = 0m < 0,1Ly = 0,1x21,60 = 2,160m ⇒ satisfied condition
ez = zCG − zCR = 10,46 −10,31 = 0,15m < 0,1Lz = 0,1x21,60 = 2,160m ⇒ satisfied condition
The geometrical regularity conditions in plan compliant with the Eurocode 8
9,175
Δy1 = Δy2 = x100 = 42,47 > 15% ⇒ unsatisfied condition
21,60
Δz = 0 ⇒ satisfied condition
The geometrical regularity conditions in plan compliant with the Code P100-1/2004
Sinf asuratoare = Ly Lz = 21,60x22,90 = 494,64m 2
S planseu = 21,60x21,60 + 1,30x3,25 = 470,78m 2 ⇒ 15%S planseu = 0,15x470,78 = 70,62m 2

Sinf asuratoare − S planseu = 494,64 − 470,78 = 23,86m 2 ⇒
Sinf asuratoare − S planseu = 23,86m 2 < 15%S planseu = 70,62m 2 ⇒
The construction presents sufficient regularity in plan.
The calculus for a current floor in the body B
The coordinates of the centres of gravity and rotation
yCG = −11,57m yCR = −11,77m

zCG = −18,98m zCR = −19,04m
The eccentricities among the centres of gravity and rotation
e y = yCR − yCG = 11,77 −11,57 = 0,20m < 0,1Ly = 0,1x54,00 = 5,40m ⇒ satisfied condition
ez = zCG − zCR = 19,04 −18,98 = 0,06m < 0,1Lz = 0,1x15,00 = 1,50m ⇒ satisfied condition
Δy = 0 ⇒ satisfied condition
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Sinf asuratoare = S planseu ⇒
The calculus for a current floor in the body C
y CG = −59,33m yCR = −60,80m

z CG = 6,30m z CR = 6,06m
e y = y CR − y CG = 60,80 − 59,33 = 1,47m < 0,1L y = 0,1x54,00 = 5,40m ⇒ satisfied condition
e z = z CG − z CR = 6,30 − 6,06 = 0,24m < 0,1L z = 0,1x15,00 = 1,50m ⇒ satisfied condition
Δy = 0 ⇒ unsatisfied condition
Note
The two bodies B and C have the same sizes in plan; instead the positions of both centres differ due
to the different partition. The body A maintains with enough accuracy the symmetry.
Case 2 - The faculty building after the seismic intervention
A. With seismic joints
The calculus for a current floor in the body A
y CG = 10,57m y CR = 10,57m
z CG = 10,38m z CR = 10,49m

152
e y = y CG − y CR = 10,57 −10,57 = 0m < 0,1L y = 0,1x25,90 = 2,590m ⇒ satisfied condition
e z = z CG − z CR = 10,49 −10,38 = 0,11m < 0,1Lz = 0,1x25,90 = 2,590m ⇒ satisfied condition
Figure 8: The position of both centres CG and CR after the seismic intervention
8,725
Δy1 = Δy 2 = x100 = 33,68 > 15% ⇒ unsatisfied condition
25,90
20,70
Δz = = 79,92% > 15% ⇒ unsatisfied condition
25,90
S inf asuratoare = L y Lz = 25,90x25,90 = 670,81m 2
S planseu = 25,90x25,90 − (2x20,90x1,65 + 2x17,45x1,65) = 544,25m 2 ⇒
⇒ 15%S planseu = 0,15x544,25 = 81,63m 2
S inf asuratoare − S planseu = 670,81 − 544,25 = 126,55m 2 ⇒
S inf asuratoare − S planseu = 126,55m 2 > 15%S planseu = 81,63m 2 ⇒
The construction doesn’t presents sufficient regularity in plan.
153
The calculus for a current floor in the body B
y CG = −11,89m yCR = −13,22m

z CG = −18,92m z CR = −19,04m
e y = y CR − y CG = 13,22 −11,89 = 1,33m < 0,1L y = 0,1x54,44 = 5,44m ⇒ satisfied condition
e z = z CG − z CR = 19,04 −18,92 = 0,12m < 0,1L z = 0,1x15,44 = 1,544m ⇒ satisfied condition
Δy = 0 ⇒ satisfied condition
The calculus for a current floor in the body C
y CG = −59,58m yCR = −60,15m

z CG = 6,35m z CR = 6,24m
e y = y CR − y CG = 60,15 − 59,58 = 0,57m < 0,1L y = 0,1x54,44 = 5,44m ⇒ satisfied condition
Δy = 0 ⇒ unsatisfied condition
154
Note
The two bodies B and C have the same sizes in plan; instead the positions of both centers differ due
to the different partition. The body A maintains with enough accuracy the symmetry.
B. Without seismic joints
y CG = − 26,32m yCR = 26,69m

z CG = − 3,85m z CR = − 5,40m
Figure 9: The position of both centres CG and CR after the seismic intervention
e y = y CR − y CG = 26,69 + 26,32 = 53,01m < 0,1L y = 0,1x111,57 = 11,15m ⇒ unsatisfied condition
Compliant with the Code P100-1/2004 and EC 8 the construction doesn’t presents sufficient
geometrical regularity in plan.
Note
155
Although the 3 bodies present symmetry against the main axes, the eccentricity value is big because
of the absence of the seismic joints.
The seismic joints are foreseen with the aim to separate between them the constructions bodies with
different geometric and dynamic characteristics in order to permits them that under seismic actions to
oscillate free one from another. Through the seismic joints is avoided the collision of adjacent
buildings or is limited the effects of a possible collision. Certainly, the seismic joints are settlement
joints too.
a. View of the east side b. View of the north side
Figure 10: Seismic interventions to the body B
Figure 11: Seismic interventions to the body C
Compliant to the Clause 4.6.2.6, page 114 from P100-1/2004, in the case of buildings designed for a
similar safety level, with close characteristics from dynamic and dimensions point of view, the size of
joints are established with the relation
Δ = d12 + d 22 + 2 ρ1,2 d1 d 2 (1)
in which
156
ρ is an coefficient which enters the influence of factors of which depends the collision amortization.
The value ρ1,2 is established with the expression
ρ1,2 = 1 − (1 + e ξ θ ) + (1 − eψ θ ) − 1
2 2
(2)
where
T2
θ = < 1 , (3)
T1
is the fundamental periods report of the two bodies of the building;
ξ = ξ1ξ 2 (4)
the geometric mean of the fractions from critical amortization corresponding to both buildings;
ψ the restitution factor of the collision; in the current cases
1
ψ = , (5)
q
q the behaviour factor of structure which compliant to the point 8.4 from page 42 takes a value of
6,75.
In the case of faculty building it has been found that the seismic joints foreseen in the initial project of
the building were plastered both internal and exterior side. Only several of these joints are still visible
inside the building. The absence of these joints can lead to the loss of human life in the event of an
earthquake.
The determination of dynamic characteristics of the strength structure

The body A of the Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering has the strength structure from
reinforced concrete frames, designed in the years '70, compliant with the Normative P13-70. Although
the height regime is reduced (H=21,33 m) and the shape in plan is regulated, on the earthquake from
4 March 1977 has been damages, specially to the non-structural elements, due to the insufficient
rigidity for the protection of partition elements. Subsequently to the earthquake from 30/31 August
1986, based on the solicitation of ROMPROIECT nr.4563/22.10.1986, which carry out the expertise
and the seismic intervention project, INCERC has accomplished the determination of dynamic
characteristics of this building., the results being concretized as part from the paper that did the object
of phase I in the contract nr.4406/1986. The seismic interventions projected by ROMPROIECT were
finalized in 1990, subsequently to the earthquake from 30 Mai. Therefore, the phase II of the contract
nr.4406/1986 has consisted in the experimental determination to the modifications of building dynamic
characteristics pursuant to the cumulate effect of the seismic interventions and to the earthquake from
30 Mai 1990.
The results of these measurements have putted in evidences an increase of the general rigidity with
37% on transversal direction, with 76% on longitudinal direction and with 64% for the general twist.
157
After come into force of the Normative P100-92, have been accomplished new seismic interventions of
the structure, with the aim to bring the building to its level of exigency in what concerns the level of
relative deformations compared with the maximum admissible level for the protection of non-structural
components.
These seismic interventions, executed up to the level 4, are of a nature to comply with these
requirements. For the instrumental verification of the efficiency of these works, the University of
Agronomical Science and Veterinary Medicine has solicited through the command
nr.40/PA/08.01.1998 to carry out the determination of dynamic characteristics to the body A of the
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering.
Therefore, was concluded with INCERC the contract nr.4736/1998. Further on are presented the
results, made in February 1998.
For the identification of dynamic characteristics to higher level of solicitation, has been accomplished
the measurements with the occasion of demolition through implosion of the former students hostel
building, funded to the approximate 50 m from the body A, on the 11 October 1996. These results, as
well as the one to micro seismic level, accomplished with the same occasion, are very useful for the
appreciation of the latest seismic intervention effect realized in 1997.
Table 1: Temporally evolution of the proper periods to the body A of the faculty building
Date Execution type Oscillation

Transversal Longitudinal Torsion
3.12.1986 Micro seism 0.62 0.57 0.59
19.11.1990 Micro seism 0.53 0.43 0.46
11.10.1996 Micro seism 0.50 0.44 0.53
11.10.1996 Explosion –maximum 0.57 0.50 -

excitation
11.10.1996 Explosion-free vibration 0.53 0.44 -
13.02.1998 Micro seism 0.42...0.44 0.40...0.42 0.34...0.36
Further on are presented the registrations made with GeoSIG GBV 316 in the period 2005 - 2006,
together with the release of the new designing Normative P100-1/2004. The recordings were obtained
on the 4th floor of the body A and on the 2th floors of the bodies B and C of the faculty building. The
processing’s were realized with the program GeoDAS, in this way were obtained the displacements,
the speeds, the accelerations, the jerks, as well as fundamental periods of oscillation of the buildings.
The registrations made with the application of the shock - 12.12.2005, 09.01am, 110C temperature
i) The registrations carried out in the body A
158
Figure 12: The displacements on all 3 directions
Figure 13: The velocities on all 3 directions
159
Figure 14: The accelerations on all 3 directions
Figure 15: The jerks on all 3 directions
160
Figure 16: The Fourier Transforms of the displacements on all 3 directions
ii) The registrations carried out in the body B
161
162
163
iii) The registrations carried out in the body C
164
165
166
Table 2: The dynamic parameters of the building
a. The registrations made in the body A

Vertical direction N-S direction E-W direction
(Longitudinal) (Transversal)
Displacement (mm) 23,20 x 10-4 5,327 x 10-4 4,353 x 10-4
Velocity (mm/s) 0,0951 0,01920 0,02037
Acceleration (mm/s2) 5,520 1,585 1,670
Jerk (mm/s3) 540,99 244,02 216,73
Period (s) 0,38 0,39 0,44
Frequency (Hz) 2,64 2,54 2,25
b. The registrations made in the body B
Displacement (mm) 25,31 10,61 5,44
Velocity (mm/s) 5,58 4,72 3,10
Jerk (mm/s3) 129,28 179,77 107,75
Period (s) 0,33 0,19 0,20
Frequency (Hz) 3,03 5,03 4,98
c. The registrations made in the body C
Displacement (mm) 12,84 1,75 2,12
Velocity (mm/s) 6,13 6,97 5,77
Jerk (mm/s3) 199,31 22,83 18,41
Period (s) 0,28 0,20 0,19
Frequency (Hz) 3,47 4,98 5,03
Comparing the results from 1998 made by INCERC Bucharest with the ones made on 12.12.2005 by
the faculty specialists can be observed that the values for oscillation period of the building remains
approximately the same, what means that the rigidity building stays the same.
Static and dynamic analysis of the space structure

I. The body A
For all the structure variants presented in this chapter have been elected the following calculus types:
Case 1 : DL1
Calculus type: Static - Linear
Case 2 : Modal
167
Calculus type: Modal
Date:
Calculus mod : Modal
Mass matrix type : Concentrated with rotation
Modes number : 5
Limits : 0.000
Coefficient : 100.000
Case 3 : earthquake P100-92 Directions _XYZ
Calculus type: earthquake-P100-92
Excitation direction:
X= 1.000
Y= 1.000
Z= 1.000
Date:
Zone : B
Tc : 1.600
Class of importance : II
Psi : 0.250
α : 1.200
Ks : 0.250
I. The body A
Variant A – Before the seismic intervention
The gravitational centre coordinates of the structure
X = 12750.000 (mm)
Y = 12731.639 (mm)
Z = 11329.633 (mm)
Central inertial moments of the structure:
168
Ix = 123031621346934.590 (daNmm2)
Iy = 123536266782999.470 (daNmm2)
Iz = 156283714098471.340 (daNmm2)
Mass = 1283216.675 (daN)
Figure 27: View of the structure
The structure description
Number of nodes: 180
Number of beams: 180
Beam type finite elements: 300
Plane finite elements: 0
Volumetric finite elements: 0
Static degree of freedom number: 960
Cases: 3
169
Figure 28: Disposal of the nodes
i) Space static calculus on gravitational actions
Table 3: Reactions
FX (kN) FY (kN) FZ (kN) MX (kNm) MY (kNm) MZ (kNm)
MAX 14.41 14.38 1161.81 21.38 20.51 0.06

Nod 76 10 100 52 76 80
MIN -14.41 -15.05 349.23 -20.50 -20.51 -0.06
Nod 27 52 56 10 27 31
Table 4: Forces and moments
MAX 1161.81 32.25 83.49 5.35 82.04 85.14

Beam 83 18 146 119 40 57
Nod 100 21 21 37 48 69
MIN -10.53 -33.33 -83.47 -5.35 -102.55 -82.28
Beam 124 57 163 119 148 18
Nod 55 68 42 89 68 22
Table 5: Displacements and rotations
ux (mm) uy (mm) uz (mm) αx (grad) αy (grad) αz (grad)
MAX 0.04900 0.04566 0.0 0.00751 0.00716 0.00102

Nod 67 49 9 69 96 73
170
MIN -0.04900 -0.04983 -0.93872 -0.00710 -0.00716 -0.00102

Nod 73 69 109 22 48 67
Figure 29: The body A shape from gravitational loadings
ii) Modal calculus
Tables 6: The natural values
Case/Mod Frequency Period

(Hz) (sec)
2/1 1.84520 0.54195

2/2 1.92378 0.51981
2/3 1.93850 0.51586
2/4 2.63699 0.37922
2/5 3.27267 0.30556
iii) The dynamic nonlinear space calculus to seismic actions in all directions
Table 7: Reactions
MAX 205.51 204.99 693.80 569.47 570.74 8.81

Nod 112 98 25 98 98 52
MIN 21.57 23.00 192.62 102.79 101.62 5.66
Nod 56 74 78 74 56 9
MAX 693.80 204.99 251.04 151.07 -4.50 569.47

Beam 21 82 108 140 19 82
171
Nod 25 98 36 2 13 98
MIN 0.95 1.02 0.43 0.59 -570.74 0.59
Beam 168 41 55 177 82 114
Nod 101 44 66 107 98 13
MAX 19.97706 19.58466 0.49365 0.07728 0.07998 0.03854

Nod 22 96 44 36 58 73
MIN 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Nod 9 9 9 9 9 9
Figure 30: The body A shape from earthquake in all directions
Variant B – After the seismic intervention
X = 12750.000 (mm)
Y = 12784.541 (mm)
Z = 11094.011 (mm)
Ix = 179562881031173.250 (daNmm2)
Iy = 180436686555370.560 (daNmm2)
Iz = 246597817207725.690 (daNmm2)
172
Mass = 1608674.131 (daN)
Cases: 3
173

Table 10: Reactions
MAX 24.08 25.48 1157.46 40.58 33.15 0.34

Nod 80 226 100 257 325 74
MIN -25.93 -25.49 120.91 -40.26 -33.29 -0.34
Nod 226 328 328 286 124 80
MAX 1157.46 31.51 80.85 5.02 79.29 82.77

Beam 83 18 146 178 40 57
Nod 100 21 21 40 48 69
MIN -20.51 -32.42 -80.35 -4.96 -99.68 -80.39
Beam 117 57 163 163 148 18
Nod 81 68 42 42 68 22
MAX 0.03310 0.01502 0.0 0.00732 0.00698 0.00075

Nod 67 49 9 69 96 71
MIN -0.05604 -0.07291 -0.93498 -0.00692 -0.00691 -0.00071
Nod 73 45 109 22 48 47
174
The figure 33: The body A shape from gravitational loadings
ii) Modal calculus
Table 13: The natural values

(Hz) (sec)
2/1 2.43711 0.41032

2/2 2.47281 0.40440
2/3 2.77410 0.36048
2/4 3.17801 0.31466
2/5 3.51168 0.28476
Table 14: Reactions
MAX 174.58 174.60 1059.38 484.47 484.55 8.30

Nod 98 112 56 112 98 100
MIN 5.83 5.04 186.05 5.82 5.65 0.17
Nod 9 74 29 306 223 328
MAX 714.73 174.60 174.58 81.22 -0.48 484.47

175
Beam 45 93 82 131 54 93
Nod 56 112 98 19 66 112
MIN 0.07 0.34 0.25 0.18 -484.55 0.22
Beam 168 37 14 168 82 107
Nod 101 45 18 101 98 26
MAX 11.65940 11.58952 0.96475 0.04638 0.04654 0.03033

Nod 48 20 287 60 84 95
MIN 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Nod 9 9 9 9 9 9
The figure 34: The body A shape from earthquake in all directions
II. The body B (C)
Variant A – Before the seismic intervention
X = 7500.000 (mm)
Y = 27000.000 (mm)
Z = 7182.770 (mm)
Ix = 167609428954395.910 (daNmm2)
Iy = 22420342695980.477 (daNmm2)
176
Iz = 176068312636167.500 (daNmm2)
Mass = 576471.822 (daN)

Cases: 3
Table 17: Reactions
MAX 1.18 1.18 154.92 1.71 1.65 0.00

177
Nod 13 83 87 79 13 103
MIN -1.18 -1.18 111.71 -1.71 -1.65 -0.00
Nod 127 119 123 123 151 63
MAX 154.92 2.50 9.53 0.00 6.61 6.10

Beam 120 176 59 132 188 31
Nod 87 125 8 103 142 41
MIN -1.03 -2.50 -9.53 -0.00 -9.83 -6.10
Beam 269 31 100 75 59 176
Nod 100 40 78 63 8 126
MAX 0.00586 0.01983 0.0 0.00441 0.00455 0.00000

Nod 8 46 1 41 33 146
MIN -0.00586 -0.01983 -0.22247 -0.00441 -0.00455 -0.00000
Nod 134 162 90 126 142 25
Figure 37: The body B shape from gravitational loadings
ii) Modal calculus
Frequency Period
Case/Mod (Hz) (sec)
178
4/ 1 2.92130 0.34231
4/ 2 2.96609 0.33714
4/ 3 2.99947 0.33339
4/ 4 3.14460 0.31801
4/ 5 3.28040 0.30484
Table 21: Reactions
MAX 27.76 24.35 51.72 60.42 66.14 1.20

Nod 91 87 91 87 91 5
MIN 11.37 16.34 25.86 45.23 31.68 0.33
Nod 123 38 5 38 123 99
MAX 51.72 24.35 39.28 1.20 -4.51 60.42

Beam 123 120 259 4 3 120
Nod 91 87 52 5 3 87
MIN 0.00 0.07 3.17 0.00 -66.14 0.23
Beam 268 151 237 104 123 151
Nod 60 100 4 66 91 100
MAX 7.60668 7.28519 0.06704 0.04113 0.04312 0.01273

Nod 12 86 94 84 10 8
MIN 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Nod 1 1 1 1 1 1
179
Figure 38: The body B shape from earthquake in all directions
Variant B – After the seismic intervention
X = 7499.166 (mm)
Y = 26998.050 (mm)
Z = 6480.470 (mm)
Ix = 506559691702140.940 (daNmm2)
Iy = 66880052651359.305 (daNmm2)
Iz = 537176626224105.870 (daNmm2)
Mass = 1460450.061 (daN)

180
Cases: 3
Table 24: Reactions
MAX 68.73 68.35 618.92 30.51 30.11 0.05

Nod 91 123 147 131 147 127
MIN -68.37 -69.08 138.61 -30.72 -28.52 -0.05
Nod 51 139 151 26 1 83
MAX 331.64 6.36 9.41 0.18 9.83 8.44

Beam 7 6 246 57 200 89
Nod 9 8 8 12 158 82
MIN -3.91 -6.42 -9.41 -0.18 -10.08 -8.51
Beam 286 180 248 44 102 119
Nod 68 131 130 33 70 86
181
MAX 0.00899 0.02606 0.0 0.00150 0.00438 0.00032

Nod 298 86 1 82 33 424
MIN -0.00923 -0.02626 -0.21900 -0.00151 -0.00438 -0.00031
Nod 142 200 98 86 154 297
Figure 41: The body B shape from gravitational loadings
ii) Modal calculus

(Hz) (sec)
2/1 3.49005 0.28653

2/2 3.49803 0.28588
2/3 3.54074 0.28243
2/4 3.60261 0.27758
2/5 4.30552 0.23226
Table 28: Reactions
182
MAX 41.29 50.10 94.16 166.82 152.12 22.67

Nod 21 91 147 91 21 159
MIN 11.86 0.16 21.40 0.45 4.48 1.23
Nod 38 30 30 30 1 55
MAX 53.84 50.27 41.80 24.51 -0.05 162.41

Beam 7 123 16 2 119 123
Nod 9 91 21 2 85 91
MIN 0.05 0.04 0.02 0.00 -148.13 0.07
Beam 314 218 30 151 16 16
Nod 120 146 40 100 21 22
MAX 5.67611 5.84455 0.04826 0.03797 0.03828 0.07434

Nod 25 176 58 572 386 260
MIN 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Nod 1 1 1 1 1 1
Figure 42: The body B shape from earthquake in all directions
Framing of the building in the seismic risk class according to the following score:
Class RSI: 2.5 - 4.5 points - collapse or serious damages with fatalities
Class RSII: 4.5 - 6.5 points - serious damages or moderate without fatalities
Class RSIII: 6.5 - 8.5 points - moderate damages or slights
183
Class RSIV: 8.5 -10.0 points – slight damages or non.
Table 31: Evaluation of the seismic risk for the body A before the seismic intervention
Nr. Frameworks Category Points

1 Seismic zone: B ag = 0.24 0.20
2 Class of importance – display P100-1/04: II 0.50
3 Nominal degree of safety I/A: assimilated R = 0,3 0.55
4 Building age: 1968 35 years 0.87
5 Number of earthquakes supported(M ≥ 6) 3 0.90
6 Building height: 21,33 m 5 levels 0.60
7 Seismic behaviour according to P100 Unsatisfactory 0,10
1/2004
8 Structural damages Important 0.25
9 Structural ductility Satisfactory 0.30
10 Extension of structural damages Important 0,30
Conclusion The class of seismic risk II Total points 4,57
Table 32: Evaluation of the seismic risk for the body A after the seismic intervention

7 Seismic behaviour according to P100 Good 0,65
1/2004
8 Structural damages No damage 1,00
9 Structural ductility Good 0,65
10 Extension of structural damages Undetected 1,00
Conclusion The class of seismic risk III Total points 7,22
Table 33: Evaluation of the seismic risk for the body B (C) before the seismic intervention

7 Seismic behaviour according to P100 Unsatisfactory 0,30
1/2004
8 Structural damages Important 0.25
9 Structural ductility Satisfactory 0.30
10 Extension of structural damages Important 0,30
Conclusion The class of seismic risk II Total points 4,77
Table 34: Evaluation of the seismic risk for the body B (C) after the seismic intervention

184

7 Seismic behaviour according to P100 Good 0,65
1/2004
8 Structural damages No damage 1,00
9 Structural ductility Good 0,65
10 Extension of structural damages Undetected 1,00
Conclusion The class of seismic risk III Total points 7,42
Table 35: Reduction of the seismic risk after the seismic intervention
The class of seismic risk

The building Reduction rate of
Before seismic After seismic the seismic risk
intervention intervention
Body A II (4,57) III (7,22) 58%
Body B(C) II (4,77) III (7.42) 56%
The seismic risk represents a critical evaluation but a subjective one. The natural frequencies,
specially the measured ones, give more precise information’s.
Table 36: The increase of the stiffness after seismic intervention
Frequency
The building The increase of the
Before the seismic After the seismic stiffness
intervention intervention
Body A 1,84 2,43 32%
Body B(C) 2,92 3,49 20%
Note
The calculations presented in this chapter are valid for the situation in which are foreseen the seismic
joints. In practice these seismic joints don't exist.
Preparedness of the internal spaces for seismic events

Earthquakes can cause damage both and indirectly to property and cultural heritage as university
buildings. To reduce the earthquake effects on internal spaces we developed an earthquake-
preparedness strategy. The earthquake-preparedness strategy includes elements, which both reduce
the potential for damage the university buildings and establish clear modalities for reaction to an
emergency. Earthquake unlike fire cannot be prevented and cannot be controlled and that why
preparedness strategy must be done rigorously. Earthquake preparedness strategy of internal spaces
supposes: I) Risk mitigation through: 1) spaces evaluation for sheltering capacity; 2) spaces identify in
accordance with size; 3) reducing sources of ignition, to reduce likelihood and consequences of
secondary fire; 4) fixing the existing equipment and furniture from laboratories, class rooms and
offices; 5) creating an evacuation plan which include an illuminating system; 6) maintenance should
pay particular attention to the state of older electrical or fuel supply system, to reduce the likelihood
that fire may break out following an earthquake; 7) administrative staff instruction for reaction to an
emergency, according to preparedness guide book for emergency situation; 8) ensuring suitable
property uses in high-risk zones. II) Increasing earthquake resistance through: 1) efforts to strengthen
the resistance of a building or its components to earthquake damage; 2) risk analysis to determinate
the likely intensity and frequency of earthquake; 3) analysis of the structure’s response to previous
185
seismic events; 4) reinforced of structural systems to increase the ability of a building to meet an
earthquake’s lateral forces; 5) isolation of the building from the ground in order to interrupt or divert the
lateral thrust of an earthquake. III) Earthquake detection and monitoring for early warning of an
earthquake, and knowledge of the event’s critical parameters: 1) in-ground sensor and
communications systems capable of providing advance warning of the arrival of an earthquake; 2)
system for measuring the intensity and location of an earthquake and for ensuring transmission of this
information to emergency-response centres.
For equipments and furniture protection its used Work safe technology, which include a complete line
of seismic mitigation measures, like: seismic isolation platforms for mainframes and sensitive IT
equipments, desktop computer and office equipment fastening, securing of office furnishings and
appliances, restraints for countertop lab instruments, anchoring of large lab equipment and
appliances, securing of storage tanks and gas cylinders, safety nets and restraints for items on
shelves, anchoring of storage racks and equipment, fastening to engineering an architectural
specifications. This product offers seismic protection while reducing vibration allowing equipment to
run smoother and quitter. The product works with base isolation.
A secure action in seismic emergency situation is impossible without an anticipate evacuation plan for
interior spaces of the university building. This plan must be done with the help of local administration
and with the support of specialists and administration bodies.
Rehabilitation of building environment

The rehabilitation of building environment consists in the reconstruction of the damaged zones after a
natural catastrophe (earthquake) occurs and which present a potential risks for health, nature, flora
and existing fauna. The methods of rehabilitation are in continuous development.
Figure 43: The site of the faculty building and his balance with the environment
Measures in and after the earthquake

In and after the earthquake the activities are focused on the search and rescue of the victims and for
give them first aid. Hereby, the formations of civil protection have an essential role in the efficient
organization of all activities.
186
Figure 44: Plane view of the post-seismic disposition
Immediately is passed to the extinction of fires, to the clearing of accesses and to the verification of
the water and gas installations.
For the people suffering from calamity are assured the temporary refuge in tents camps and are
delivered water, food, clothes and beds.
Afterwards is removed the rubbish from the damaged buildings and are given into use the
communication lines.
Finally, shall take measures for the rehabilitation of the damaged environment through the replant of
the vegetation where it was damaged.
The environment damaged by the natural catastrophes (earthquakes), although it shall be restored it
never will be the same.
Conclusion
Periodical check of university buildings in accordance with the codes of seismic protection is
necessary to plan the appropriate structural interventions.
The study case presented by the paper has shown that for the faculty buildings the structural
interventions have raised rather little the seismic protection. Indeed, the seismic risk of all three bodies
increased from class II to class III while the stiffness of the body A increased with 32% and that of
body B (C) with 20%, what is rather little.
Fortunately, the environment of the study case analysed allows to be organised according to the
requirements for emergency situations.
Acknowledgement
The paper was coordinated by Proffesor Ramiro A. Sofronie as doctoral supervisor of the authors.
Static and dynamic analysis of faculty structure was carried out with the aid of the computing program.
187
References
1. Cod de proiectare seismică – Partea I: Prevederi de proiectare pentru cladiri, Indicativ P100-1:2004.
2. ENV 1998 Eurocode 8 - Design of structures for earthquake resistance.
3. Ifrim, M., (1973), Analiza dinamica a structurilor si inginerie seismica, Ed. Didactica si Pedagogica,
Bucuresti.
4. ISO 13822:2001, Bases for design of structures - Assessment of existing structures.
5. Perera, R., Torres, R., (2005), Structural damage assessment using genetic algorithms, Proceedings of
the 9th International Conference on Inspection, Appraisal, Repairs and Maintenance of Structures, 347
352.
6. Stovel, H., (1998), Risk Preparedness: A Management Manual for World Cultural Heritage, ICCROM,
Rome.
188
Atmosphere pollution evaluation in Bulgarian industrial region

Rosalina Chuturkova, Petar Todorov
Technical University – Varna, Sea Science and Ecology Faculty, Department of Ecology and
Environmental Protection
Bulgaria, Varna 9002, “Silistra” str., № 4, entr. A, apt. 9, e-mail:chuturkova@hotmail.com
Abstract
During the period 1998 – 2003, there was made an investigation of atmospheric air pollution in a region with
intensive chemistry industry in Bulgaria – Devnia town. The main sources of pollution are nitrogen and
phosphorus fertilizers, calcinated soda factory, cement factory, chlorine and chlorine products factory and
steam power plant “Deven”. The next pollution agents were estimated in 3 stations: CO, O3, PM10, H2S,
SO2, and aerosols of H2SO4, NO2 and NH3. There were used automatic analyzers and active sample-taking
methods. Investigation results show that the main pollution agents in the region are NH3 and PM10. Average
year concentrations of NH3 in “Povelianovo” station – near to the nitrogen fertilizers factory – vary from 1.72
to 2.4 times above maximal concentration allowed by law, and from 1.1 to 2 times more for “Devnia” station.
The average year concentrations of PM10 are higher – from 1.1 to 3.4 times above allowed maximal
concentration – measured at the central part of the industry region. There is a tendency for increase of H2S
concentrations – from 1.6 to 3.3 times more at the end of 2003. Concentrations of other polluting agents are
in norm or a little bit higher. A program was made, and there are map out some steps for making better the
quality of atmospheric air in the industrial region.
Introduction
At the National environmental action plan – health in Bulgaria, Devnia city is definite as a “hot spot”
with high concentrations of atmospheric pollutants, endanger the health and prosperity of the
population living at this area. Devnia is a region with intensively developed chemical industry. On
the territory of Devnia city are located combine for nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers production,
calcinated soda factory, chlorine and chlorine products production factory, cement factory and also
thermo-electric power-station “Deven”. The problems of the most of the hot spots in Bulgaria are as
a result of emissions of nitrogen and sulfur oxides, H2S, ammonia, total suspended dust and
ultrafine particles (10 micron diameter) PM10.
At the industrial region with a significant pollution of the atmospheric air there have been made
many research activities for determination of the effect of polluting components at the health
condition of the exposed population. There are estimated correlations between atmospheric air
pollution with SO2, H2SO4, dust, ammonia NH3, nitrogen dioxide NO2, and diseases of the
respiratory system (sharp and chronic bronchitis, asthma, sharp infections of upper respiratory
ways), coronary-vascular system deceases, blood producing system, and also diseases of skin
and new formations. (1 – 6).
With help of the National system for control, observation and information about the condition of the
environment in Bulgaria parallel with the local monitoring system for atmospheric air , are
registered for a continues period of time above the standard concentrations of the typical polluting
agents for the atmospheric air for these regions.
The goal of this research is to do estimation of the atmospheric air quality at the industrial region of
Devnia for the period 1998 – 2003 and as a result of that to be created a program for minimizing
the level of emissions and reaching of prescribed standards for polluting components in the
atmospheric air.
189
Methodology
There was made an atmosphere air monitoring at Devnia city in 1 permanent automatic station,
part of the National system for the environmental monitoring of the air, and also at two stations with
active methods for sample collecting and standardized methodology for analysis, part of the local
monitoring system. The automatic station “Izvorite” in Devnia is located in the central part of the
city, nearby one of the biggest industrial polluting sources – the cement factory. The stations from
the local monitoring system for the air quality are located by the following way: In Devnia city,
station “Povelianovo” is closest to the factory for production of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers.
Station “Devnia” is located 5 km away from the industrial facilities, on the territory of the city.
The permanent automatic station “Izvorite” is equipped with the counting and register equipment
“SFI” France. It is build as a stationary informative measurement station with 24 hours working
regime. It is equipped with automatic gas analyzers “Monitor Labs” for non-stop control of the
atmosphere air quality; the results enter every single minute into the data base and have been
concentrated every hour. Sample taking is realized at height of 2.5 meters from the earth surface.
The survey include period 1998 – 2003, and during it we will discuss the next polluting agents
included into the National and local monitoring systems. Namely: SO2, H2S, H2SO4 aerosols, NO2,
NH3, CO, O3 and PM10. Parallel with that there have been made observation of the background
data for the meteorological conditions in to the grounded layer: direction, wind speed, air
temperature and humidity, atmospheric pressure, and sun radiation.
Achievement results are compared with the limit concentrations, regarding to the decree for the
maximal limit concentration (MLC) of polluting components in to the atmosphere air (7 – 10) and
the results are statistically processed by using the variation analysis method.

The results from the atmosphere air monitoring at the industrial region Devnia shows that
concentrations of NH3 in the stations for manual sample taking from the local monitoring system
are very high and all the time over the limit concentration, during the whole investigation period.
(See figure 1). At station “Povelqnovo” the values of NH3 reach 1.9 times above the MLC for the
1998. These values are followed by slightly reducing to 1.7 times at 2000, sudden rising to 2.4
times at 2001, and around 2003 the concentrations of NH3 varies around 2.3 times MLC (MLC =
0.05 mg/m3). Also above the limit, but not so much are the intermediate year concentrations of
NH3 at station “Devnia”. At 1998 pollution is similar to the pollution at the first station – up to 1.9
times MLC. Here also we can see reducing of the concentrations around 2000 – up to 1.1 times
MLC. Rising at 2002 shows values up to 2 times MLC, and around 2003, the intermediate year
concentrations exceed the limit concentration 1.6 times.
High levels of NH3 at Devnia city are as a result of huge number of emission sources: ammonia
production, stable ammonium saltpeter, liquid nitrogen fertilizer – at the combine for nitrogen
fertilizers and calcinated soda by using ammonia method of Solvej.
The data from the automatic monitoring station “Izvorite” shows that the intermediate year
concentrations of PM10 are above the limit concentration during the whole period of research
(figure 2). Concentrations vary from 49.08 µg/m3 to 151.96 µg/m3, and exceed the standard from
1.1 to 3.4 times. Intermediate year standard for PM10 plus admissible diversion (IYS + AD),
regulated with normative documents in Bulgaria is 45 µg/m3. The highest levels are at year 2000 –
159.93 µg/m3, and slowly is visible slowing down of the concentrations and around year 2003 the
levels of PM10 reach values 2.3 times above IYS + AD.
190
Atmospheric air pollution with NH3 from the stations from the local
monitoring system
0,12
0,12 0,114
0,096 0,104
0,098 0,1
0,1 0,093
0,086
0,082
0,08 0,078
0,064
mg/m3 0,06 0,055
0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05
0,04
0,02
0
1998. 1999. 2000. 2001. 2002. 2003.
Years
Station "Povelianovo" Station "Devnia" Maximal Limit Concentration
Fig.1
Atmosphere air pollution with PM10 at the automatic station "Izvorite"
160 151,93
140 135,02
120
100,79 101,09
100
83,61
µg/m3
80
60 49,08
45 45 45 45 45 45
40
20
0
1998. 1999. 2000. 2001. 2002. 2003.
Years
Station "Izvorite" IYS + AD
Fig.2
High levels of PM10 at the region of very high developed chemical industry – Devnia - are as a
result mainly of burning processes, industrial sources and automobile transport. At Devnia city
there is very intensive traffic formed by lorry vehicles, transporting everyday coals and coke from
the port to the cement factory, and also the main raw materials for production in nitrogen and
phosphorus fertilizers factories – phosphoritus and apatitus.
The high concentrations of PM10 at the atmosphere air at the industrial region are connected
mainly with existing of cement industry, quarry for production of limestone – which is the main raw
191
material for the calcinated soda factory – “Solvej sodi” and the huge number of lorry vehicles for
transporting of row materials and production to the factories from the Devnia industrial complex.
The results from the atmosphere air monitoring at the stations for manual sample taking shows that
the pollution with SO2 at Devnia city is considerably below the limit concentration (0.05 mg/m3) for
the whole period of research. Intermediate year concentrations at station “Povelqnovo” varies from
0.0002 mg/m3 up to 0.0034 mg/m3 for the sixth year period of examination. For station “Devnia”,
values vary from 0.00006 up to 0.0050 mg/m3. Sulfur dioxide is a pollutant which shows clearly
visible seasonable dynamics. Data shows that pollution of atmosphere air with SO2 is definitely
higher for the cold months of the year regarding to the hot ones. This dynamics is typical and for
both monitoring stations. The results for station "Povelqnovo” shows that concentrations of SO2
during the winter months varies from 0.0016 mg/m3 up to 0.0065 mg/m3, and for the summer
months of the year are significantly lower – from 0.00023 up to 0.0014 mg/m3, as the differences
are with high statistical significance (0.01 ≤ P ≤ 0.05)(Figure 3). Analogical seasonal dynamics can
be seen and at station “Devnia”. Concentrations of SO2 during the cold season of the year – varies
from zero up to 0.0018 mg/m3, and at this case also the differences are with high statistical
importance (0.02 ≤ P ≤ 0.05) (Figure 4).
Seasonal dynamic of SO2 at station "Povelianovo"
Cold period Hot period Maximal limit concentration
0,007 0,06
0,0065
0,006
0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05
0,005
0,0043 0,04
0,004
0,004
mg/m3
mg/m3
0,03
0,003
0,0023
0,0019 0,02
0,002 0,0016
0,0014
0,0009 0,0008 0,01
0,001 0,0006
0,0004
0,00023
0 0
1998. 1999. 2000. 2001. 2002. 2003.
Years
Fig. 3
Clearly visible seasonable dynamics make sulfur dioxide typical air pollutant at Devina city during
the cold months of the year. For that helps mainly SO2 emissions from thermo-electric power-
station “Deven”, which use mainly brown coal with high sulfur concentration. Except that, also we
have SO2 emissions from steam plants at the city, local heating boilers, home heating by burning
of hard and liquid fuels with high sulfur content.
The results from the monitoring of the atmosphere air at the automatic station “Izvorite” shows that
pollution with H2S is relatively low at the beginning of the research it varies from 0.0027 mg/m3 up
to 0.0054 mg/m3 by limit concentration of 0.0080 mg/m3 up to year 2001. (Figure 5). With decree
for changing and rider of decree № 14 for standards for maximal allowed concentrations of harmful
materials in to the atmosphere air of the built-up areas (An official gazette issue 8/2002) the
standard for H2S have been changed to 0.0030 mg/m3. The data for the year 2002 shows that the
intermediate year concentration of H2S is 0.0047 mg/m3 and that means exceeding of the limit
concentration 1.6 times. Concentration of H2S during year 2003 is still high, and reaches 0.0100
mg/m3, exceeding the standard 3.3 times. These concentrations exceed even the previous
standard of 0.0080 mg/m3. This rising tendency of pollution of the atmospheric air with H2S is as a
192
result mainly of industrial sources at the industrial region and also of Thermo-electric power-plant
“Deven”. It is necessary the research to be continued and to be followed the tendency of air
pollution with H2S, which will help easily to be found the sources of pollution for the region.
Seasonal dynamic of SO2 at station "Devnia"
Cold period Hot period Maximal limit concentration
0,01 0,06
0,0088
0,009
0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05
0,008
0,007
0,04
0,006 0,0056
mg/m3
mg/m3
0,005 0,03
0,004
0,02
0,003 0,0025
0,0018
0,002 0,0014
0,001 0,01
0,001 0,00042
0,000120 0 0 0
0 0
1998. 1999. 2000. 2001. 2002. 2003.
Years
Fig. 4
Atmospheric air pollution with H2S at the automatic station “Izvorite”
0,012
0,01
0,01
0,008 0,008 0,008 0,008 0,008

mg/m3
0,006 0,0054
0,0047
0,004 0,0032 0,0029 0,0027

0,003 0,003
0,002
0
1998. 1999. 2000. 2001. 2002. 2003.
Years
Station "Izvorite" Maximal Limit Concentration
Fig. 5
Point of interest is also pollution of the atmosphere air with the secondary polluting agent ozone.
Data from the automatic monitoring station “Izvorite” shows that at the beginning of the research
193
there is descending tendency with pollution and the intermediate year concentrations with O3
varies from 34.26 µg/m3 in 1998 up to 11.50 µg/m3 in 2000, by standard of 100 µg/m3 (Figure 6).
After year 2001 there is a visible rising tendency of pollution with O3, and at 2003 intermediate year
concentration reaches up to 64.10 µg/m3. Rising with the pollution in the last years is with high
statistical significance; nevertheless the concentrations are below the standard till the end of the
research (0.001 ≤ P ≤ 0.01).
Atmospheric air pollution with O3 at the automatic station “Izvorite”
120
100 100 100 100 100 100 100
80
64,1
3
µg/m
60
40 34,26
20,02 18,94
20 15,37
11,5
0
1998. 1999. 2000. 2001. 2002. 2003.
Years
Station "Izvorite" Maximal Limit Concentration
Fig. 6
The results of atmospheric air pollution with CO at the automatic monitoring station “Izvorite” show
that for the whole period of the research intermediate year concentrations of CO are significantly
below statutory standard and varies from 1.00 mg/m3 up to 3.48 mg/m3 by limit concentration of 10
mg/m3. Pollution with CO is not a concern for the air surroundings of the Devnia region for the
present period.
Data for aerosols of H2SO4 at the monitoring stations with hand-sample taking shows that the
intermediate year concentrations at station “Povelianovo” varies from 0.019 mg/m3 up to 0.092
mg/m3 and didn’t exceed the limit concentration of 0.100 mg/m3 during the whole period. At the
other station from the local monitoring system “Devnia” intermediate year concentrations of
aerosols of H2SO4 are higher and are at the borders from 0.028 mg/m3 up to 0.112 mg/m3 at 2001,
exceeding the standard only during this year 1.12 times. After year 2001 there is visible reducing of
the pollution and the concentration at 2003 are very low – 0.041 mg/m3. Research shows that up to
this moment air pollution with aerosols of H2SO4 is not a problem for the industrial region Devnia.
The results of the atmosphere air monitoring at the stations of the local monitoring system shows
that the intermediate year concentrations of NO2 at station “Povelianovo” are at the interval from
0.0030 mg/m3 up to 0.0157 mg/m3, and at station “Devnia” they are even lower and varies from
0.0006 mg/m3 up to 0.0080mg/m3. These extremely low concentrations represent NO2 as a non
typical polluting agent for the air at the region of Devnia for the studied period.
As a result of accomplished research at the industrial region of Devnia there was made a program
for minimizing of the emissions of pollutants at the atmosphere air with concentrations above the
standards. The program have been passed by program council and at the municipality council of
the municipality Devnia, and after financing it will be put into effect.
194
Conclusion
There are estimated high levels of atmospheric air pollution with NH3. Intermediate year
concentrations of NH3 varies from 1.72 up to 2.4 times above the limit concentration for station
“Povelianovo”, from the locam monitoring system, located nearby to the factory for production of
nitrogen fertilizers, and from 1.1 up to 2 times above the limit concentrations for station “Devnia”.
Concentrations of PM10 are very high at the industrial region Devnia for the whole research period
1998 – 2003 and reached from 1.1 up to 3.4 times above the limit concentrations, at the station
located at the central part of the industrial region.
There is a visible tendency of raising of pollution with H2S at 2003 – from 1.6 up to 3.3 times above
the limit concentration.
There is made a program for minimizing of the emissions of pollutants with levels above the limit
concentrations and reaching of the prescribed standards for harmful components in to the
atmosphere air.
References
1. Chuturkova R., Yu. Yosifova, Z. Zlatev, S. Popova. Assessment of the correlation between the
atmospheric air pollution and the health risk of the population.- In: Proc . IV. Internat. Symp. Exhib. Environ.
Contam. in Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, 15-17.IX.1998. Tallahassee, FL, Florida State University,
CD Edition, Manuscript No 250.
2. Chuturkova R., M. Mandev, V, Bozhilova. Assessment of Ultrafine particles levels in the atmospheric air
of the towns of Devnya and of Varna.- Annu. Proc. Int. Med. Assoc. Bulg., 2001, 7, No 2.
3. Kikuchi R.Emvironmental management of sulfur oxides emission: impact of SO2 on human health. -
Environ Manage, 2001, 27, No 6, 837-844.
4. Sunyer J., Saez M. Murillo C. Air pollution and emergency room admission for chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease: 5-year study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 1993, 137, No7, 701-705.
5. Turnovska T. About the reflection of the industrial disease over the combined effecxts of the air
pollution. -Annu. Proc. Int. Med. Assoc. Bulg., 1997, 3, No1, 200-202.
6. Zhang J., Song H., Li L. Ambient sulfate concentration and chronic disease mortality. -Sci. Total
Environ., 2000, 262, No 1-2, 63-71.
7. Decree № 14 for standards for maximal limit concentrations of hazards components at the atmospheric
air at the build-up areas (OG, issue 88/1998).
8. Decree for changing and rider of decree № 14 for standards for maximal allowed concentrations of
harmful materials in to the atmosphere air of the built-up areas (An official gazette issue 8/2002).
9. Decree № 8 for standards for ozone at the atmosphere air (An official gazette issue 46/1999)
10. Decree № 9 for standards for sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, PM10 and Pb in to the atmosphere air (An
official gazette issue 46/1999)
195
Evaluation of shoreline change rate methods using forecasting and

hindcasting
Efstratios Doukakis
National Technical University of Athens, Marine Sciences 9, Iroon Polytechniou Str. Higher
Geodesy Laboratory, 15780 Zografos/Athens/Greece, Tel: 210-7722707 Fax: 210-7722670, Email:
edouk@central.ntua.gr
Abstract
Shoreline change rate is the most critical feature of the coastal area because it reveals future harmful
impacts driven by long-term climate changes and episodic events. Since the coastal zone is one of a nation’s
greatest environmental and economic assets, the best methodology, as far as accuracy is concerned,
estimating the rate of change of a shoreline is an open question. The accuracy both of the geoinformation
used and the computed change rate is of crucial importance. The purpose of the present paper is to
introduce synthetic shorelines (computer-derived) with a predetermined true slope (change rate) and
compare the computed change rate to the true one. The most common traditional statistical methods are
used, i.e. end of point rate, average of rates, average of eras rate, linear regression and Jackknife. The error
in position (EIP) of each methodology indicates its accuracy. By removing the latest synthetic shoreline and
predicting its position, we can infer which method is more accurate. This is the forecasting case. Hindcasting
is just the opposite. By omitting the position of the earliest shoreline, we predict it backwards by all methods.
It should be mentioned here that the historical shorelines are usually of poorer accuracy. It is concluded that
the estimated error in position is worse in forecasting than hindcasting and the most accurate from the
traditional methods is the linear regression one.
Introduction
Before climate change emerged as an academic problem, vulnerability and coastal evolution as
such were not important concepts in coastal research. Traditionally, research in coastal zones has
been conducted mainly by geologists, ecologists and engineers. Geologists study the coastal
sedimentation patters and the consequent dynamic processes of erosion and accretion over
different spatial and temporal scales. Ecologists study the occurrence, diversity and functioning of
coastal flora and fauna from the species to the ecosystem level. Finally, the engineers take a risk-
based approach, assessing the probability of occurrence of storm surges and other extreme events
that could jeopardize the integrity of the coast and the safety of coastal communities. Nevertheless,
the challenge of climate change has brought the collaboration between these three groups of
coastal scientists and since 1990 a number of major efforts have been made to develop guidelines
and methodologies for assessing coastal vulnerability to climate change, which combined the
expertise of the three disciplines together with economics. Many involved in these efforts were
unaware of the long history of vulnerability assessment in other disciplines, particularly the social
sciences. In social-science research on poverty, food security and natural hazards, vulnerability is
also interpreted in terms of potential harm and capacity to cope, but studies tend to focus in more
depth on particular groups and communities within a society. In 1992 the former Coastal Zone
Management Subgroup of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) published the
latest version of its Common Methodology for Assessing the Vulnerability of Coastal Areas to Sea-
Level Rise [3]. It comprises seven consecutive analytical steps that allow for the identification of
populations and physical and natural resources at risk, and the costs and feasibility of possible
responses to adverse impacts. Studies that used the Common Methodology were meant to serve
as preparatory assessments, identifying priority regions and priority sectors and providing an initial
screening of the feasibility and effect of coastal protection measures. They have been successful in
raising awareness of the potential magnitude of climate change and its possible consequences in
coastal zones. They have thus provided a motivation for implementing policies and measures to
control greenhouse gas emissions and they have encouraged long-term thinking and triggered
more detailed local coastal studies in areas identified as particularly vulnerable, the results of
which have contributed to coastal planning and management.
196
Over geologic time scales, changes in sea level occur in two distinct ways: tectonic changes
related to the rate of sea-floor spreading and climatic changes related to the glacial events.
Tectonic events occur over time spans on hundreds of thousands to millions years and can involve
a sea-level change on the order of 100 m or less. Tectonic variations in sea-level occur when the
rate of mid-ocean ridge formation and related sea-floor spreading change. Superimposed on these
longer term sea-level fluctuations are glacially induced changes, basically caused by the net
removal of water from the ocean (via evaporation) to produce (via precipitation) advancing ice
sheets on land. Sea-level falls during glacial times (as glaciers form) and rises (as the glaciers
melt) during interglacial times.
The shoreline location and the changing position of this boundary through time are of significant
importance to coastal scientists, engineers and managers. Both coastal management and
engineering design require information about where the shoreline is, where it has been in the past
and where it is predicted to be in the future. The first information is related to the extraction of the
present shoreline from land or aerial mapping techniques. The second information has to do with
the historical shoreline depicted on topographic sheets, aerial photographs etc. The third
information answers the problem of the future shoreline involving statistical or mathematical
techniques to compute the annual shoreline change rate. Consequently, the method or methods
which can estimate rigorously and accurately the shoreline future projection is (are) of crucial
importance to the coastal managers and engineers.
Methods of shoreline position prediction

The movement of the shoreline over time usually consists of a predictable component of variation
that can be regarded as the signal and a short-term variation or noise. The signal can be computed
using the influence of long-term phenomena, such as a rise in sea-level or the shift in natural
sediment supply. Short-term variations can be also emerged ranging from days to seasons.
Meanwhile, both the long- and short-term trends are discernible, although it may be difficult to
determine if the processes responsible for these changes function independently or dependently.
Nevertheless, the estimation of the long-term depends on the purpose of the investigation, the
availability of data and the temporal variability of the shoreline under study. Unfortunately, since
few shorelines are undergoing changes at a constant and uniform rate, the time interval is an
important consideration. Obviously, the longer the time interval and the accuracy of the available
data the better the estimation of the future shoreline.
All methods used to calculate shoreline rates of change involve measuring the differences between
shoreline positions through time. In the present work, five of the traditional methods able to
compute the shoreline change rate are presented, tested and compared by using hindcast and
forecast of past and future shorelines respectively.
End of Point Rate (EPR)

The EPR method uses only two data points to estimate the shoreline change rate, namely, the
earliest and most recent shoreline positions. All intermediate positions are not taken into account,
although present and available. Since the earliest shoreline position is very back in time, that
means that erroneous positions can influence the calculated change rate accordingly.
Nevertheless, combinations of shoreline data can be used to better determine the change rate and
use the total shoreline positional information. Given n shoreline positions, then n(n-1)/2 end point
rates can be calculated and then averaged to compute the change rate along the transects [2]. In
this case, the standard variation uncertainty of end point rates calculated is given by [2]:
σEPR = (√2) σobs / (Ti – Tj) eq. (1)
where, Ti is the initial year and Tj the last year.
Average of Rates (AOR)
AOR method calculates individual EPRs from the shoreline position data when more than two
shoreline positions are available. EPRs are calculated between any combination of two shorelines.
197
Not all shorelines can participate in the EPRs calculation unless they pass the minimum time
criterion, namely [1]:
Tmin = [(√ (E12 + E22))]/R1 eq. (2)
where E1 and E2 are the measurement errors in the first and second point respectively and R1 is
the EPR of the longest time span for a particular transect. Only EPRs that survive the minimum
time span can participate in the shoreline change rate estimation. Consequently, small rates in the
denominator of eq. 1 produce long minimum time spans. If this happens, many consecutive
shorelines cannot participate in the EPR determination since the minimum time span is not fulfilled.
This is a disadvantage of the method and can eventually result in a simple EPR method.
Average of Eras Rates (AER)

AER is just like AOR except that consecutive shorelines are used each time.
Linear Regression (LR)
The entire sample of the given shorelines is participating in this method. Positions along a transect
of the shorelines are mapped on an XY coordinate system, where along the X-axis are the years
and along Y-axis the positions of the shorelines. The line which best fits the positions is the
regression line and its slope is the change rate along the specific transect (Fig. 1).
0 year
1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
-5
-10
Position (m)
-15
-20
-25
-30
y = -0.42x + 812.61
R2 = 0.98
Fig. 1. The linear regression line
The slope of the regression line or the shoreline change rate along a transect is given by [1]:
n n n
n ⋅ ∑ xi yi − ∑ xi ∑ y i
ρ = i=1 i=1 i=1
2
eq. (3)
n
⎛ ⎞ n
n ⋅ ∑ x − ⎜ ∑ xi ⎟
2
i
i=1 ⎝ i=1 ⎠
198
where, n is the number of shorelines, χi the years and ψi the shoreline positions. The transects
along the historical shorelines are shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Transecting the shorelines for Linear Regression computation
We have to underline here that as soon the shorelines positions are clustered some shorelines
(dates) will have more influence on the regression line than others. It is well known that historical
shorelines are dated back several decades and include positional errors much greater than recent
shorelines (e.g. satellite imaginary). Rates computed from these kinds of data include great
uncertainties.
Jackknife (JK)
Jackknife is just like Linear Regression but the change rate along a given transect is computed
using all combinations of the n shorelines omitting one at each iteration. Both methods are purely
computational, include all available data and have statistical meaning. Nevertheless, the JK
method has a lot of computational burden in case of many available shorelines.
Comparison of computational methods

Extracted shorelines for maps, aerial photographs, satellite imaginary, Lidar etc. possess errors
that cannot be omitted even if great care is invested on the extraction procedure. That means that
the true shoreline change rate is not known and cannot be by any means. If we want to compare
methods of computing the change rate, it is then impossible to do that. This is the innovation of the
present work. We create synthetic shorelines, that is, shorelines created by a computer which do
not have any positional errors. Then the true rate is known and using the computational methods
we can compare their ability to compute the true rate.
The comparison of methods is accomplished using forecasting and hindcasting. In the first case,
we omit the latest shoreline and the methods compute its position, and in the second case we omit
the earliest shoreline and do the same.
199
Comparison of methods using forecasting

We create eight synthetic shorelines from 1945 to 1997 (the 1997 shoreline is to be forecasted)
with the following scales and errors in their extraction and position in Y-axis (Table 1):
Shoreline scale positional error (m) shoreline position (m)

1945 1/42000 -42 0
1960 1/15000 -15 10
1972 1/30000 -30 16
1978 1/5000 -5 52
1985 1/30000 -30 39
1990 1/20000 -20 57
1994 1/500 -0.5 83.5
Table 1. Synthetic shorelines: scales, errors and position
In Fig. 3, the synthetic shorelines are positioned in time and distance.
100
90
80 1994 1997
83.5 81
SHORELINE POSITION (m)
70
60 1990
1978 57
50 52
40 1985
39
30
20 1972
16
10 1960
1945 10
0
0
1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005
YEAR
Fig. 3. Shorelines in time and space
The true (computer created) rate of change is computed as 1.72 m/y. Next, we will compute the rate of
change using the above methods.
200
Shoreline change rate by EPR

The first shoreline is the 1945 and the last 1994 and the total positional displacement is 83.5m.
Thus, EPR calculates the change rate as: ρEPR = 83.5/49 = 1.70 m/y.
Shoreline change rate by AOR
The combinations of all given shorelines estimate the change rate as:
1945 - 1960: ρ = 0.67 1960 - 1972: ρ = 0.5 1972 - 1978: ρ = 6

1945 - 1972: ρ = 0.59 1960 - 1978: ρ = 2.33 1972 - 1985: ρ = 1.77
1945 - 1978: ρ = 1.58 1960 - 1985: ρ = 1.16 1972 - 1990: ρ = 2.28
1945 - 1985: ρ = 0.98 1960 - 1990: ρ = 1.57 1972 - 1994: ρ = 3.07
1945 - 1990: ρ = 1.27 1960 - 1994: ρ = 2.16
1945 -1994: ρ = 1.70
1978 - 1985: ρ = -1.86 1985 - 1990: ρ = 3.6 1990 - 1994: ρ = 6.63

1978 - 1990: ρ = 0.42 1985 - 1994: ρ = 4.94 1990 - 1997: ρ = 3.43
1978 - 1994: ρ = 1.97
The averaging of the results calculates the change rate as 2.13 m/y.
Shoreline change rate by AER

Consecutive shorelines estimate the change rate as:
1945 - 1960: ρ = 0.67
1960 - 1972: ρ = 0.5
1972 - 1978: ρ = 6
1978 - 1985: ρ = -1.86
1985 - 1990: ρ = 3.6
1990 - 1994: ρ = 6.63
and finally, the change rate is averaged to 1.27 m/y.
Shoreline change rate using LR
First we form the terms of eq. (3) as following:
Σ ψi • χi = ψ1 • χ1 + ψ2 • χ2 + ψ3 • χ3 + ψ4 • χ4 + ψ5 • χ5 + ψ6 • χ6 = 10514.5
Σ ψi = ψ1 + ψ2 + ψ3 + ψ4 + ψ5 + ψ6 = 257.5
Σ χi = χ1 + χ2 + χ3 + χ4 + χ5 + χ6 = 209
Σ χi2 = χ12 + χ22 + χ32 + χ42 + χ52 + χ62 = 8069
( Σ χi )2 = ( χ1 + χ2 + χ3 + χ4 + χ5 + χ6 )2 = 43681
Using eq. (3) the change rate is computed 1.55 m/y.
Shoreline change rate using JK

For n=6 and using again eq. (3), we compute the change rate for each combination of the
shorelines as:
Σ ψi • χi = 6423 , Σ ψi = 174 , Σ χi = 160 , Σ χi2 = 5668 , ( Σ χi )2 = 25600
201
The combination of the six remaining shorelines leaving one each time (1994, 1990, 1985, 1978,
1972, 1960 and 1945 respectively) gives the following partial change rates:
ρ = 1.27 , ρ = 1.58 , ρ = 1.64 , ρ = 1.52 , ρ = 1.52 , ρ = 1.50 and ρ = 1.96 m/y.
Then the averaged shoreline change rate is calculated as 1.57 m/y. In Fig. 4, the true slope
(correct change rate) is compared with the calculated change rate by each method.
2.59
2.5
2.13
2
1.72 1.7
1.57 1.55
(m/yr)
1.5
0.5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6
TS EPR JK LR AOR. AER
Fig. 4. True slope (TS) versus estimated change rate of synthetic shorelines
Next, using the above derived change rates we predict the 1997 shoreline by multiplying the three
years difference (1997-1994) by the estimated change rate from each method. The results are
depicted in Fig. 5.
202
positional difference between actual and predicted shorelines

0
1 2 3 4 5
-2
-4
-6
(m)
-7.15 -7.21
-8 -7.6
-8.89
-10
-10.27
-12
LR JK EPR AOR AER
Fig. 5. Positional differences derived between the actual and predicted 1997 shoreline using
different methods
Comparison of methods using hindcasting

The same synthetic shorelines will be used again. Meanwhile the first shoreline (that of 1945) is
omitted and it has to be predicted using the computational methodologies. The following data
describe the synthetic shorelines used (Table 2):
Shoreline scale positional error (m) shoreline position (m)

1960 1/15000 -15 0
1972 1/30000 -30 -10
1978 1/5000 -5 26
1985 1/30000 -30 13
1990 1/20000 -20 31
1994 1/500 -0.5 57.5
1997 1/8000 -8 56
Table 2. Synthetic shorelines: scales, errors and position
In Fig. 6, the synthetic shorelines are positioned in time and distance.
203
80
60
1994 1997
57.5 81
SHORELINE POSITION (m)
40
1990
1978 31
26
20
1985
1960 13
0
0
1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005
1972
-10
-20
-40
YEAR
Fig. 6. Shorelines in time and space
The true (computer created) rate of change is computed as 1.72 m/y. Next, we will compute the rate of
change using the above methods.
Shoreline change rate by EPR
The time difference between the first (1960) and the last shoreline (1997) is 37 years and the
positional difference is 56 m (Table 2). Thus the change rate is 1.51 m/y
Shoreline change rate by AOR
The combinations of all given shorelines estimate the change rate as:
1960 - 1972: ρ = -0,83 1972 - 1978: ρ = 6.00 1978 - 1985: ρ = -1,86

1960 - 1978: ρ = 1.44 1972 - 1985: ρ = 1.77 1978 - 1990: ρ = 0.42
1960 - 1985: ρ = 0.52 1972 - 1990: ρ = 2.28 1978 - 1994: ρ = 1.97
1960 - 1990: ρ = 1.03 1972 - 1994: ρ = 3.07 1978 - 1997: ρ = 1.58
1960 - 1994: ρ = 1.69 1972 - 1997: ρ = 2.64
1960 - 1997: ρ = 1.51
204
1985 - 1990: ρ = 3.60 1990 - 1994: ρ = 6.63 1994 - 1997: ρ = -0.50

1985 - 1994: ρ = 4.94 1990 - 1997: ρ = 3.57
1985 - 1997: ρ = 3.58
The averaging of the results calculates the change rate as 2.15 m/y.
Shoreline change rate by AER
Consecutive shorelines estimate the change rate as:
1960 - 1972: ρ = -0.83

1972 - 1978: ρ = 6.00
1978 - 1985: ρ = -1.86
1985 - 1990: ρ = 3.60
1990 - 1994: ρ = 6.63
1994 - 1997: ρ = -0.50
and finally, the change rate is averaged to 2.17 m/y.
Shoreline change rate using LR
First we form the terms of eq. (3) as following:
Σ ψi • χi = ψ1 • χ1 + ψ2 • χ2 + ψ3 • χ3 + ψ4 • χ4 + ψ5 • χ5 + ψ6 • χ6 = 5630
Σ ψi = ψ1 + ψ2 + ψ3 + ψ4 + ψ5 + ψ6 = 173.7
Σ χi = χ1 + χ2 + χ3 + χ4 + χ5 + χ6 = 156
Σ χi2 = χ12 + χ22 + χ32 + χ42 + χ52 + χ62 = 4518
( Σ χi )2 = ( χ1 + χ2 + χ3 + χ4 + χ5 + χ6 )2 = 24336
Using eq. (3) the change rate is computed 1.69 m/y.
Shoreline change rate using JK

For n=6 and using again eq. (3), we compute the change rate for each combination of the
shorelines as:
Σ ψi • χi = 3558 , Σ ψi = 117.5 , Σ χi = 119 , Σ χi2 = 3149 , ( Σ χi )2 = 14161
The combination of the six remaining shorelines leaving one each time (1997, 1994, 1990, 1985,
1978, 1972, 1960 respectively) gives the following partial change rates:
ρ = 1.70 , ρ = 1.49 , ρ = 1.76 , ρ = 1.74 , ρ = 1.73 , ρ = 1.47 and ρ = 2.42 m/y.
Then the averaged shoreline change rate is calculated as 1.76 m/y. In Fig. 7, the true slope
(correct change rate) is compared with the calculated change rate by each method.
205
2.5
2.15 2.17
2
1.72 1.76
1.69
1.51
1.5
(m/yr)
0.5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6
TS JK LR EPR AOR AER
Fig. 7. True slope (TS) versus estimated change rate of synthetic shorelines
Next, using the above derived change rates we predict the 1945 shoreline by multiplying the fifteen
years difference (1960-1945) by the estimated change rate from each method. The results are
depicted in Fig. 8.
8
positional differences between actual and predicted
6 5.25 5.55
4
shoreline (m)
0
1 2 3 4 5
-0.6
-2
-1.65
-4
-4.35
-6
JK LR EPR AOR AER
Fig. 8. Positional differences derived between the actual and predicted 1997 shoreline using
different methods
Results and conclusions

We introduce synthetic shorelines (computer-derived-errorless) with a known true change rate. To
compare the true slope to the derived slopes (change rates) as they are estimated via the
computational methods, we predict the future shoreline (the last known shoreline) using the
change rates. This accomplishes the forecast case. Working to the opposite direction, we predict
the first shoreline. This is the hindcasting case. From the above given Tables and Figures, the
following results can be summarized:
206
1. The estimated error in position is worse in forecasting than hindcasting. This is quite
reasonable because if one tries to predict an accurate position of a shoreline (as the 1997),
one expects to reach errors outside the small variation of the accurate shoreline. For
example, shoreline position with standard deviation of ± 5.0 m is difficult to predict using the
traditional computational methods. To the opposite, to predict the position of a shoreline
with standard deviation of ± 45.0 is not a difficult task.
2. Linear regression methods prove to be more accurate than the rest traditional methods.
Especially the Jackknife method is the most accurate of all regarding the positional error
both in hindcasting and forecasting. In forecasting, JK predicts the shoreline with 7 m and in
hindcasting with 0.5 m accuracy.
3. From the rest methods, EPR is the best in both forecasting and hindcasting cases. AER is
proved to be very inconsistent as far as the true slope and the shoreline position detection
are concerned. AOR has almost the same as AER behavior.
It is therefore recommended to use the Jackknife method as the method to estimate the future
shoreline position despite its computational burden.
References
1. Dolan, R. et. all (1991): Temporal Analysis of Shoreline Recession and Accretion, Journal of Coastal
Research, Vol. 7, Nr. 3, pp.723-744.
2. Galgano, F. A, and B.C. Douglas (200): Shoreline Position Prediction: Methods and Errors,
Environmental Geoscience, Vol. 7, Nr. 1. pp. 23-31.
3. IPCC CZMS (1992): A common methodology for assessing vulnerability to sea-level rise. Second
revision. In: Global Climate Change and the Rising Challenge of the sea, Report of the Coastal Zone
Management Subgroup, Response Strategies Working Group of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate change, Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management, The Hague, The
Netherlands, Appendix C, 27 pp.
207
Pros and cons of methods assessing the shoreline change

Efstratios Doukakis
National Technical University of Athens, Marine Sciences 9, Iroon Polytechniou Str. Higher
Geodesy Laboratory, 15780 Zografos/Athens/Greece, Tel: 210-7722707 Fax: 210-7722670, Email:
edouk@central.ntua.gr
Abstract
The coastal state uses scientific data in planning, permitting shoreline stabilization and developing a
conceptual understanding of the coastal system. To support these functions, a scientific data collection
programme must provide information. A detailed understanding and predictive capability spanning all time
and space scales would allow for optimally informed decision making. Coastal changes occur temporarily
from seconds to decades and spatially from centimeters to hundreds of kilometers. Therefore, scientific
efforts need to be explicitly directed towards understanding coastal change at scale relevant to the
management state. The evolution of the sub-aerial beach is often of primary interest in coastal management
due to its proximity to valuable coastal properties and infrastructure. A long time series of shoreline position
is often used to project future coastal change. The sub-aerial beach is also one of the most dynamic within
the active coastal zone where tens of meters of shoreline recession can result from a major storm surge
occurring in just few hours. Consequently, predicted future shoreline positions are of limited value without a
detailed understanding of the short-term variability of the sub-aerial morphology. The purpose of this study is
to shortly review all existing methods of assessing shoreline change and to point out their advantages (pros)
and disadvantages (cons). It is concluded that the most rigorous, robust and credible one is the Reweighted
Least Squares method.
Introduction
The overall state of the global climate is largely determined by the balance between the energy the
Earth receives from the sun and the heat, which the Earth releases back to space, called the global
energy balance. Many causes of climate change involve processes that alter the global energy
balance. The enhanced greenhouse effect is a potential cause of climate change because the
extra quantities of greenhouse gases put into the air by mankind trap more heat in the atmosphere.
This upsets the global energy balance and causes a rise in global surface temperature. Although
most scientists agree that global warming is the result of the enhanced greenhouse effect, natural
processes can also upset the global energy balance in this way, causing similar rises in global
temperature.
The natural greenhouse effect keeps the Earth’s surface much warmer that it would be otherwise.
From the end of the last Ice Age, about 10.000 years ago, until the end of the 18th century, the
levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere remained fairly constant [3]. Since the industrial
revolution 200 years ago, mankind has been releasing extra quantities of carbon dioxide, methane,
nutrius oxide etc. into the atmosphere gradually destroying the ozone layer.
During the 20th century, the Earth’s surface warmed by about 0.60 C and climate models are used
to detect a human fingerprint in the climate. If the climate changes in response to an enhanced
greenhouse effect, as current computer models have projected, global average surface
temperature could be anywhere from 1.4 to 5.80 C (with a best estimate of 30 C) higher by the end
of the 21st century [2]. To understand the significance of this temperature increase, one should
mention here that the increase in global average surface temperature, which brought the Earth out
of the last major ice age 14.000 years ago, was of the order of 4 to 50 C. The natural climate
change took thousands of years. Manmade global warming, in contrast, may occur at a rate that is
unprecended on Earth. Moreover, such a rapid change in climate will probably be too great to allow
many ecosystems to adapt and the rate of species extinction will most likely increase. Additionally,
human agriculture, forestry, dry lands, water resources and health will all be affected. Such
208
impacts will be related to changes in precipitation, sea level, shore erosion and frequency and
intensity of extreme weather events resulting from global warming.
The global sea level has already raised by around 10 to 25 cm during the last 100 y. Measuring
past and current changes in sea level, however, is very difficult. There are many potential sources
of error and systematic bias, e.g. the effect of the land itself as it rises and subsides. It is likely that
most of this rise in sea level has been due to the increase in global temperature over the last
century. Global warming should cause the oceans to warm and expand thus increasing sea level.
Climate models indicate that about 25% of the sea level rise (SLR) this century has been due to
thermal expansion of seawater. A second major cause of rising sea level is the melting of the ice
caps. Forecasts of SLR are based on climate models results indicate a rise between 9 and 88 cm
by the end of the 21st century, if emissions of greenhouse gases remain uncontrolled. This
expected rate of 5mm/y is significantly faster than that experienced over the last 100y. It has to be
mentioned at this point that some areas of Antarctica warmed by 2.50 C during the past 50y, a rate
of warming 5 times faster than that of the Earth as a whole.
The world’s coastal zones contain a large part of the world’s population. A considerable portion of
global GDP is produced in coastal zones and they are under continuous urbanization trend. A
range of coastal hazards such as flooding, erosion etc., already threatens these developments.
Human-induced climate change, particularly SLR, is an additional pressure, which will produce
important impacts on coastal areas and interact adversely with all other natural trends. Coastal
zones are constantly changing due to winds, waves, storms, tectonic processes, tides, floods,
long-term changes in sea level, human modification of coastal processes etc. But a shoreline
responds to these forces and events by attempting to move towards equilibrium, where the coastal
ecosystems provide shoreline stabilization and buffering services. Sandy and rocky shores serve
as a first line of defense by mitigating and responding to natural forces.
Erosion is defined as the gradual wearing away of the earth’s surface by the natural forces of wind
and water. For billions of years, seas have been altering and shaping the earth’s shoreline through
erosion or accretion. Damage to shoreline property, public infrastructure and water-dependent
businesses are expected to continue in the absence of effective control measures. Consequently,
individuals, private businesses and the national economy as a whole will suffer significant
economic losses either directly through property damage or indirectly through loss of economic
return.
National policies for reducing the risk of damages of loss due to coastal erosion are essential
elements of any effective coastal management strategy. In view of erosion problems, coastal
programs to regulate development in the hazardous area are vital.
The natural character of sandy beaches is to change shape constantly and to move landward
(retreat) or seaward (advance). The changes are caused by changes in the forces that move the
sand, namely wind, waves and currents, and by the supply of sand. Short and long term relative
sea level changes also control shoreline movement. The setting of the shoreline and the supply of
sand determine how the shoreline changes at a particular location. Setting refers to whether a
beach is sheltered from waves, adjacent to a tidal or storm channel or next to a jetty or seawall. To
understand and predict the rate of change, we need to distinguish between long and short term
and episodic changes and to understand their causes.
Analysis of short term (a few decades) shoreline change records can produce inaccurate results
since the underlying trend may be obscured. Nevertheless, mathematical methods must be
implemented and checked of their performance since in most nations the available geoinformation
starts around the middle of last century. Thus, we have to decide either to wait for a few decades
more in order to collect more geoinformation or to try to coop with the existing one.
209
Shoreline change rate methods

In most applications, the shoreline change rate statistic is expected to reflect a cumulative
summary of the coastal processes which have impacted the coast through time. Many factors
though could affect the accuracy with which the shoreline change rate is computed. The period of
time between the shoreline measurements and their accuracy, the measured shoreline positions,
the temporal variability of the shoreline, the total time period of the measurements and, finally, the
method used to assess the shoreline change rate are some of the most important factors affecting
the precision with which the change rate is deduced. In what follows, we will try to briefly present
all methods capable of estimating the change rate and point out their advantages and
disadvantages.
The surface comparison method (SC)

Given a number of historical shorelines in a coastal area, we compare the first to the last shoreline
disregarding all intermediate shorelines. We sum-up the surfaces of accretion, subtract the
surfaces of recession and the result is divided by the minimum generalized length between the two
shorelines. This computes the annual change rate of the coastal region.
The End Point Rate (EPR)

The EPR method uses only two data points to estimate the shoreline change rate, namely, the
earliest and most recent shoreline positions. All intermediate positions are not taken into account,
although present and available. Since the earliest shoreline position is very back in time that
means that erroneous positions can influence the calculated change rate accordingly.
Nevertheless, combinations of shoreline data can be used to better determine the change rate and
use the total shoreline positional information. Given n shoreline positions, then n (n-1)/2 end point
rates can be calculated and then averaged to compute the change rate along the transects [2]. In
this case, the standard variation uncertainty of end point rates calculated is given by [2]:
σEPR = (√2) σobs / (Ti – Tj) eq. (1)
where, Ti is the initial year and Tj the last year.

AOR method calculates individual EPRs from the shoreline position data when more than two
shoreline positions are available. EPRs are calculated between any combinations of two
shorelines. Not all shorelines can participate in the EPRs calculation unless they pass the
minimum time criterion, namely [1]:
Tmin = [(√ (E12 + E22))]/R1 eq. (2)
where E1 and E2 are the measurement errors in the first and second point respectively and R1 is
the EPR of the longest time span for a particular transect. Only EPRs that survive the minimum
time span can participate in the shoreline change rate estimation. Consequently, small rates in the
denominator of eq. 1 produce long minimum time spans. If this happens, many consecutive
shorelines cannot participate in the EPR determination since the minimum time span is not fulfilled.

AER is just like AOR except that consecutive shorelines are used each time.
Least Squares (LS)

The entire sample of the given shorelines is participating in this method. Positions along a transect
of the shorelines are mapped on an XY coordinate system, where along the X-axis are the years
and along Y-axis the positions of the shorelines. The line which best fits the positions is the
regression line and its slope is the change rate along the specific transect.
210
Jackknife (JK)
Jackknife is just like Linear Regression but the change rate along a given transect is computed
using all combinations of the n shorelines omitting one at each iteration.
Weighted Least Squares (WLS)

In Least Squares, we assume that the variances in Y-axis (shoreline position) and in X-axis (time
of shoreline) are the same. With this method different variances are introduced along the two axes.
Reweighted Least Squares (RLS)

This method runs in two steps. First, it identifies positions of shorelines that are outside the 1σ
value. Points (or positions) outside the 1σ value are given a weight of 0 and points inside the 1σ
value are given a weight of 1. With this reasoning, points (or positions) outside the 1σ value are
treated as outliers and “noisy” data are excluded in the determination of the change rate.
Reweighted Weighted Least Squares (RWLS)

RWLS is the same as the RLS except that the uncertainties of each shoreline position are taken
into account.
Least Absolute Deviation (LAD)

The reasoning in this method is the same as in LS, but the residuals are not squared and the
distribution of errors is assumed to be a Laplace distribution. That means that since it is not
Gaussian, it is less sensitive to outliers [4].
Minimum Description Length (MDL)

It assumes Gaussian error distribution and tries to find out which model is the best fit to the data. It
can be first order (e.g. line) or higher (e.g. quadratic). If the model is linear, then MDL results in an
LS method. If it is non-linear, then two lines are produced: the zero-weight line which uses only
recent data and disregard old data and the low-eight line which gives weight to older data [1].
Discussion on the methods

The surface comparison method (SC)
It disregards all existing shoreline information by using the oldest and the newest shoreline. Errors
in the generalized minimum shoreline computation can result in great errors in the estimated
shoreline change rate. Meanwhile, it possesses no statistical meaning. It should be completely
avoided.
The End Point Rate (EPR)
It disregards all existing shoreline information by using the oldest and the newest shoreline. It can
be used easily since the computational burden is very low. Nevertheless, by disregarding all the
rest shoreline information, huge errors can be committed. Let us suppose that the last shoreline is
post-storm shoreline. Computing the change rate with an “episodically dislocated” shoreline, a fatal
error will be reached. Furthermore, errors in extracting the oldest historical shoreline are usually
very high and influence erroneously the results. Generally, as the temporal variation increases, the
likelihood of omitting important information also increases.
By filtering the available shorelines by the minimum time criterion (eq. 2), AOR uses the “good”
data for the change rate. This procedure though, filters the short term variability and in many
211
occasions many available shorelines cannot pass the minimum time criterion and we end up with
much less shorelines than we started. Sometimes, we could end up with a simple EPR method. It
has to be added here that there is not a computational norm for introducing the minimum time
criterion and small rates (less than 1 m/y) produce long minimum time span.
All comments made for AOR apply to AER.
Least Squares (LS)
It requires no a priori analysis and thus it is purely computational using all available data. Since the
basic assumption of Gaussian errors distribution applies, the method is very sensitive to extreme
errors or outliers. If we know a priori that some points (shoreline positions) are outliers (e.g. post-
storm points), we can exclude them in the computation. It also assumes that the variance along the
Y-axis of the regression line (shoreline positions) is the same. Naturally, this cannot be true.
Passing a regression line through old and new data (low and high accuracy), we balance unreliably
the data.
Jackknife (JK)
Being a multiple LS method, it decreases the influence of outliers. Nevertheless, the amount of
computation is high, especially in cases where we have many available shorelines.
Weighted Least Squares (WLS)
Since it introduces different variances in shoreline positions, data points with large variance will
have less influence on the regression line than data points with smaller variance. That means that
early shorelines with large positional errors will have less influence on the estimation than in the LS
method. Nevertheless, outliers will influence the estimation of the change rate, since the method is
basically a linear regression method. Finally, we have to underline here that in many studies it is
difficult to quantify the uncertainties for the WLS method.
Reweighted Least Squares (RLS)
RLS excludes the statistical outliers to participate to the computation of the shoreline change rate
by using a priori a filter of 1σ value. Outliers weighted by zero do not influence the statistics. Noisy
data are then excluded though good. Large data should be available to secure computation after
the exclusion of noisy data.
Reweighted Weighted Least Squares (RWLS)
The method removes the outliers before starting the estimation of the change rate procedure.
Consequently, it is less sensitive to large positional errors or outliers. This, though, would result in
disregarding noisy but good or useful data and since the data sets in the real studies are not too
many, we may end-up with not enough data sets. Consequently, RWLS must be used when large
data are available or true outliers can be safely excluded a priori.
Least Absolute Deviation (LAD)
Regardless that LAD is a regressional method, the estimation of the shoreline change rate is not
as forward as it seems from the first sight. Furthermore, the uncertainty calculation for the change
rate is more difficult than that of LS. As the residuals are not squared, an extreme value (position)
will have less effect in LAD than in LS.
212
Minimum Description Length (MDL)
The method utilizes various models and tries to identify the best model fit. Linear or non-linear
models can be used. In the first case, the MDL results to an LS method. In the second case, the
calculated change rates tend to result in highly inaccurate shoreline forecasts [1].
Pros and cons of the methods

According to sections 2 and 3, we can tabulate the advantages and disadvantages of the methods
as:
Method Pros Cons

SC simple computation large inaccuracies
EPR simple computation assumes linear change rate
sensitive to short term variations
AOR measurement errors assumes linear change rate
participate in the
minimum time error criterion excludes
computation
geoinformation
AER measurement errors assumes linear change rate

participate in
minimum time error criterion excludes
the computation
geoinformation
LS simple computation assumes linear change rate

statistical meaning all positional variances are the same
great influence of extreme errors
JK small influence of extreme assumes linear change rate
errors
high amount of computation
statistical meaning
WLS different variances of assumes linear change rate
positions
difficulty to quantify the positional
reduce the influence of
uncertainties
outliers
RLS excludes noisy data assumes linear change rate

removes data and then computes
change rate
RWLS less sensitive to outliers assumes linear change rate
highly statistical method disregards good but noisy data
LAD the least sensitive to assumes linear change rate
outliers difficult calculation procedure
MDL non-linear best fit model recent data more influencing the results
213
Conclusions
From the above given analysis, we can draw the following conclusions:
1. Two distinct groups of computational methods to estimate the shoreline change rate exist
today, namely, the regressional and non-regressional ones (SC, EPR, AOR, AER). Strictly
speaking, the non-regressional ones should be characterized as techniques rather and not
methods since they do not have any statistical meaning. They are heavily dependent on
measurements errors and if one wants to use one of them, only EPR produces
“reasonable” results [2].
2. In order to use the regressional methods, two questions must be answered, namely, if the
uncertainties and storms are known. The combinations of the two answers give the
following:
A. If we know the positional uncertainties and the storms, then WLS or RWLS are the
most appropriate methods to use.
B. If we know the uncertainties but not the storms, then we have to exclude WLS and
use the RWLS.
C. If the uncertainties are not known and the storms are known, then LS, JK or RLS
can be used and finally
D. If we do not know the uncertainties and the storms, then we use RLS or LAD.
From the 2A to 2D remarks it is evident that if we know the storms, we can use RWLS and if we do
not, then we can implement RLS. Since the second case is the most common in many nations,
RLS seems to have a clear advantage of using.
References
1. Crowel, M., B.C. Douglas, and S.P. Leatherman (1997): On forecasting Future U.S. Shoreline Positions:
A test of algorithms, Journal of Coastal Research, 13(4), pp. 1245-1255.
2. Galgano, F. A, and B.C. Douglas (200): Shoreline Position Prediction: Methods and Errors,
Environmental Geoscience, Vol. 7, Nr. 1. pp. 23-31.
3. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (1996): Climate Change 1995: Impacts, Adaptations
and Mitigation of Climate Change: Scientific-Technical Analysis, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, MA
4. Rousseeuw, P.J. and Leroy, A. M. (1987): Robust Regression and outlier Detection, John Wiley and
Sons, New York.
4. Shaw, R. W. (2001): Coastal Impacts of Climate Change and Sea-Level Rise on Prince Edward Island,
Climate Change Action Fund Project CCAF A041, Synthesis Report, Natural Resources Canada.
214
Comparative Review of Environmental Impact Assessment Programs

Engy Samy Hussein1, Phil Jones2
1. PhD student, Welsh School of Architecture, Bute Building, King Edward VII Avenue, Cardiff, CF10
3NB, e-mail: husseine@cardiff.ac.uk. Tel: 07877108589
2. Head of Welsh School of Architecture and Director of Architectural Science.
Abstract
The field of building environmental assessment has matured quickly in the past fifteen years, with the
number of assessment programs almost trebled, showing that there is a global trend in defining and
evaluating the overall building performance. Several existing certification programs and assessment tools
that evaluate building performance either by checklist or computer-based programs are presented in this
paper. Some programs are focusing on selected aspects with only PASS and FAIL categories of
assessment. Others evaluate environmental impact of the building by introducing weights to the achieved
scores, and by that, they reflect priorities among the parameters. This comparative review objective is:
first, to present the state of the art in this field and the development of the assessment programs over the
years. Secondly, to compare and contrast these programs in order to help identifying the knowledge gaps
and research needs. Finally, serves as a starting point in the development of a more comprehensive
evaluation protocol and performance assessment tool, anticipating future developments in building
environmental assessment tools, and gives future development direction.
Introduction
There has been a growing movement towards sustainable construction since the second half of
the 1980s, leading to the development of various methods for evaluating the environmental
performance of buildings. The field of building environmental assessment has matured
remarkably quickly since the introduction of BREEAM, and the past thirteen years have
witnessed a rapid increase in the number of building environmental assessment methods in use
world-wide [Fig 1]. All of the major international conferences since 1994 have allocated a
significant portion of their programs to the description and comparison of these methods and
“assessment” now represents a central focus for the building environmental design and
performance debate (Robinson, 2004). Now building environmental assessment is a defined
realm of enquiry with more rigorous explorations into weighting protocols, performance
indicators, effectiveness – market and physical etc.
In this paper we want to reflect on the continuing evolution of building environmental

assessment by asking the question – what are their current and future roles?. There is little
doubt that building environmental assessment methods have contributed enormously to
furthering the promotion of higher environmental expectations, and are directly and indirectly
influencing the performance of buildings. This early success largely derives from their ability to
offer a recognizable structure for environmental issues and, more importantly, to provide a focus
for the debate of building environmental performance. This momentum will likely increase over
the next few years, and current systems will continue to evolve in terms of refining performance
indicators, measures, benchmark and the level of complexity attainable within acceptable costs
Nationally and globally, buildings contribute significantly to energy consumption, as well as to

other environmental impacts, such as air emissions and solid waste generation. For example,
38% of the world primary energy consumption is related to building operations [Fig 1], and 65%
of all 2005 Municipal Solid Waste (Ir Thomas C, 2005). Buildings are an exceedingly complex
industrial product with a lifetime of decades. Emerging health issues related to the
environmental impacts from buildings, such as the so-called ‘sick building’ syndrome (Ashley M
215
and Josette M. P, 2006), have intensified awareness of the role buildings play on our
environmental wellbeing.
25
20
Building
15 38%
number of new programs
10 Transport industry
35% 27%
5
0
1982 1990 1993 1995 2001 2002 2004 2005
Figure 1: The time line progress for the environmental programs and Total energy
consumption of the world.
There is a global trend in understanding and evaluating the total performance of buildings. In
several countries such programs have been or are being developed in an attempt to assess the
issues that influence the performance of the building itself and the impact of the building on its
surrounding. This paper focuses on certification programs that deal with evaluation and
assessment of buildings.
Different programs deal with the issues differently: some are more performance oriented, and
others can be strictly prescriptive(International Energy Agency, 2003). Some of them focus on
evaluating the performance of only selected aspects, such as energy efficiency and quality of
materials and workmanship. P-mark, Energy Star with only PASS/FALL categories of
assessment, their advantage is that they focus on conventional practices and are, therefore
more likely to be immediately applicable in the Building industry that can otherwise be very
conservative. Other programs, such as BREEAM, LEED, CASBEE and GB-Tool evaluate the
environmental Impact of the building and its level of sustainability (Miljana H and Paul F, 2005).
Their outcome usually results in several categories of performance and building rating systems.
While BREEAM and LEED have been in use for several years, others, like CEPAS and
CASBEE are in the stage of finalization and/or early implementation; therefore there is not
sufficient information on the results of their application.
The objective of this paper is to compare and contrast the initial intentions and emphasis of
building environmental performance assessment methods with their emerging roles. This
analysis provides a starting point for anticipating future developments in building environmental
assessment tools, how are they likely to evolve, how they will be used and how they will dovetail
with other change instruments. It is reasonable to argue that the context in which Environmental
Impact Assessment Programs (EIAP) now operate, and the roles that they are increasingly
playing, are qualitatively different than earlier expectations. The objectives of this paper are to
compare and contrast the initial intentions and emphasis of building environmental performance
assessment methods with their current and emerging roles. This analysis provides a starting
point for anticipating future developments in “building” environmental assessment tools, how are
they likely to evolve, how will they be used and how will they dovetail with other change
instruments (regulations, codes, incentives).
216
Initial Intentions and Roles

The majority of existing building environmental assessment methods evaluate “green”
performance and are classified here as “first generation” systems. This generation of
assessment methods are: 1) Technically emphasize assessment of resource use, loadings and
comfort issues. 2) Assess performance relative to explicitly declared or implicit benchmarks and,
as such, measure the extent of improvement rather than how close to a defined desired goal. 3)
Assess design intentions and potential as determined through prediction rather than actual
performance. 3) Structure performance scoring as a simple additive process and use implicit
weightings to denote priority. They were initially conceived, and still largely function, as
voluntary, market place mechanisms by which owners striving for improved performance would
have an objective basis for communicating their efforts (Patricia G, 2002). An often-stated role
and expectation is that the widespread adoption of assessment methods could ultimately
transform the market in its expectation and demand for buildings with higher environmental
performance.
There are several emerging issues increasingly frame current use of building assessment
methods
Assessment methods have moved beyond voluntary market place tools. The range of building
types seeking certification is increasing and this, in turn, is creating the need to develop generic
systems that can recognize distinctions on an as-need basis for specific situations.
Types of Building Assessment Methods
There are two types of EIAP the first one that focuses on the building itself without much
regards to the relation to its surrounding. Based on PASS/FALL assessment method i.e. Energy
Star, HQAL, R-2000. The second type consider the environmental performance of the building
and its impact on resources use, indoor climate and recyclability. Scoring and weighting
systems that distinguish priorities i.e. BREEAM, LEED, GBTool, CASBEE. The EIAP that we
will focus on are listed in [Table 1],
Program Country Year Program Country Year
1 R-2000 Canada 1982 12 ATHENA Canada 2001
2 P-mark Sweden 1989 13 Novoclimat Quebec 2001
3 BREEAM UK 1990 14 LEED US 2002
4 DAMMWERK Germany 1990 1 GBTool International 2002
5
5 BEPAC Canada 1993 16 Green Globes Canada 2002
6 Ecoprofile Norway 1995 17 ECO-QUANTUM Netherlands 2002
7 HK-BEAM Hong Kong 1996 1 BEAT Denmark 2002
8
8 GreenCalc Denmark 2000 1 BEES US 2002
9
9 HQAL Japan 2001 2 CASBEE Japan 2004
0
10 LCAid Australia 2001 21 NABERS Australia 2004
11 ENERGY STAR US 2001 22 CEPAS Hong Kong 2005
Table 1: The environmental impact assessment programs in this paper arranged by year
of start.
217
Programs and Tools

R-2000 Program (Canada, 1982)
Developed in Canada, the R-2000 home Program started in 1982 as a voluntary program
encouraging builders to build energy-efficient houses that were environmentally friendly and
healthy to live in. It includes an energy-efficiency standard for new houses that is continuously
updated; comprehensive training and builders education courses (Robert C, 2003). The R-2000
is standard is performance-based, specifying an energy consumption target for a house and a
series of technical requirements: (minimum envelope requirements, ventilation system
requirements, combustion system requirements, energy performance target, lights and
appliances, indoor air quality and environmental features/eco-management). Despite its obvious
merits for individual homeowners and Canadian society as a whole, its overall influence over
Canadian building practice has not attracted as many registrations as expected (Robert C,
2003). The main obstacle to the popularity appears to be their higher initial cost: 6-10% higher
than conventional houses. The success of the program was also affected by clones by not-
certified builders, which failed to include important features, such as properly balanced HRVs
Heat Recovery ventilators that lead to moisture problems and not expected energy savings.
P-mark system (Sweden, 1989)
The P mark system is a voluntary program that was established in Sweden in 1989 at initiative
of manufacturers of factory-made houses who wanted the certification program to cover the
design stage as well as the performance of the finished house. P-mark is a comprehensive
quality assurance program, hacked up by inspections, which takes advantage of prefabrication
to streamline quality control procedures. Besides performance requirements for finished house,
it covers quality system, quality plan and supervisory inspections. Some of the performance
requirements for the finished house include air-tightness of the building envelope, air exchange
rates, air-tightness of ducts, sound pressure levels and heat requirement. For each requirement
there is a test method for verification of compliance. In addition to this certification, SP
authorities carry out unannounced factory inspections twice a year. They also inspect and
conduct measurements in about 5% of the finished houses (Kristy H, 2003). After several years
of operation, manufacturers of prefabricated houses believe that the main effect of P-mark
system has been a reduction in the numbers and severity of failures, hence a reduced number
of complaints from customers (Drury C and Ilari A, 1999).
BREEAM (UK,1990)
Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM) is a tool that

allows the owners, users and designers of buildings to review and improve environmental
performance throughout the life of a building. Assessment is based on ‘credits’ awarded for a
set of performance criteria. BREEAM is divided into 7 performance categories [Fig 2]. The
method uses questionnaires to guide the project team in each stage of the project delivery
process, from the establishment of design objectives through site selection, programming
requirements, to schematic design, the preparation of construction documents and
specifications, and finally construction and commissioning (BREEAM Office, 2005, BREEAM
Offices, 2005). Although a design team is urged to use the protocol at all stages, the actual
quantifiable assessment for the design occurs only at two stages: concept design and the
preparation of construction documents and specifications. BREEAM makes reference to a
number of standards rather than directly including benchmarks within the criteria descriptions,
this gives the advantage of maintaining currency without having to update the specific wording
of the credit requirements. Points are the fundamental unit for describing performance
218
requirements, with the rating generated by adding the points awarded for meeting design
performance (BREEAM Office, 2005, BREEAM Offices, 2005).
• Management
Environmental Weightings
Assessment Credits
Issue Category Scores

• Health & BREEAM Rating
Single Score
Comfort
• Energy • PASS
• Transport • GOOD
• Water • VERY GOOD
• Materials • EXCELLENT
• Land Use
• Ecology
• Pollution
Figure 2: Structure of BREEAM performance categories.
DAMMWERK (Germany, 1990)
Building physics software that has been developed in Germany. It evaluates building envelope
assemblies at the design stage and compares it to European EN ISO standards and codes
(Ebbe H. P, 2003). The evaluation is performed on: Hydrothermal performance, Acoustic
performance of building envelope, Fire protection of building envelope, Energy consumption
(expected energy consumption, primary energy need and transmission heat losses, solar gains)
and Energy counseling: calculate local energy costs, amortization savings over investments by
the years, determines the pollutant emissions, and generates recommendations for
improvements.
BEPAC (Canada, 1993)
Building Environmental Performance Assessment Criteria (BEPAC) is a voluntary program that

looks at the environmental performance of commercial buildings (existing and new) against
energy use, indoor environment, ozone protection, resource conservation, and transportation.
The BEPAC Foundation developed a version that enables companies to do an in-house
evaluation of their own buildings rather than rely on a third party. It contains a BEPAC
document, a program to train users, and software spreadsheets (Robert C, 2003). The fact that
assessment can be carried out internally by those not experienced with it raises some concern
with the consistency of buildings carrying the BEPAC label. It comprehensive method for
evaluating building design and management performance against defined criteria. These criteria
address global, local and interior environment concerns. BEPAC is incentive oriented; it
encourages progression towards more environmentally responsible building practices and
higher performance standards.
Ecoprofile (Norway, 1995)
Norwegian LCA based computer tool which calculates the environmental effects during the life
cycle of building. It is divided into three principal components (external environment, resources
and indoor climate) [Fig 3]. There are currently 82 parameters. Each of the parameters is
individually evaluated and given a grade. The grading scale is from 1 to 3 where: Class 1 =
Lesser environmental impact. Class 2 = Medium environmental impact. Class 3 = Greater
environmental impact (Krishnan Gowri, 2004.).
219
Larger
External Resource Indoor Impact
Release to Air (3) • Energy (10) • Thermal Climate (3) Medium
Release to Ground (3)
Release to Water (3)
• Water (1) • Atmospheric Climate (2) Impact
Waste Management (2) • (Materials) • Acoustic Climate (1) Lesser
Outside Areas (1) • (Land) • Actinic Climate (1) Impact
Transport (2) • Mechanical Climate (1) Ext.Env. Resources Ind.Clim.
• Cross Factors (3)
Figure 3: Structure for the three principal components of Eco-profile.
HK-BEAM ( Hong Kong, 1996)
The Hong Kong Building Environmental Assessment Method (HK-BEAM) is a program

responding to environmental priorities and social issues. The Overall Assessment Grade is
based on % of applicable credits gained. It highlights the importance of Indoor Environmental
Quality, the IEO score (as a percentage of applicable credits) will also weight in the overall
grade. Given the importance of EQ it is necessary to obtain a minimum percentage of credits for
IEQ in order to qualify for the overall grade. The award classifications are as shown in [Fig 4].
On the private-sector front, it is a voluntary certification scheme that began in 1996 (Ir Thomas
C, 2005). By May 2005, there have been 100 buildings or over 60 million square feet of floor
space assessed by HK-BEAM. These include 52,000 residential units, equivalent to the homes
of 150,000 people or slightly over 2% of Hong Kong population. The numbers make HK-BEAM
the most widely used scheme of its kind in the world on a per capita basis (Ir Thomas C, 2005) .
The overall Assessment Grade

• Namely site Overall IEQ
• Materials Assign credits/ weightings Platinum 75% 65% (Excellent)
• Energy according to the Gold 65% 55% (Very Good)
• Water significance of the impact Silver 55% 50% (Good)
• Indoor Environment Quality Bronze 40% 45% (Above average)
Figure 4: HK-BEAM Assessment categories and award classification.
GreenCalc (Denmark, 2000)
GreenCalc is a computer tool to calculate the environmental load of Dutch office buildings. It is
divided into four modules(Ebbe H. P, 2003): 1) material module: choice of materials, quantities,
insulating values. 2) Energy module: energy consumption in operation phase (use of building,
air-conditioning, ventilation, lighting. 3) Water usage: water consumption in the operation phase
(facilities, sanitary facilities, rainwater). 4) Mobility: accessibility from home to work place
(location, public transport, own transport). Results are expressed in terms of money as so-called
submerged environmental costs (cost/m2) (Total score on a scale from 1 - 2000. The average
building built in 1990 has a score of 100 and the goal for 2050 is buildings with a score of 2000)
HQAL (Japan, 2001)
Housing Quality Assurance Law (HQAL) was developed primarily to improve the quality and
performance of residential units. This most comprehensive program is intended for all types of
220
residential buildings: from detached houses to apartment buildings; prefabricated or site built;
wood, steel or concrete based. Specific types of performance characteristics include the
following main groups: (Structural stability, Fire safety, Reduction of deterioration, Thermal
environment, Air quality, Lighting-a visual environment, Sound environment and Consideration
for senior citizens/special needs (David B and et el, 2001). Dwelling units are evaluated and
ranked 1-3, where rank 1: building codes and regulations are met, while higher ranks represent
superior quality. This unique ranking .system allows builders of superior quality houses to gain
recognition for the performance of their products. HQAL is the only program that directly
addresses durability, in form of reduction in deterioration, and expected service life by
prescribing the type of wood and wood products used in the structure, treatments applied for
resistance to decay and termites, adequate waterproofing, and insulation (Simon G, 2002).
LCAid (Australia, 2001)

LCAid is computer software developed by department of public works and services [Fig 5]. User
friendly decision making tool using LCA methodology to evaluate the environmental
performance of design options, and to identify the largest impacts over the entire life cycle of a
building, the "cradle-to-grave" impacts, including all inputs (eg raw materials, building product
manufacture, energy, and water) and outputs (eg resource extraction, emissions to air, water,
land and waste, demolition reuse, recycling and disposal) (Kimberly M, 2002).
Water Environmental
Climate Zone Use Comparison
Water Comparison
Management for life cycle
Materials Operational Life cycle cost

Usage Energy
Figure 5: LCAid program theory and applications.

ENERGY STAR (US, 2001)
It was operated by the US Environmental Protection Agency and the US Department of Energy.
Its vast portfolio includes certifying home appliances, lighting fixtures, home electronics, office
equipment, heating and cooling equipment. Recently, this initiative has included the program for
evaluating and certifying newly built residential units, both single family and multi-family houses
that are up to three stores high. To earn the ENERGY STAR label, a house must he verified to
be at least 30% more energy-efficient in its heating, cooling and water heating than a
comparable house built to the 1993 Model Energy Code (Greg K and Capital E, 2003), and 15%
more efficient than the state energy code (Greg K and Capital E, 2003). This program applies to
conventionally site-built residential units as well as modular, system-built. Existing houses can
also be upgraded however; due to the strict requirements of this program it might not always be
cost-effective. There were several other initiatives in the United States in recent years that were
intended to deal with implementation of advanced technology to radically improve the quality,
environmental performance, energy efficiency and affordability of American housing.
Novoclimat (Canada, Québec, 2001)
Novoclimat was recently developed by the Quebec Agency for Energy Efficiency, inspired by
Canada’s National Model Energy Code. The main objectives of the program are to decrease
221
energy consumption, improve occupants’ comfort, and ensure good indoor air quality. It also
aims to support thermal envelope durability based on infiltration measurements. It is applied on
a voluntary basis, and only licensed builders can build and certify it. However, Novoclimat is the
only performance certification program that actually connects energy efficiency and air-tightness
to the durability of the building envelope, thereby acknowledging moisture as the main factor in
the durability of wood-framed building envelope (Robert C, 2003).
ATHENA (Canada, 2001)
Athena is a Life Cycle Assessment based environmental decision support tool for building; it
helps designers achieve the best environmental footprint by showing the five separate
conceptual designs. It is the only North American software for LCA of buildings. Architects,
engineers and researchers can get LCA answers about conceptual designs of new buildings or
renovations to existing buildings from Athena. It lets you assess the environmental implications
of industrial, institutional, office, and both multi-unit and single family residential designs. It
recognized life cycle inventory databases, covering more than 90 structural and envelope
materials (Robert C, 2003). It simulates over 1,000 different assembly combinations. It
distinguishes 3 deferent regions. It takes into account the environmental effects of material
manufacturing, including resource extraction and recycled content, related transportation, on-
site construction, regional variation in energy use and other factors, building type and assumed
lifespan, maintenance, repair and replacement effects, demolition and disposal, operating
energy emissions and pre-combustion effects, embodied primary energy use, global warming
potential, solid waste emissions, pollutants to air, pollutants to water and natural resource use
(Cooper, 1999).
LEED (US, 2002)
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) is a voluntary rating program whose
goal is to evaluate environmental performance from a whole building perspective over a
building’s life cycle, providing a definitive standard for what constitutes a green building (Chris
W. Scheuer and Gregory A. Keoleian, 2002). According to the USGBC there are prerequisites
in 4 of these areas that every building must meet and several credit options in each area(Ashley
M and Josette M. P, 2006). In order to earn a LEED certification a minimum of 26 points must
be achieved-in addition to all the prerequisites [Fig 6]. Every credit consists of a description of
intent, requirements and documentation submittals. In many cases there is a referenced
standard and credit calculation procedures. Credit requirements are accompanied by
descriptive information about economic, environmental and community issues related to the
credit. In many cases, examples & additional resources are also listed. LEED process consists
of registering a building project and then fulfilling the credit requirements and submitting the
required documentation (LEED, 2003).
• Sustainable Sites (8 credits/14 points)

• Water Efficiency (3 credits/5 points) • LEED Certified: 26-32 points (40-50%)
• Silver Level: 33-38 points (51-60%)
LEED • Energy and Atmosphere (6 credits/17 points)
• Gold Level: 39-51 points (61-80%)
• Materials Efficiency (7 credits/13 points)
• Indoor Environmental Quality (8 credits/15 points) • Platinum Level: 52 + points (81% +)
• Innovation Credits (2 credits/5 points)
Figure 6: LEED’s credit/points calculation theory.
222
ECOQUANTUM (Netherlands, 2002)
LCA based computer tool which calculates the environmental effects during the entire life cycle
of the building. This includes the impact of energy, the maintenance during the use phase and
the differences in the durability of parts of the construction related to the life span of the building
(Raymond J COLE, 2005). Eco-Quantum also takes into account the possibility for selective
demolition, recycling and product reuse.
GBTool (International 2002)
Green Building Tool is software that attempts to address environmental aspects of building
performance. In 2002, 21 countries were participants in GBTool. It provides an assessment of
predicted or potential environmental performance of building before occupancy. Developed in
Excel this tool evaluates new and retrofitted buildings: commercial, institutional and multi unit
residential buildings (Bradon S.P. and Lombardi P, 2005). The assessment is done against
performance bench marks that are relevant to the particular region and building occupancy in
seven general performance issues [Fig 7]. Further, these issues are divided into performance
criteria and sub-criteria. Then, each score is weighed according to predetermined weighting
system. Still, the changes in weights ought to be set at the level of GB national teams in order to
provide uniformity and comparability throughout the region.
1. Resource Consumption Calculation of predicted energy consumption 5

2. Environmental Loadings Weights
3. Indoor Environmental Q. Calculation of predicted thermal comfort 3
4. Service Quality
1 GBTool
5. Economics Calculation of predicted IAQ
6. Pre-Operations Management 0
7. Commuting Transport Prediction of other Performance characteristics Benchmarks
Weights and scoring benchmarks are adjusted by national teams. -2
Score 5: Best technically achievable, 3: best practice, 0: minimum level acceptable, -2: below acceptable level
Scored and weighted results
Figure 7: GBTool framework with categories and what they give credit for.
Green Globes (Canada, 2002)
Green Globes is an online building and management audit tool. It is web-enabled self-
assessment based on BREEAM/Green Leaf. It uses a confidential questionnaire [Fig 8], and
generates an online report. It is the newest addition to the BREEAM/Green Leaf suite of
environmental assessment tools. It is intended for property manager and owners of commercial
and multi-residential buildings (Durabuild " Interregional Built Environment Network", 2004).
Emissions Energy consumption (80)

EMS documentation (30)
Air emissions (30) Energy Energy features (130)
Purchasing policy (25)
Ozone depletion (45) Energy management (80) Environmental
Emergency response (20)
Water effluents (20) Transportation (60) Management Tenant awareness (25)
Hazardous materials (47)
Hazardous products (33)
Water efficiency (80)
Water
Indoor environment Waste reduction & recycling (45)
Resources Site (65)
Indoor air (143) (ventilation, filtration, humidification, cooling tower, air quality management)
Lighting (32) Noise (10)
Figure 8:The main areas that Green Globes identify on its assessment.
223
BEES (US, 2002)
Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability (BEES) developed and implemented a
systematic methodology for selecting environmentally and economically balanced building
products [Fig 9] (Ryokuchi K and Tsurumi-ku, 2003).
Global worming Environmental Environmental

Acidification Performance Score performance
Eutrophication
Resource User defined
Weighting, Depletion EPA SAB method Overall Score Economic
Materials Indoor Air Harvard Univ. method performance
Quality Equal weight
Solid Waste
Economic Overall
First Cost
Performance Score performance
Future Cost
Figure 9: BEES system inputs and overall performance.
BEAT (Denmark, 2002)
Building Environmental Assessment Tool (BEAT) is an LCA-based life cycle inventory tool for
buildings. BEAT is a relation database designed using Microsoft Access. The user must supply:
type of building, estimated lifetime of the building, geometry of the building, number of floors
above/below ground, roof pitch, number of windows in the building, % of facade area covered
by windows and natural or mechanical ventilation [Fig 10]. BEAT can be used both for
supporting the general design choices early in the design phase, and later for supporting the
more detailed design choices (Gann et al., 2003). The aggregated environmental effects are
calculated by multiplying each environmental effect by a weighting factor and then summing the
results.
Resource Environmental
consumption
description
& material
impact
General
BEAT Fuel consumption Global warming, Ozone depletion, Acidification,

Metal consumption Nutrient enrichment, Ecotoxicit, Human toxicity,
Mineral consumption Waste (hazardous, volume), Slag & ash,
Photochemical ozone formation
Figure 10: The frame work of BEAT.
NABERS ( Australia, 2004)

National Australian Buildings Environmental Rating System (NABERS) is a performance-based
system that measures an existing building's overall environmental performance during operation
for existing commercial buildings and homes. It is intended to be a voluntary tool (Kaatz E. et
al., 2004). NABERS will measure environmental performance against set of key impact
categories: (Refrigerant use, Water use, Storm water runoff and pollution, Sewage outfall
volume, Transport, Landscape diversity, Toxic materials, Waste, Indoor air quality and
Occupant satisfaction) [Fig 11], with "scores (1– 5 stars)" chosen as the unit of measurement.
224
Commercial/
Domestic (150 stars) •NABERS Basic (0 or ½ star in any category)
Assign Stars based on the
them into percentage

And then converting
•NABERS medals (must earn more than 1 star in
Adding all the stars

•Land
each main heading)
•Materials
Single Score
heading
earned
•Energy NABERS Green (at least 1 star)
•Water NABERS Bronze (at least 2 stars)
•Interior NABERS Silver (at least 3 stars)
•Transport NABERS Gold (at least 4 stars)
NABERS Platinum (at least 5 stars)
•Waste
Figure 11: NEBERS fields of study and final scores.
CASBEE (Japan, 2004)
Comparative Assessment System for Building Environmental Efficiency (CASBEE) is a

comprehensive, but clear, simple and affordable system to assess the building sustainability. It
has four primary assessment areas as shown on [Fig 12]. CASBEE was developed in the suite
of architectural design process (Foliente G et al., 2004), starting from the pre-design stage and
continuing through design and post design stages.
Energy consumption Assessment category “Q” as positive Assessment category “L” as negative
Resource productivity impact inside the boundary impact outside the boundary
Local environments and
Indoor environment Resource Emission of
Consumption, Air-pollutants,
Re-categorized into Embodied CO2 Noise, Heat
Q (Quality) Emission, etc. etc.
L (Loadings)
Building Environmental Efficiency (BEE)
(Neighboring (Neighboring
building) building)
Q1: Indoor environment
Q2: Quality of service
Q3: Outdoor environment on site Hypothetical Enclosed Space
L1: Energy
L2: Resources and materials Soil, Water-pollutants etc. Site Boundary
Figure 12: How does the CASBEE works?
CEPAS (Hong Kong 2005)
In August 2005, the Hong Kong Government’s Building Department launched the
Comprehensive Environmental Performance Assessment Scheme (CEPAS), a new buildings’
rating system. It is voluntary, rating buildings on a “five-star” grading system. It is based on 34
criteria in 8 categories [Fig 13], from ventilation to waste management and cultural preservation.
The best buildings will be given a platinum label. The certificate will be valid for five years(Kevin
F, 2005). This system is meant to become a benchmark for all construction in Hong Kong,
making environmental awareness a business plus. The system main concept is to; Address
both physical and human-related issues amongst the core aspects of sustainability plus energy,
indoor air quality, and the maintenance of building ser vices installations. Also Considers other
social-economic factors, such as impacts on surroundings, communal interactions, building
economics, transportation, heritage conservation(DCW Ho et al., 2005).
225
• Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ)

Physical • Site Impacts
Factors • Neighborhood Impacts
• Resources Use Loadings
Human- • Site Amenities
related • Building Amenities
Factors • Neighborhood Amenities
Figure13: example of CEPAS final results foe assessment of buildings,
Discussion
This paper has presented a review of several certification programs for buildings that exist or at
the final stage of development in different countries and regions. Even though they can be quite
different in scope and objective, what connect these programs is the intent to reach beyond the
mere requirements of building codes, introduce new goals in performance achievements and
improve existing practice. From the past review we can immediately notice that there are some
defining characters for each program for example BREEAM provides a set of predefined
criteria. Many of the criteria set specific performance targets. Others are more subjective and
harder to quantify, and does not cover every possible design solution. R-2000, P-mark &
Novoclimat, focuses on indoor air quality issues. ENERGY STAR, very prescriptive and
narrowly focused only on improving the features that influence energy consumption (i.e.
building envelope and mechanical system). LEED was designed to provide a simple-to-use
approach to rating buildings. However there are many cases where the simplicity creates a lack
of distinction in application, and the disaggregating into individual credits may stimulate specific
solutions, but overall building integration may be less than ideal. The lack of balanced results
may lead to so much variation in total building environmental performance that a building’s
rating may not align with its actual performance.
The next tables is a comparison between 11 EIAP in order to view the similarity and differences
between them to find out what needs improving and in what direction. The comparison will be
on four points: Nature, Purpose and Target Building Group of EIAP, Categories of Assessment,
The weighing system, Application to Stages of Building.
Nature, Purpose and Target Building Group of EIAP

BREEAM LEED GB-Tool CASBEE BEPAC HKbeam BEAT BEES LC-Aid ATHENA CEPAS
Nature of Voluntary ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
assessment Mandatory
Purpose of B. labelling ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
assessment B. Rating ■ ■ ■ ■
Residential B. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
Target Non
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
Building residential B
Group New B. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
Existing B. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
Table 2: Comparison of reviewed certification programs on Nature, Purpose and Targeted
Building Group.
226
Categories of Assessment
BREEAM LEED GB-Tool CASBEE BEPAC HKbeam BEAT BEES LCAid ATHENA CEPAS
Embodied energy ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
Consumption
Environmental Resource
Operation energy ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
Land ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
Water ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
Materials ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
Airborne emission ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
loading
Solid ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
Liquid waste ■ ■ ■ ■
Other loadings ■ ■ ■
Air Quality ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
Environment
Thermal Quality ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
Indoor
Visual Quality ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
Noise & Acoustics ■ ■ ■ ■
System controllability ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
Adaptability ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
Performance
Longevity
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
maintenance
Contextual Factors ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
Load immediate
■ ■ ■ ■
surroundings
Table3: Comparison of reviewed certification programs on the categories of assessment.

The weighing system
Pass / Fail ■
Simple (1 for 1) ■
Equal weights ■
approach
Additive
Pre-weighted credits ■ ■ ■
Weighted after scoring ■ ■ ■
Weighted expert panel ■
Special ■
Table 4: Comparison of reviewed certification programs on the weighting system used

for each one.
Application to Stages of Building

Planning ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
Design ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
Construction ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
Operation ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
After operation ■ ■ ■
Demolition ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
Table 5: application to the stage of the building
Building environmental assessment methods were conceived as being voluntary and

motivational in their application. Their current success can be either taken as a measure of how
proactive the building industry is in creating positive change or its responsiveness to market
demand. The Majority of the programs are voluntary [Table 2] the only exceptions are Japanese
HQAL. There are some EIAP that are specifically applicable to new designs and retrofits of new
commercial, institutional & high-rise residential buildings i.e. LEED. Another group i.e.
BREEAM covers office, multi-residential, industrial and recreational buildings, as well as
municipal building operations [Table 2]. The question we have been asked to address is how
suitable the systems are for such a diverse range of building types? At one level, the question
can only be answered specifically by looking closely at how building uses or occupancy types
relate to, or might affect the ability to respond to, the individual credits. Certainly, there are
credits like those dealing with site selection and landscaping that are not materially affected by
227
building type. Other credits, like some associated with indoor air quality are more likely to be
affected.
The purpose of a rating system is to convert the raw data into a score so that we know about
the building performance for a particular area or how many credits should be given to the
building factor being assessed. The weighing system, i.e. the relative number of credits given
for compliance with a particular environmental aspect, is a critical part of a building
environmental performance assessment method, and is vital to all building assessment and
labelling schemes. Every assessment and rating system implicitly includes some form of
“weighting” based on how the points/credits are distributed. The question of assigning points or
“weightings” is complex, constantly evolving and has produced several schools of thought
[Table 4]. For example, the UK BREEAM weightings are based on an extensive series of
consultations, which BRE (Building Research Establishment) conducted with 1,000 participants
who were asked to assign health, social and economic values to each of the building-related
activities and its environmental impacts. Weightings represent the relative importance of a
building factor towards the overall goal of the assessment. They affect the degree of influence
by each building factor on the overall result. The weightings for HK-BEAM are determined by
the maximum credits attainable for these factors (Peter M and Riki T, 2001). The weightings can
be changed by adding or dropping factors under the assessment scheme or adjusting the
credits allocated to the factor.
In [Table 4] the first group of assessment the building factors are rated basically in yes-or-no
answers. The benefit of such a rating scheme is a reduction of the time used for the
assessment and a minimization of the degree of subjectivity in the assessment process. For the
second group In the HK-BEAM, and CEPAS, ratings for most factors are not scalar (Raymond J
COLE, 2005). A building either satisfies the requirement to receive credit or it fails to do so. The
building will be awarded credit even if other criteria are substantially below par. The implication
is that an excellent graded building can have several items that are substantially below average.
CEPAS obtain the weightings from a group of external experts with different backgrounds.
As the aim of the EIAP is to give a general appraisal of buildings, this can not be achieved by
solely relying on voluntary participation from building owners. In order to reveal actual
conditions, a building survey should also be carried out. Inspection will be confined to common
areas of the building so that it will not be necessary to seek consent from every individual
owner. In [Table 5] Most of the assessments rely on the accuracy of information supplied by
owners. The assessment and certification processes of the CEPAS are more or less the same
as those of the HK-BEAM. The validity of assessment results for the operational stage of
existing buildings in the CEPAS also lasts for five years, afterwards it should get a new
assessment/certification.
Conclusion
Few would deny that the increase in development and application of building environmental
assessment methods has provided considerable theoretical and practical experience on their
potential contribution in furthering environmentally responsible building practices. While their
most significant early contribution was to acknowledge and institutionalize the importance of
assessing building across a broad range of considerations, the increased use of building
environmental assessment methods has began to expose and clarify a host of new potential
roles. These primarily relate to their role in facilitating communication between stakeholders.
However, despite their current success and influence, and despite the fact that they embrace a
broad range of environmental considerations, current building assessment methods remain
framed and constrained by several underlying notions as the focus shifts to addressing
228
sustainability and changing the culture of the building industry. There are many examples that a
single building achieves high environmental performance standards internally but performs
poorly in the neighbourhood context, we should not loose sight of the need to ensure the public
realm between buildings to achieve high standard of environmental quality.
This paper has attempted to redefine and clarify the roles of assessment methods. The
discussion permits the clarification between the extent and ways that assessment methods
expose relationships between environmental and social considerations. By presenting and
comparing several EIAP that exist in different regions of the world, this paper follows the
evolution of different scoring methodologies, from simple additive approach to pre-weighted
credits and post-scoring weighting intend to accomplish more realistic result in evaluating
building performance.
An important goal of EIAP is to provide a standard of measure, so that buildings with the same
ratings are comparable. One assumes this to mean that nationally, buildings of similar ratings
are environmentally equivalent. However, regionally variable inputs such as energy pricing can
directly influence the requirements credits so that, depending on region, buildings with similar
ratings could have different requirements. Regionalism is a necessary element in EIAP, the lack
of clear integration currently undermines the actual comparability of rated buildings from
programs like (BREEAM, LEED). In these respects EIAP does not fulfill its goal of providing a
standard of measure. While appears to be accomplishing the goals of an eco labeling program
that is as a marketing and policy tool it is not as successful at being a comprehensive
methodology for assessment of environmental impacts. This is especially troubling from a
consumer perspective, as the EIAP rating is intended to become the “currency” of
environmental value, upon which future users, owners, and public agencies rely.
Several recent assessment tools CASBEE and CEPAS show structural features that
differentiate them from the first generation of tools. Although they still employ several of the
scoring characteristics of earlier systems, they collectively suggest a transition towards a
generation of tools that may enable assessment of the extent to which buildings can contribute
to supporting sustainable patterns of living; CASBEE, while employing an additive/weighting
approach, breaks away from the simple addition of points achieved in all performance areas to
derive an overall building score, which has been the dominant feature of all previous methods. It
distinguishes between the Environmental Loading (resource use and ecological loadings) and
Environmental Quality and Performance (indoor environmental quality and amenities) scoring
them separately to determine the Building Environmental Efficiency, i.e., the ratio of
Environmental Quality and Performance to Environmental Loading. Conceptually, therefore,
building assessment is not presented as a representation of the environmental characteristics of
a building as a “product”, but rather as a measure of the environmental implications associated
with providing a set of “services.” CEPAS introduces and organizes performance criteria that
make a clear distinction between “human” and “physical” performance issues as well as
“building” and their “surroundings.” This manifests as eight performance categories: Resource
Use; Loadings; Site Impacts; Neighbourhood Impacts; Indoor Environmental Quality; Building
Amenities; Site Amenities and Neighbourhood Amenities.
A key question here is whether current assessment methods that were conceived and created
to evaluate the environmental merits of individual buildings can be easily transformed to
account for a qualitatively different role. Inter-related requirements are likely to play critical roles
in shaping future developments in assessment tools: Acknowledging and fully embracing the
requirements of sustainability. Our transition to an environmental future will invariably parallel
the rate and extent to which we model all human enterprise – including buildings, infrastructure
and settlement patterns – on natural systems and processes. As such these, together with the
229
requirement of accounting for social and cultural needs and aspirations, should equally inform
the design of assessment methods. Several issues relate to some of the broad conceptual
changes that would be required in a second generation of tools to assist in charting this path:
Expanded Assessment Categories

expanding the impact assessment categories used for measurement on the global warming
potential, ecotoxicity, human toxicity, acidification, resource depletion and land use. These
measures were unavailable because of:
• limitations in project scope
• limitations in current data sources
• complications in current assessment techniques.
Expanded Credit Simulation
Limitations in current assessment techniques prevent an assessment of some individual credits

where the environmental benefits are less quantifiable or less comparable to other benefits
(low-emitting materials). It is logical that an EIAP should seek to assign credits or weightings to
assessment criteria somewhat in accordance with the significance of the environmental impact.
However, it is not practical at present to assess all the issues covered in EIAP on a common
scale. There is insufficient information available to provide an objective weighting for all issues,
because of the difficulty in assigning an economic cost to environmental effects as diverse as,
for example, the health of individuals, ozone depletion, global warming and resource depletion.
For a voluntary scheme there is also a need to balance the credits awarded against technical
difficulty and cost of implementation (set against any payback’, such as savings from increased
energy efficiency), otherwise take-up of the scheme may be affected. While establishing
appropriate performance metrics and scales is a critical issue, a critical challenge for developers
of building assessment methods will be the recognition and accounting for possible synergies
between environmental performance criteria. Currently, an overall building performance score is
derived from the aggregation of the points obtained within the constituent environmental credits.
As such, the selection of the performance credits is based on ensuring their independence to
avoid the possibility of “double-counting.” In practice, this translates to a checklist approach
where individual performance criteria of identified and pursued in the quest for a certain overall
rating. Also incorporating two-pronged approach to address the regional issues and concerns:
• Adjustment of the point distribution based on regional consultations
• Selection of specific criteria based on the eco zones
Expanded Building Forms
Currently EIAP ratings are not distinguished based on the size of a building, however, the
impact differences from conservation of energy, between a 10,000 m2 and a 100,000 m2
building is huge. The effects of climate region, structural forms, construction techniques and
other factors may further disrupt the life cycle impacts of the credits.
Refinement of Data Sources and Modeling

A more developed thermal model would enable more detailed modeling of specific feature
changes. More comprehensive data on material and system properties, and industry practices
are needed.
230
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232
The role of green spaces on urban environmental quality

Manuel Feliciano(a), Artur Gonçalves(a), Ana Cardoso(a), Teresa Nunes(b), Luís
Nunes(a), Paulo Cortez(a), António Ribeiro(a), Orlando Rodrigues(a), João Castro(a),
Luís Martins(c), Mário Cerqueira(b), José Castro(a), Amílcar Teixeira(a), Maria do Loreto
Monteiro(a)
a. Centro de Investigação da Montanha, Escola Superior Agrária, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança,
Apartado 1138, 5301-854 Bragança, Portugal
b. Centro de Estudos do Ambiente e do Mar, Departamento de Ambiente e Ordenamento, Universidade de
Aveiro, 3010-193 Aveiro, Portugal
c. Departamento de Protecção de Plantas, Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Apartado 1013, 5001
801 Vila Real, Portugal
Abstract
Urban green areas have the potential to attenuate some of the negative effects of urbanisation, making cities
a more pleasant place to live in. In addition to aesthetic value, green spaces improve air quality, reduce
noise levels and generate more comfortable micro-climatic conditions, among other benefits, contributing to
urban quality of life.
GreenUrbe (POCI/AMB/59174/2004) – The Impacts of Green Spaces on Urban Environmental Quality – is a
three year research project, started in October 2005 and aims to assess the impact of green spaces on
urban environmental quality (air quality, noise and micro-climatic conditions) and social well-being, in order to
formulate recommendations regarding green spaces design, as it is an essential activity in urban planning,
using Bragança (Portugal) as the case study.
In order to achieve these objectives an extensive fieldwork is being carried out at an urban area, involving
measurements of meteorological parameters, passive sampling of ozone, nitrogen dioxide and COVs,
continuous measurements of particulate matter and ozone, environmental noise measurements,
experimental designs to evaluate how much vegetation interfere with noise propagation and noise
absorption, haze evaluation by means of Small Format Aerial Photography (SFAP) and a survey on
population attitudes and perceptions towards the overall urban green spaces.
In this article, emphasis will be given to the methodological aspects and to the first results of the project with
regards to urban green structure analysis and quantitative evaluation of environmental noise, air quality and
climate comfort at Bragança city.
Introduction
Three quarters of the European population live nowadays in cities, facing various environmental
stresses in the form of poor air quality, excessive noise and uncomfortable thermal conditions.
Urban greening has been widely recognised as a key factor to mitigate the adverse effects of
urbanisation in a sustainable way (Bolund P. and Hunhamar S., 1999; De Ridder et al., 2004;
Nowak D. J., 2006). In fact, urban green areas such as public open spaces, private planted parks
areas around buildings, street alignments, and others, provide many environmental services that
contribute to ameliorate the life conditions in our cities, contributing to high-quality urban
environments. These multiple benefits of urban vegetation can be expressed in terms of a broad
number of functions: interfering on social/psychological behaviour; improving urban climate;
lowering air pollution and urban noise; shaping urban development and services; and general
ecological functions (Givoni, 1991; Bolund P. and Hunhamar S., 1999).
The social/psychological functions are much related with the use given by inhabitants, as green
spaces can host such activities as playgrounds for children, social meeting spaces and other public
activities. Several studies establish links between green spaces characteristics and individual
choices, evaluating such characteristics as aesthetic value (Serpa and Muhar, 1996) and
accessibility (Pasaogullari and Doratli 2004). Conclusions have also been drawn with regards to
human perception on environmental benefits, as green spaces can deliver psychological sense of
comfort and environmental quality, as it is the case of human perception on noise annoyance
(Carles et al. 1999).
233
The ability of urban green spaces to mitigate air pollution has been also widely reported by
scientific literature (Cardelino and Chameides, 1990; Taha, 1996; Nowak et al., 2000 e 2006).
Urban vegetation can directly or indirectly affect urban air quality, by altering meteorological
conditions, lowering local temperature, blocking solar radiation and by affecting wind
characteristics with influences on air dispersion (Givoni et al. 2003). Vegetation also influences dry
deposition of gases in earth surface, enhancing removal of air pollutants by uptake via leaf stomata
and cuticular surfaces. Trees also remove pollution by intercepting airborne particles, which,
however, are often resuspended to the atmosphere (Shashua-Bar and Hoffman, 2004). Moreover,
emission of volatile organic compounds by trees can contribute to the ozone formation, although
indirectly they can reduce atmospheric ozone levels since they can diminish air temperature
causing lower overall VOC emissions (Nowak et al., 2000). Another key factor is related to lower
energy consumption resulting from lower air temperatures and shading of buildings, reducing
anthropogenic pollutant emissions (Akbari, 2002). Givoni et al. (2003) show important links
between design details of outdoor spaces and different microclimate parameters that influence
thermal comfort, these details include planted surfaces, shading elements, colour of urban
surfaces, etc.
Green Spaces have also been identified as relevant sound attenuation barriers, as this effect
shows deferent efficiency depending on vegetation characteristics. Fang and Ling (2005),
evaluating a large set of wide tree belts (with>15 m), identified noise reduction values ranging from
1.5 to 9,5 dBA/20m, having related this parameter with visibility, height, density, width and length of
tree belts. It is also known that vegetation is a selective noise frequency filter, as it is generally
more effective in sound attenuation for higher frequencies (Tyagi et al., 2006).
Several studies try to establish relations between multiple disciplinary fields in order to
understanding better the role of urban green spaces. Over the past five years, several International
projects have been developed under EC CORDIS City of Tomorrow and Cultural Heritage Key
Action support, such as the BUGS and the URGE, both addressing Green Urban Spaces. Specific
investigations on this subject could be also found in the recent literature (Fang and Ling, 2005;
Lam et al., 2005; Nowak et al., 2006), making evident the relevance of this issue. However, in
Portugal, there is still a lack in scientific research relating green spaces and environmental quality,
being the GreenUrbe Project the first integrated study on this area of research.
Using the town of Bragança as our environmental system, this project tries to link three different
fields of study, Urban Forestry, Environmental Sciences and Urban Planning, helping to establish a
better understanding among these scientific areas of knowledge. Bragança is situated in the
Northeast of Portugal and has undergone a significant development, defining different green
spaces patterns within the urban limit. Moreover, this system has an appropriate structure and
complexity, to allow a better underpinning of the connections between green spaces and their
functions. At the end of the project, we hope this research can be a valuable contribution in both
methodological guidance to the assessment of green spaces impact on urban environmental
quality and adding relevant information on urban design options.
Methodology
Bearing in mind that evaluating green spaces impact on urban environmental quality is a
multidisciplinary and complex action, a multipartite methodology was developed supported by a
diverse and complementary team.
In order to accomplish this challenge, an integrated methodology was developed based on three
stages and eight tasks (Figure 1).
234
Figure 1: GreenUrbe Project methodology.

The first stage sets the starting basis for the investigation and includes a single task, consisting on
the assessment of local open spaces characteristics, in order to evaluate urban green structure,
allowing global understanding on both its biophysical and artificial interaction with the urban
environment. In order to strength global understanding over human perceptions and attitudes
towards urban green spaces, a survey will be developed reinforcing the characterisation by
integrating the human dimension. This stage allows full understanding over the urban structure in
its complexity and diversity, allowing the selection of contrasting green spaces situations, as a set
of individual spaces that will be assessed in micro-scale studies performed in the following stage.
Second stage focus on the evaluating separately environmental variables, at both urban and green
space scales, trying to establish potential relations between those variables, urban land use,
individual green spaces characteristics and social perceptions and attitudes. This stage is
developed around six tasks:
- The first task consists in a deep characterisation of both physical and biophysical characteristics
of selected green spaces, without loosing the sense of the urban scale perceptions;
- The second task is developed in order to provide data on acoustic environment and on acoustical
energy attenuation by vegetation;
- The third task consist on air quality parameters assessment, namely particulate matter, ground-
level ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and, in less extension, volatile organic compound (VOCs),
evaluating their levels in relation to green spaces distribution, size and composition in the urban
environment;
235
- The fourth task is somehow related to the previous one, since it involves haze evaluation by small
format aerial photograph, seeking to establish links of this atmospheric phenomenon to local air
quality;
- The fifth task concentrates on green spaces potential contribution to thermal comfort, evaluating
its impact in both environmental and human dimension, crosschecking climate data with human
perceptions.
Finally, on a third phase, multiparty results will be evaluated by applying different methods,
including multivariate analysis and spatial statistics techniques, trying to establish a set of relations
amongst green spaces and its impact on local environmental conditions, as GreenUrbe will try to
deliver useful recommendations on urban design.
Early Project Developments

Urban Green Structure Evaluation
Urban spaces are complex and systemic realities, as population, physical structures and
biophysical element, interact to produce the contemporary city (Beaujeau-Garnier, 1997, Bettini,
1998; Hough, 1998).
Bragança has grown from its initial limited settlement to become, mostly over the last three
decades, a fast growing and spreading urban reality. Throughout this process, landscape was
transformed leaving open green spaces and creating some public parks and gardens.
As a mean to evaluate essential landscape characteristics, morphological and structural elements

where identified, this information allowed the evaluation of essential attributes. Bragança is located
in a mountain region, and as a consequence, landscape has variable forms, as altimetry varies
form 560 to 800 meters. Weather conditions range from cold temperatures in the winter, being
frequent negative temperatures at nighttime, to very hot summers with temperatures rising up 40
degrees Celsius.
In order to evaluate the green structure, this project examined city’s global configuration, identifying
existent open spaces, consisting of non-built and unpaved areas. By examining its functionality and
its relations with its surroundings, open spaces were classified into ten categories, each defining
particular urban element, with distinctive functionality and vegetation (see Table 1 and Figure 2).
Table 1: Green structures elements

Open Spaces Descriptions Vegetation Indicators
Categories
Public Parks Especially developed There is a great variety of elements, - 1,5 % of the
and Gardens spaces, designed for from endemic to exotic species, most global area
human leisure, aesthetic spaces combine trees with grass - 8 m2 per hab
value and human elements. Most consolidated spaces - 18,6 Hectares
recreation, Most of them are situated in the oldest quarters,
are managed by the local with the biggest trees.
municipality.
Derelict land Vacant sites awaiting Usually naked ground with few - 8,7% of the global
development, situation spontaneous vegetation. In many area
that derived from natural cases establish a transition, from - 53 m2/ha
causes (neglected rural and forestry spaces, into paved - 125 Hectares
woodland or farm land, and constructed grounds. Endemic
etc.) or land damaged valuable species can be found in
form construction and these spaces.
other activities
Corridors Spaces that establish Most corridors are presently - 0,7% of the global
connections among the associated with local fluvial area
urban structure, especially surroundings and are composed - 4,2 m2/ha
through linear green mostly of riparian vegetation, - 100 Hectares
spaces and waterfronts. including Alder, Poplar, Ash and
Willow.
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Table 1: Green structures elements (continuation)
Open Spaces Descriptions Vegetation Indicators

Categories
Street trees, Punctual, linear and Spaces composed by street trees - 0,2% of the global
sidewalks and spatial elements and, occasionally, shrubs and narrow area
alleys combined along roads, turfs. Tree species varies greatly from - 1 m2/ha
design to ensure deciduous to coniferous. (Fig.) - 2,2 Hectares
protection and shadows to
pedestrians.
Historical Gardens associated with Consolidated urban sceneries - 0,1% of the global
Gardens historical elements, such integrating relevant vegetation area
as the local castle and elements, biggest tree are usually - 0,4 m2/ha
churches. located in these spaces, such as - 1 Hectare
sycamores.
Public and A large diversity of open A great diversity of situations can be - 7,4% of the global
private spaces surrounding public found, from almost derelict lands to area
services and private services quality green spaces. Some spaces, - 45 m2/ha
grounds buildings. such open air swimming-pools and - 106 Hectares
other sports facilities, are some of the
most valuable green spaces.
Residential Spaces surrounding Public spaces have mostly grass and - 4,9% of the global
gardens and buildings, with small areas shrubs cover. Courtyards often area
courtyards presenting some elements include trees, and aesthetic elements. - 30 m2/ha
for recreation. - 700 Hectares
Industrial Spaces surrounding Similar to derelict land, this spaces - 1,2% of the global
Parks industry facilities, mostly have little and mostly spontaneous area
unmanaged. vegetation. - 7,4 m2/ha
-175 Hectares
Agricultural Spaces in periurban The most important elements are - 29,8% of the
Fields locations, mostly situated cereal field crops. Near the water global area
in flat fields. courses and fluvial margins we found - 181 m2/ha
pasture lands, called “lameiros”, -427 Hectares
habitats with a high level of biological
diversity. There are some olive
groves and very small vineyards as
well. Small chestnut orchards and
apple groves or dispersal chestnut
trees are also elements of the
agricultural fields.
Forests Small woods can still be Small woods from maritime pine - 7,3% of the global
found in innerurban (Pinus pinaster), holm oak (Quercus area
spaces, as some rotundifolia) and pyrennean oak - 44,8 m2/ha
important forest extent (Quercus pyrenaica). We also find - 105 Hectares
until periurban locations. poplar plantations and areas with
chestnut orchards. Additionally and
near fluvial margins we find more
dense woodlands with alder, ash and
poplar.
One of the most representative elements in urban vegetation are street trees, not considered as
area elements but rather as punctual and linear. Bragança has over 4 thousand street trees.
Existent dataset shows exotic species as primary elements in this kind of structures. Five species
together represent 56% of global trees number, as Acer pseudoplatanus and Platanus hispanica
are the two foremost representative species. Native species contribute approximately with 9% of
the total number of street trees and, being the contribution of local native species just about 4%.
Ilex aquifolium and Betula celtiberic are the most representative local native tree species. Very few
specimens of other local native as Olea europea, Quercus rotundifolia, Castanea sativa, Quercus
pyrenaica and Ulmus minor. Additionally, small trees with a shrub like structure as is the case of
Taxus baccata, Crataegus monogyna and Juniperus communis are also present in the study area.
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Figure 2: Green structure map.

As efforts underlying vegetation evaluation are expected to be completed during October, this
global initial characterization will allow us to establish relations, in an urban perspective, between
green spaces and environmental variables.
Air quality measurements

To evaluate the influence of green spaces on air quality, measurements are being developed
addressing atmospheric concentration of particulate matter; ozone, nitrogen dioxide and VOCs.
This research takes place at two different spatial scales (urban and green space) and throughout
different seasons. From these field measurements, seasonal and spatial patterns of the
aforementioned pollutants will be inferred, in order to identify and establish potential relations
between air quality and urban land use, with special focus on density, shape and composition of
green spaces. Meteorological data is obtained from weather stations located in the study area and
by using portable automatic stations mounted specifically to serve project purposes.
Gaseous pollutants
Ambient concentrations of ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) are being measured at various locations (40 sampling points for O3 and NO2 and 21 for
VOCs) selected within a sampling grid of over 140 ha, going beyond urban perimeter. Figure 3
shows spatial distribution of sampling points. Criteria as source distribution, source type, land use,
green space structure and composition were taken into account in the grid point definition. Air
samples are collected at approximately 2,5 m height by means of passive sampling devices, more
precisely passive diffusing tubes. In each sampling point three diffusing tubes are disposed for O3
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and NO2, assuring higher levels of confidence on sampling and analysis. In relation to VOCs just
one absorbing tube is placed at each sampling site. Tubes are protected from bad weather
conditions by using PVC shelters easily assembled. Diffusing tubes not exposed to ambient air are
also placed at several points, in more than fifty percent of the total sampling points, for blank
correction. Ozone atmospheric levels are also continuously monitored in the urban area by using
an UV photometric analyser (Horiba, model APOA 360). In 2007, efforts will be done to extend
continuous measurements to other aforementioned pollutants.
Figure 3: Urban sampling grid defined for ozone, NO2 and COVs.
Excepting some situations, sampling is performed on weekly basis for ozone and on fortnightly
basis for NO2 and VOCs, allowing, from May to July 2006, a total of nine exposure periods: five to
ozone (17/05/06 to 23/05/06; 25/05/06 to 30/05/06; 06/06/06 to 13/06/06; 12/07/06 to 18/07/06;
18/07/06 to 24/07/06); three for NO2 (17/05/06 to 30/05/06; 06/06/06 to 13/06/06;); one to VOCs
(12/07/06 to 24/07/06). At the end of each period, tubes are retrieved and transported, in proper
conditions, to the laboratory for analysis. Samples of Ozone and NO2 are analysed in our chemical
laboratory by using visible spectofotometry, while VOCs samples are sent to Gradko International
Lab to be analysed by gas chromatograph/mass selective detector (GCMS). After concentration
data validation, geo-statistical methods, such as "kriging" or other spatial integration methods will
be applied to generate gaseous pollution maps.
Spatial distribution of NO2 concentration is shown in Figure 4, exhibiting a pattern strongly

correlated with the distribution and intensity of the mobile sources (road traffic). In fact, NO2 is
majority a secondary pollutant, since it is chemically produced by oxidation of NO directly emitted
by automobiles, being a good indicator of local and global air quality.
Concerning VOCs, the ten most abundant volatile organic compounds were identified for each
sampling point. In total, 33 VOCs species were found, being toluene, bezene, xylene,
ethylbenzene, benzene 1,2,4-trimethyl, hexane, naphthalene and D-limonene the most commonly
compounds present in the Bragança atmosphere (see Table 2). The first seven are generally
associated to traffic road and industrial emissions (Mohamed et al., 2002; Parra et al. 2006).
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Naphthalene is used as an antiseptic and insecticide, especially in mothballs and D-Limonene

works as paint stripper when applied to painted wood and is also used as botanical insecticide.
Figure 4: Spatial pattern of long-term NO2 concentrations (µg m-3) at urban scale.
The most abundant species were toluene, xylene and D-limonene, exhibiting systematically higher
values than other species detected. As expected, toluene and xylene were observed, at higher
concentrations, near relatively high traffic roads, while D-limonene exhibit a more complex spatial
pattern, because it was detected both near intense traffic roads and inside green spaces relatively
far from mobile sources. Although cars can be a large contribute in the observed spatial pattern,
estimates of Pearson correlation coefficient between pair of VOCs species showing good
correlations between TEX (toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene), but poor correlation between
benzene and TEX suggest an additional contribution of other VOCs sources as painting and
industrial solvents . Moreover, toluene/benzene ratios ranging between 2 and 15, also indicates
that mobile is not the only VOC source (Lee et al., 2002).
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Table 2: Long-term concentration of the top ten VOC species, in µg m-3, at each sampling
point.
Sampling Points ID
VOCs Species 2 7 9 12 13 15 17 18 19 20 21 24 25 26 28 30 31 32 33 34 40
1R-alfa-pinene 0,67 0,17
1S-alfa-pinene 0,53
alpha-methylstyrene 0,87 0,83
Benzene 0,06 0,51 0,17 0,1 0,38 0,15 0,1 0,22 0,34 0,33 0,45 0,08 0,1 0,5 0,11 0,08 0,24
Benzene 1,2,3-trimethyl 0,27 0,9
Benzene 1,2,4-trimethyl 0,69 0,92 1,38 0,99 0,81 0,15 1,5 0,95 1,18 0,5 0,72 0,55 0,7 1,26 0,52
Benzene, 1,2,4,5-tetramethyl 0,78
Benzene, 1-ethyl-2-methyl 0,51 0,74
Benzene, 1-ethyl-2,3-dimethyl 0,81
Benzene, 1-ethyl-3,5-dimehyil 0,38
Benzene, 1-methyl-3-propyl 0,71
Benzene, propyl 0,47 0,16 0,27
Benzeno, 1-ethyl-3-methyl 0,1 0,33 0,66
Cyclohexane, isothiocyanato 0,95 1,46 0,81 0,88 0,39 0,68 0,76 0,56
Decane 0,3 0,17 0,41 0,91 0,26 0,41 0,22 0,34
D-limonene 0,91 0,67 1,15 1,22 2,05 1,88 1,6 0,89 2,02 1,61 1,1 0,89 0,91 1,05 0,24 1,05 1,33 0,58 1,18 0,95
Dodecane 0,72
Ethylbenzene 0,13 0,5 0,11 0,18 0,19 0,34 0,29 0,09 0,63 0,32 0,24 0,07 0,18
Formamide, N,N-dimethyl 0,84 0,88 1,11 0,38 0,79 0,49 2,8 1,32 0,69 0,63
Heptane 0,69
Heptane 0,44
Hexadecane 0,25 0,76 0,68 0,64 0,39
Hexane 1 0,72 0,58 0,83 0,83 0,96 0,62 4,16 0,34 0,97 0,71 0,91 0,63
Methenamine 1,63
Naphthalene 0,55 0,51 0,46 0,14 1,08 0,16 0,52 0,53 0,46 0,29 0,49 0,25 0,11 0,38 0,5
Naphthalene, 1-methyl 1,67
o-Xylene 0,66 0,75 0,64 0,96 0,69 0,54 0,53 0,72 0,59
p-Xylene 0,37 0,47 0,69 0,92 0,2 0,48 0,94 1,38 0,23 0,84 0,29 0,41 0,32 1,04 0,5 0,52
Phenol, 2-ethyl 0,92 0,81 - 1,09 0,6 0,66
Tetradecane 0,27 0,68 0,52 0,31 0,82
Toluene 0,93 1,05 1,31 0,73 1,87 0,8 0,92 1,56 0,83 2,35 0,76 1,52 0,94 0,92 0,57 0,39 1,06 1,58 1,36 0,63 1,19
Tridecane 0,45
Undecane 1,24
Long-term ozone concentrations obtained during first two campaigns are also depicted in figure 5.
Values obtained in the first exposing period show a spatial trend marked somehow by higher
values near sources of the principal ozone precursors, nitrogen oxides and VOCs. Inversely,
values gathered in the second campaign show a different pattern, becoming evident an ozone
concentration increase in places farther from sources. This distinct behaviour may be associated to
meteorological conditions, which were quite different in both periods, mainly with regards to wind
speed and wind direction. In the other three sampling periods, ozone concentrations suggest the
existence of probable sampling/analysis mistakes, requiring a further validation period.
Figure 5: Spatial pattern of long-term O3 concentrations (µg m-3) at urban scale.
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Particulate matter
In relation to particulate matter, the experimental design consist in measuring concentrations of
PM10 at different places of Bragança's city, at least twice at each place, throughout the project
time, with the purpose of obtaining spatial and temporal pictures of this atmospheric pollutant.
However, spatial measurements can not be performed at same time in all selected locations. To
overcome this limitation, PM10 will be measured for a long period in order to catch a
representative concentration value at each location.
Additionally, another experimental design to underpinning the role of urban vegetation as filtration
elements of particulate matter will be put in practice. This field experiment consists in carrying out
short-term or very short-term measurements at specific selected green areas, both upwind and
downwind of the vegetation wind break zone, preferably during periods characterised by stable
wind conditions. Control test runs will also be set up on open ground near green area being tested,
in order to compare the differences between ground covers with and without vegetation.
PM10 field measurements are accomplished by using a particulate sampler Tecora ECHO PM,
equipped with head PM10 LVS, and a real time monitor of particles ADR 1200S (ThermoElectron),
very versatile, adapting to the multiple types of experimental design.
Finally, with the purpose of interpreting measured values with higher accuracy, modelling studies
involving either back-trajectories or air quality models (CALINE 4 and CAL3QHC) will also be
performed. Available internet satellite images can also be used as a fundamental tool to infer the
relative contribution of atmospheric aerosol sources.
Particulate matter measurements started some months before project beginning, involving PM10
concentrations measurements at three urban locations: a) in a green space surrounding the
superior education institution (IPB); b) in the main street of Bragança, Sá Carneiro Avenue, at
about 6 m from roadway central axis (three sampling periods – SCp1, SCp2, SCp3); c) near a
crossroad with semaphores, at approximately 20 m from road (SEM).
120
Min
100
PM10 (µg m - 3)
Max
80
Mean
60
40
20
0
IPB SEM SCp1 SCp2 SCp3
Sampling sites
Figure 6: PM10 concentrations at urban atmosphere of Bragança
Results obtained are depicted in figure 6, which shows that Bragança is sometimes exposed to
significant levels of PM10, with concentrations reaching values sometimes higher than 100 µg m-3.
Among all sampling places, the Sá Carneiro Avenue is maybe the street with higher road traffic
intensity exhibit values systematically elevated of particles (> 40 µg m-3), foreseeing some
difficulties in executing legal criteria in future. The concentrations of PM10 seem to be well
correlated with the automobile emissions, although dust transport from neighbourhood locations
and long range transport of particulate matter have been also identified as potential sources.
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At this moment, an intercomparison test between the particulate sampler and the particulate
monitor is elapsing, as it is expected that by the end of September field measurements will be
retaken.
Haze evaluation
Although Bragança is a city with relatively good air quality, under some summer conditions
atmosphere visibility decreases drastically. Based on the occurrence of this phenomenon, a
technique using High Quality Small Format Aerial Photography (SFAP) will be applied.
A flight navigation system and a camera rig is used to obtain these photographs, which will then be
used to estimate haze content in the study area, by using image processing technology normally
used in remote sensing (RS). We will try to find positive relationship with the haze content and the
air quality evaluated on the ground, as well as, with superficial biophysical elements, as green
spaces.
The Small Format Aerial Photography (SFAP) constitutes an alternative to the standard aerial
photography, being a very promising technology with many fields of application that should be
investigated. Moreover, the light high wings aircrafts like Cessna 172 (available model in the
airfield of Bragança) are appropriate to the SFAP.
A camera rig (small portable housing for the cameras 35 and 70 mm), and diverse accessories,
already designed and constructed, will be installed outside the pilot cabin and attached to the
aircraft structure without modifying it and satisfying the Civil Aviation Authorities.
The quality of aerial photography and survey flight efficiency can be greatly improved by automatic
compensation of the angular aircraft movements. Nevertheless, our system provides a good
accuracy at a reasonable price, including a GPS-based survey flight management system, already
tested in similar studies.
The flight lines planning takes in account the film magazine capacity, especially in the 70 mm
format that still can be used to capture high quality images. So, each flight line extent must be
adequate to the number of photographs of each film, considering a 60 % overlap of two successive
photos. Even considering the existence in the market of the CCD back to 70 mm cameras, this
solution is technically inefficient because of the low speed of images transferring. Moreover, the
cost is also very high. The 35 mm digital cameras provide already good chromatic and geometric
quality of the images with adequate speed of data transferring according the use of modern
UltraCompactFlash systems. Several authors propose the CIR digital cameras in vegetation
monitoring. We intent to include this kind of cameras in the platform rig.
The camera shooting will be controlled by an intervalometer wish require a very uniform flight
speed to get constant overlaps between pairs of photographs. A skilled pilot can do that efficiently.
To evaluate the haze component we intend to measure the reflectance of several ground control
targets and also air quality at different times in a single summer day. Simultaneously will be
acquired SFAP for further comparing. This process will be repeated 3 times each year. To perform
the evaluation of the haze content, captures of the study area will be taken in SFAP colour infrared
films (CIR) and normal colour. Just after this moment the same kind of images will be captured but
covering large areas of clean deep water. It’s important to include also some ground control
targets near the water that could be directly compared with some similar targets of the study area.
The poor reflectance of the infrared light in clean deep water could be used to estimate the haze
contents by the methodology initially proposed by Chavez (1988) (Dark Object Subtraction) to the
atmospheric correction of remote sensing images.
To complement aerial photographs analysis, a camera installed in a high building will be used to
take daily panoramic photos, mainly during summer season.
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This task was foreseen to start-up in July 06, but first flight was just performed at 20 September.
Preliminary conclusions of this task are expected to the next month.
Environmental Noise Quantitative Analysis
The absorbing capacities of the urban green cover regarding acoustical energy will be investigated
through an experimental design that involves noise measurements, noise attenuation tests and
modelling techniques of sound behaviour.
Noise measurements are being performed at specific urban sites, at two different spatial scales,
urban and green space scale. On urban scale, various locations covering a wide range of urban
land use, without obeying to any regular grid, were selected for noise measurements. At green
space scale, higher spatial resolution measurements are conducted in a set of points disposed on
a grid varying in size and shape, as a function of local characteristics, namely noise sources and
types of vegetation. Taking into account the seasonal variability of the green coverage, measuring
campaigns will be performed at each site, in both summer and winter conditions, with the objective
to underpinning the real contribution of vegetation on sonorous environment.
Concerning the sound attenuation tests, a stable point source (loudspeaker) is used together with
a sound meter at specific and contrasting vegetation barriers. At each vegetation barrier, global
sound pressure levels and sound pressures associated to each 1/3 octave frequency band, are
measured along transect lines perpendicularly crossing the belt, following an experimental design
similar to that described in Fang and Ling (2003). At each transect, measuring sites will be define
in regular gaps, starting at the edge of the green area, near the noise source. The number of
transect lines and measuring points will be a function of the green area size and morphology.
Control test runs will also be set up on open ground near tested green area, in order to compare
the differences in sound pressure levels between two types of ground cover. Measurements at
different seasons will be also assured whenever biometric parameters of vegetation undergo
significant seasonal changes.
Finally, with the purpose to complement the information provided by measurements, a sound
pressure modelling computer tool (CADNA A) is used both for mapping noise levels concerning
existent situations, properly validated by existent measurements, and for evaluating interesting
links between future urban land use scenarios and sound environment predicted scenarios.
Up to now, a large environmental noise dataset has already been constructed, although it is
expected that next year there will be a strong impulse to accomplish all pre-established objectives.
Measurements at the urban scale show that environmental noise ranges between 40 dBA, at
places relatively far from roads, to 75 dBA at residential areas near roadways with higher traffic
intensity, showing a potential conflict between existent noise sources and sensible receptors.
Similarly to described air emission, noise is also generated principally by mobile traffic, creating
adjacent areas with significant noise annoyance. This situation is illustrated by spatial noise pattern
shown in Ricafe and IPB green spaces (Figure 7). The first place is a tree belt located between a
roadway and a residential area; the second, is a green area surrounding Bragança Polytechnic
Institute. Comparing both locations, a noise gradient decreasing from the area border to its centre
is quite visible. Moreover, taking into account the principal differences between both locations, with
regards to vegetation characteristics, results show that green coverage could act as an effective
biotechnology in reducing noise.
To help our analysis, a preliminary test was already carried out at the Ricafe area, one of the most
wide tree belt located in city periurban location, acting as a sound barrier between a roadway and
a residential area. This is a green area of about 7,1 ha of pure regular Maritime pine (Pinus
pinaster Ait.), about 32 years old. Through a systematic sampling of 30 temporary 100m2 plots,
mean stand density was estimated in 876 trees per hectare. The spacing between trees is regular
244
about 4 x 2.5 meters. Wilson factor present an average value of 20. The average height of
dominant trees is 16.1 meters, with a crown length about 10 m. Density values of 157 ton/ha were
obtained by applying Lopes (2005) biomass equations.
Figure 6. Noise levels at Ricafé and IPB green spaces.
Under canopy, various shrubs were found (Rosa sp., Rubus sp., Crataegus monogyna, Daphne
gnidium, Lonicera peryclimenum, Cytisus scoparius, Genista falcata and Quercus rotundifolia) and
herbaceous of the graminae family. The coverage density was experimentally quantified and was
estimated in 400 kg/ha.
Results from this preliminary test (figure 7) shows that Pinus pinaster enhances noise attenuation
by 3 dBA/20m, which are within the range reported by Fang and Ling (2003) for a large set of tree
belts (1,5-9,5 dBA/20m). Attenuation analysis by 1/3 octave band frequencies do not show any
substantial difference between high and low frequencies attenuation.
90 Transec with trees
Control Transect
80
Tree belt edge
70
dBA
60
50
40
0 20 40 60
Distance from noise source (m)
Figure 7: Sound levels measured along two linear transects.
In the near future, other type of tree belt will be investigated, especially narrow structures because
they are more common in landscape planning.
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Thermal Comfort
As an initial research, the thermal component of urban climate was evaluated, as it affects the
quality of life in cities by its influence over thermal comfort, heath, energy consumption and air
quality. Within the framework of the GreenUrbe project, a network of 4 fixed data-loggers (Testo
175-H1) and 2 automated weather stations (Campbell Scientific Inc., Logan, UT, USA) were
installed in 6 places with different microclimatic conditions. Air temperature and relative humidity
were measured in all places, wind speed and wind direction in two places and solar radiation in just
one place. The measurements were made in March during a 30 day period. This preliminary study
shows relevant spatial variability, however it’s still soon establish relations with the urban structure
and green spaces elements. Complementary studies will be developed in winter and summer
conditions, allowing further knowledge on most contrasting situations.
However, the development of comfort studies implies the acknowledgement of other elements
rather than traditional climate variables (generally designated as environmental comfort), with the
evaluation of the human dimension related to de rate of activity and clothing. Together these
variables will be used to evaluate human thermal comfort using Fanger (1972) indicators:
Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied (PPD) and Predicted Mean Vote (PMV). Other indicators may
be developed during the process of variables interpretation.
In order to assess thermal comfort under different green spaces conditions, and bearing in mind
studies developed by Givoni et al. (2003), experiments were conducted during the summer of
2006, in a grassed surface open space and in a concrete surface area, in an urban park. Three
places, with different microclimatic conditions: (1) under a large shade tree (grass), (2) in an open
area exposed to the sun (concrete), (3) in an open area exposed to the sun (grass) and (4) behind
a vegetation wind shelter of evergreen shrubs (grassed), were selected in order to understand how
physical factors such as radiation, wind and temperature influence thermal sensation and comfort
level.
The measured environmental factors included air temperature, wind speed and direction, wet and
dry-bulb temperature and radiation balance.
A questionnaire was applied in order to obtain personal sensory responses, evaluating both
thermal sensation and overall comfort. Twelve persons participated in the study, equally numbered
males and females, ranging from twenties to sixties and wearing white T-shirt and trousers,
commonly used clothes in this region’s summer conditions. They participated in four subgroups of
three persons, distributed according to age classes (20-30; 30-40, 40-50 and 50-60 years old),
each subgroup stayed in each location for 20 min (15 min to get used to thermal condition and 5
min to fill individual questionnaires) and then moved to a different one, in a rotation schedule. After
each 80 minutes, all subgroups had gone trough all four places. This procedure started at 9 a.m.
and finished at 6 p.m. (local time) and was repeated four times during the day. Further thermal
comfort studies will be developed in selected green spaces under summer and winter conditions.
Both urban and micro-scale studies will be used to evaluate of green spaces’ influence on urban
environmental and thermal comfort.
Despite gathered data are still under analysis, first interpretations show thermal comfort responses
in good agreement with onsite environmental conditions.
Population Attitudes and Perceptions Evaluation
As some green spaces’ environmental benefits are well understood by the scientific communities,
urban population may not be aware of its importance in daily living. Recent studies concentrate on
human attitudes and perceptions towards urban green spaces, including the interpretation of its
environmental benefits (DTLR, 2002; Sanesi and Chiarello, 2005).
In order to address this component of our study, two types of studies were carried out: the first one
concentrates on a global population approach, as the second focus on individual spaces users.
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Scheduled for October 2006, a residential survey will be developed to a representative sample,
both in socio-demographic as in geographic terms, assessing 400 inhabitants, around two per cent
of adult population, living in diverse city locations. This survey will be developed by domiciliary
contact and will focus on the following evaluation elements:
- Sample characterization – Characterization of the surveyed population, including age, gender,

profession, education level and family characteristics;
- Relation with green spaces – Individual relation with this spaces, including such elements as
frequency in use, means of transport, distance traveled, time spent and developed activities;
- Daily meaning – Identification of inhabitants perceptions on green spaces importance,

evaluating the acknowledgement of its benefits;
- Limitations to use – Identifications of elements representing important constraints to use, such

as pollution, safety and others;
- Quality elements in green spaces – Inhabitants preferences in vegetation, aesthetics elements

and others;
- Quality evaluation – Quality evaluation over different kinds of green spaces.
Data resulting from this survey will provide relevant information allowing global understanding on
the relevance of different green spaces, and thus allowing cross-examination on the relations
between environmental quality and individual choices.
Starting in next winter, and executed in summer and winter, surveys will be developed under a
different perspective, trying to assess casual user perceptions, wile under the influence of selected
green spaces environmental conditions. This survey will be undertaken while simultaneously
assessing environmental parameters (noise, thermal comfort and air quality). This study will bring
relevant information about inhabitant’s perceptions over green spaces influence on environmental
conditions.
Final Remarks and Future Developments

The first year of GreenUrbe Project was concentrated on the development of a set of preliminary
researches with four fundamental purposes: knowing better the system, i.e., Bragança’s city and its
green structure; improving general methodology; refining all experimental designs; and, in
preliminary basis, because it still needs a larger and properly validated data set, extracting
preliminary conclusions regarding the role of green spaces on environmental quality.
Concerning the first purpose, Bragança can be defined as small city, with a fragmented green
structure, composed predominately by agricultural areas, few urban forest spaces and abundant
young street trees alignments, which must be optimised to meet other sustainable requirements.
Preliminary results on environmental quality open good perspectives to future developments.

Measurements of air quality seem consistent, although the data set is still under evaluation.
Atmospheric pollution in the city it is not drastic, but a spatial profile was clearly identified, in which
polluted areas are mostly associated with traffic roads, since vehicles are the main emission
sources. It is expected that winter time measurements can identify domestic heating as another
relevant source. Analogous traffic source relations are established with noise levels. Preliminary
measurements are still scarce to allow confident interpretations on quantitative causal relationships
between environmental quality and green spaces characteristics.
During the next two years, much is still to be done in order to scientifically understand the role of
green spaces on environmental quality. The achievement of this overall objective requires further
measurements at urban scale, intensification of inner green spaces experimental designs and
247
human perception evaluation. Moreover, further efforts will concentrate on establishing correlations
among variables by applying different methods, including multivariate analysis and spatial statistics
techniques, trying to establish a set of relations amongst green spaces and its impact on local
environmental conditions.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the Portuguese Science and Technology Foundation and by
European Fund for Regional Development (FEDER). The authors are grateful to the Climatological
Group of the Bragança Polytechnic Institute especially to A. Araújo for providing meteorological
data and authorising equipment installation in the group facilities. Authors also thank to public
institutions and private owners for having made possible the placement of equipment and sampling
devices in their properties. Special reference has to be made to several Bragança Polytechnic
Institute students who much have helped in the development of this research.
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249
Mapping the snow albedo on the territory of Romania using

NOAA/AVHRR Satellite Data
Simona Oancea, Andrei Diamandi
National Meteorological Administration, Satellite Department, 97 Soseaua Bucuresti-Ploiesti, 013686, Sector
1 Bucharest, Romania, Tel. +40-21-318 32 40; Fax: +40-21-316 77 62, simona.oancea@meteo.inmh.ro
Abstract
A method is presented for retrieving the snow albedo over Romania area using Advanced Very High
Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) data obtained from NOAA polar orbiting satellites. Visible and near-infrared
albedos over snow surfaces are obtained from AVHRR channels 1 and 2,and the broadband albedo is
derived through narrow to broadband conversion. The balance between energy absorbed by the earth and
energy reflected back into space is fundamental determinated by the snow albedo. Using this algorithm it is
also revealed the snow melting process in the different areas from Romania in the same time.
Introduction
There are several fundamental physical properties of snow that modulates energy exchanges
between the surface and the atmosphere. One of the most important properties of the snow
surface is the reflectance (snow albedo). Surface albedo, the hemispheric reflectivity integrated
over the entire solar spectrum, it is a fundamental component for determining the Earth’s climate. It
is a parameters needed in both global and regional climate models, and for determining surface
energy balance. Performance of energy balance melt models is critically dependent on
performance of albedo parameterizations, which have to be applied in a distributed fashion.
Typically, albedo values for non-melting snow-covered surfaces are high (~80-90%). The rapid
change of surface albedo due to the fast change of surface conditions and scarcity of field
measurements of albedo with an accuracy sufficient for testing call for using the satellite data.
Satellite data are indispensable for this task because of their unique combination of capabilities
such as repeat coverage over areas and the ability to derive information on important surface
properties. Measurements over large spatial areas from satellites and the frequent overpasses of
polar-orbiting satellites over study area, however make it feasible to monitor the change of the
snow surface albedo. Surface albedo has been derived over snow/ice surfaces using Advanced
Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) data by De Abreu et al. (1994), Li and Leighton (1992),
Laine V., et al (1996).
Material Studied
This paper was done using the results obtained by the first author as a visiting scientist activity at
the Finnish Meteorological Institute, from 1 November 2001 to 30 April 2002, in the context of
EUMETSAT's Satellite Application Facility on Climate Monitoring (CM-SAF) Program (Simona
Oancea et.al (2002)). This visiting scientist activity investigated the possibilities to apply the current
the Climate Monitoring -Satellite Application Facility surface (sea-ice) albedo algorithm in the polar
region. Satellite data used here are provided by NOAA/AVHRR and for validation this methodology
were used the SHEBA (Surface HEat Budget of the Arctic Ocean) ground measurements albedo.
The SHEBA project have the main topic focused on enhancing understanding of the key processes
that determine ice albedo feedback in the Arctic pack ice and on applying this knowledge to
improve climate modeling. The dataset collected for analysis in this report are a component of the
SHEBA field program (1997-1998), namely the wavelength-integrated albedos values provided by
courtesy of Perovich D. et al., 1999.
Taking into account this report an algorithm was developed for retrieving the broadband albedo
over Romania area.
250
Satellite Data
The NOAA/AVHRR spectral response covers the ranges important for energy balance studies. The
principal drawback for surface parameter retrievals is cloud cover. However, AVHRR, alone among
the available imaging sensors, incorporates the 3.7 µm-infrared band, which greatly improves
cloud detection. The AVHRR has five channels centered at approximately 0.6, 0.9, 3.7, 11, and 12
�m (channels 1 through 5, respectively).
Based on the previous statements, the principal advantages of NOAA/AVHRR data are:
♦ its temporal resolution
♦ its good spectral information (visible, near, middle and thermal infrared)
♦ high spatial resolution moreover, (1.1 km at nadir)
The primary source of satellite images was Satellite Archive of the Satellite Laboratory –National
Meteorological Administration. The choosing of the satellite images depended on study area
(Romania area) the position of the interest area on the image (for avoiding large view angle of
satellite, Simona Oancea et al., (2000)), the date and time of acquisition of satellite image (by the
sensor), the spatial resolution of the image and the format of image file.
For this study we used NOAA/AVHRR 12 and 14 images, during the March 2000, which are in
AVHRR High Resolution Picture Transmission (HRPT) data format. The information from all the
channels of these satellites was used in the determination of the surface snow albedo values.
Methods
The algorithm of a broadband albedo estimated from the NOAA/AVHRR for Romania area consists
in
9 Data Extraction
9 Radiometric Calibration,
9 Detection of Clouds
9 Atmospheric Correction
9 Bi-directional Reflectance Distribution Function (BRDF) Correction
9 Narrow-to Broadband Conversion (Xiong et al., 2002.)
9 Image Navigation
For all these processing stages we used the Erdas 8.3.1. Software and the modules incorporated
into it.
Results
Taking account into the results obtained in the report (Simona Oancea et.al (2002)) was
established an algorithm for the determination of the snow albedo values over Romania using
NOAA/AVHRR satellite data for all the days on March 2000. The change of surface conditions is
shown in the examples from figures 1-3. Together with appearance of the melt points the albedo
values start to decrease. Using satellite data this can be noticed easy the snow melting, for
example on March 7, 2000 when the most albedo values were around 0.8-0.9 (the explanation of
251
these values is the full presence of snow, which reflects strongly at visible wavelengths, Perovich,
D.K., (1996).) and the decrease become evident on March 13, 2000, where the value of albed
o is predominant 0.4 -0.5 more exactly on March 23, 2000, where the value of albedo is very lower.
Figure 1. The snow albedo values obtained using NOAA/AVHRR, on March 7, 2000, over
Romania area
Romania area
252
Romania area
Conclusions
A snow albedo retrieval methodology was developed and tested here for Romania case study
using NOAA/AVHRR satellite data during on March 2000 period. The general temporal changes in
surface albedo are reproduced quite well with the NOAA satellite estimates. Using this algorithm it
is also revealed the snow melting process in the different areas from Romania in the same time. In
this case, we obtained that the broadband albedo is higher in the beginning period of study (the
first days of March) and lower in the end of period as a result of an increase a melt period.
References
1. De Abreu, R. A., J. Key, J. A. Maslanik, M.C. Serreze, and E.F. LeDrew, (1994). Comparison of in
situ and AVHRR-derived broadband albedo over Arctic sea ice. Arctic, 47, 288-297.
2. Laine V., et al (1996). Estimation of surface albedo from NOAA AVHRR data in high latitudes.
Tellus48A(3):424-441
3. Li, Z., and H.G. Leighton, (1992). Narrowband to broadband conversion with spatially autocorrelated
reflectance measurement. J. Appl. Meteor., 31, 421-433.
4. Perovich, D.K., (1996). The optical properties of sea ice. CRREL Monogr., 96-1, 25pp.
5. Perovich D et al., 1999: SHEBA. Snow and Ice Studies, CRREL, CD-ROM. (Avalilable from D.
Perovich, CRREL, 72 LYMERoad, Hanover, NH 03755.)
6. Simona Oancea, Andrei Diamandi, Alina Hofnar, Oana Nicola, (2000). Luminarea si geometria
observatiilor pentru imaginile NOAA/AVHRR. Studii si Cercetari I.N.M.H. Bucuresti.
7. Simona Oancea , Vesa Laine, Kaj Andersson, Karl Göran Karlsson (2002). Validation of Arctic
Albedo Measurements. Visiting scientist report, unpublished.
8. Xiong et al., 2002. Surface Albedo over the Arctic Ocean Derived from AVHRR and its Validation
with SHEBA Data. Journal of Applied Meteorology, Vol41, 413-425.
253
Environmental risks and impact of old mine loadings

in Slovak republic
Alena LUPTAKOVA1, Andrea SLESAROVA1, Maria KUSNIEROVA1
1
Institute of Geotechnics, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Watsonova 45, 04353 Kosice, Slovak republic,
Telephone: +421-55-7922622, Fax: +421-55-7922604, E-mail: luptakal@saske.sk
Abstract
One from the biggest environmental problems relating to mining and processing activities in the worldwide
basis is the formation and treatment of acid mine drainage (AMD). Bacteria of genera Acidithiobacillus and
Leptospirillum mostly condition AMD genesis. The sulphide ore deposits can form during mining, but
especially after the mines closing the potential “natural geobioreactors” producing AMD. These function at
the principle of biogenic catalysis of chemical oxidation of primary and secondary sulphide minerals by
mentioned types of bacterial living in the symbiosis with the other aerobic and anaerobic bacteria species. In
Slovak republic there are many localities with existing AMD generation conditions. The continuance of acid
mine drainage generation is not possible to stop and there is no chance of situation self-improvement. It is
necessary to respect this situation, monitor the quality of these waters and develop the methods of their
treatment. The main goal of the article is the study of existence and development of biological "in-situ"
processes in some sulphide ore deposits and their waste deposits in Slovak republic.
Introduction
The term „mine waters“ is used to name all underground, surface and seepage waters that
penetrated into the underground or surface mines as a result of seepage, gravitation or simply
leakage of atmospheric water, where they link with other permanent surface or underground
waters. The specific issue of clarifying the generation of acid mine drainage (AMD) has an
interdisciplinary character involving natural and technical sciences. The explanation of AMD
generation is traditionally based on the principle of ongoing physical and mainly chemical
processes in the contact zones of geological and water environment catalysed by mining activity
resulting in the increase of contact surface and the access of oxygen to the system.
AMD represent one of the major environmental problems concerning mainly the remains after
former mining activity (old mine loads) – exploitation of polymetallic, precious metal and sulphide-
containing deposits. AMD contain sulphuric acid and metals in soluble form (Fe, Cu, Zn, As, etc.).
Their value of pH is very low, about 1.5 – 2.0 (Kontopoulos, 1998). AMD cause the decomposition
of other minerals, the devastation of the surrounding environment, the contamination of
underground water and water streams by a wide range of elements, including the toxic ones, the
penetration of metals into the food chain, etc. The fact that the genesis of AMD is conditioned by
the existence of autochthonous chemolithotrophic Fe- and S-oxidising bacteria of Acidithiobacillus
genus is taken into account only to a small extent, and if so, only in extreme cases. During
exploitation, but mainly after the mines were closed, sulphide mineral deposits may become
potential “natural biogeoreactors” producing AMD (Kušnierová et al., 1998) and functioning on the
principle of biogenous catalysis of chemical oxidation of both primary and secondary sulphide
minerals by the above-mentioned species of bacteria that live in symbiosis with other species of
aerobic and anaerobic bacteria (Johnson, 1998). Due to this sulphide-weathering process metal in
the water-insoluble sulphide is transformed into water-soluble sulphate.
Our previous research demonstrates the biological catalysis of oxidation „in situ“ processes in
deposits located in Smolník, Pezinok and Šobov deposits. All three localities can be currently
considered as natural geobioreactors producing AMD with pH 1 - 3 and high content of heavy
metals. There are currently about 400 million tons of ore material resources in Slovakia situated in
90 economically profitable deposits many of which were exploited short or long time ago or partly
exploited within the geological survey. At present there are only two deposits being exploited,
namely Au-ore deposit in Hodruša and Fe-ore in Nižná Slaná. The other deposits are mostly
flooded within the exploitation-attenuating process. The flooded mine area containing sulphide is a
254
suitable environment for gradual generation and intensification of biological-chemical oxidation

resulting in the increase of acidification and mineralisation.
Except for the three examples mentioned above, a little attention has been paid to the study of
occurrence of autochthonous Fe- and S-oxidising microbial cultures the catalytic effect of which
could be, sooner or later, a trigger for the formation of other geobioreactors. For the protection of
the environment and in connection with new legislation being under way it is of great importance to
obtain knowledge on the mentioned issues to prevent the unwanted effects of acid mine drainage.
This was the reason why our research focused on the monitoring of the occurrence of
autochthonous chemolithotrophic Fe- and S-oxidising bacteria of Acidithiobacillus genes in water in
the selected sulphide mineral deposits on the territory of Slovakia, as well as on the qualitative
evaluation of AMD samples from the point of view of their acidity and content of heavy metals.

Silverman´s and Lundgren´s selective nutrient medium 9K (DSM, 1989) was used for the isolation
and following cultivation of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans bacteria, and Waksman´s and Joffe´s
selective nutrient medium (DSM, 1989) for Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans bacteria. These selective
nutrient media were inoculated by mine water samples to obtain enriched bacterial culture. This
process was followed by isolation of a clean bacterial culture using plate dilution method
(Silverman and Lundgren, 1959; Karavajko et al., 1988). The identification was carried out by
studying morphological, physiological and cultivation properties (Karavajko et al., 1988).

There were 120 samples of water taken from 24 localities in eastern, central and western Slovakia.
On the basis of qualitative chemical analysis of metals, sulphates and measurement of pH and Eh
it can be concluded that the current state of mine waters is satisfactory in most localities, except for
Pezinok, Smolník (Fig.1) and Šobov (Fig. 2) with an intensive generation of acid mine drainage.
The isolation of acidophilous Fe- and S-oxidising bacteria of Acidithiobacillus genus was realized
from all mine water samples. The possibility of bio-catalysis of weathering process in deposits was
identified at totally 32 sampling points in 12 localities of sulphide deposits (Fig. 3, 4 and Fig. 5).
The occurrence of Acidithiobacillus bacteria was not connected solely with a high acidity of water,
but corresponded to the increased concentration of iron and sulphates. The primary isolation of
Acidithiobacillus bacteria was carried out in the following localities: Rožňava – Augusta Tunnel
(Fig. 6), Nižná Slaná – Jozef Shaft, Slovinky – Alžbeta Shaft, Rudňany – New Tunnel, Kremnička –
Dedičná Tunnel (Fig. 7), Voznica – Voznická dedičná Tunnel, Voznica – New drain tunnel
and Fichtenhűbel – Raky Tunnel.
Figure 1. The effluent of Acid Mine Figure 2. The effluent of Acid Mine
Drainage the locality Smolník (Slovak Drainage the locality Šobov (Slovak
255
Republic). Republic).
Figure 3. The occurrence of Acidithiobacillus bacteria in Slovak Republic
1 – Pezinok, 2 – Kremnička, 3 – Horná Ves, 4 – Voznica, 5 – Šobov, 6 – Odkalisko sedem
žien, 7 – Nižná Slaná, 8 – Rožňava, 9 – Rudňany, 10 – Slovinky, 11 – Smolník,
12 – Fichtenhűbel.
Figure 4. Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans Figure 5. Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans

bacteria, isolated from the acid mine drainage bacteria, isolated from the acid mine drainage
from the locality Smolník (Slovak Republic), from the locality Šobov (Slovak Republic),
the scanning electron microscope. the scanning electron microscope.
Figure 6. Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans Figure 7. Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans

bacteria, isolated from the acid mine bacteria, isolated from the acid mine
drainage from the locality Rožňava – drainage from the locality Kremnička –
Augusta Tunnel (Slovak Republic), the Dedičná Tunnel (Slovak Republic), the
light microscope. light microscope.
The results obtained demonstrate a real possibility of the acid mine drainage generation in
Slovinky, Rožňava and Rudňany. There was an increased content of sulphate, Fe or Sb observed
in all samples taken from these localities, as well as the occurrence of Acidithiobacillus bacteria,
256
indicating the biological-chemical oxidation of sulphur- and iron- containing minerals and the
possibility of certain changes in the water mineralisation. These facts support the need to monitor
the quality of water after the completion of deposit flooding, mainly as regards the content of iron
and sulphates and other toxic metals contained in paragenesis.
On the basis of results obtained it was possible to come to a conclusion that 12 samples from the
researched set of localities did not meet the criteria concerning the quality of special waters
according to the Slovak Government Regulation no. 296/2005 Coll., which include waste waters
originating from the exploitation and processing of sulphide ores, as well as seepage waters from
the relevant landfills. Smolník, Šobov a Pezinok were identified as localities at risk due to
significant activity of autochthonous acidophilous chemolithotrophic S- and Fe- oxidising bacteria
that basically operate as natural geobioreactors producing acid mine drainage and seepage water
with pH ranging from 1.0 to 4.5 and increased or even extremely high levels of heavy metals. The
most critical values were observed in Smolník deposit. That was the reason for starting
a systematic monitoring of geochemical development in acid mine drainage in 2004 in order to
prepare a prognosis in terms of environmental risk and use of these waters as an atypical source
of a wide range of elements.
Conclusion
The occurrence of acidophilous autochthonous S- and Fe-oxidising bacteria as one of basic factors
of bio-catalysis supporting the generation of strongly mineralised acid mine drainage was
confirmed at 31 sampling points situated in old mine loads in Slovakia. As for acidity and extent of
mineralisation of acid mine drainage generated in old mine loads, it is possible to consider
Smolník, Šobov and Pezinok as localities at risk. The results obtained proved a real possibility of
acid mine drainage generation in Slovinky, Rožňava and Rudňany. Some strongly mineralised acid
mine drainage can be considered as atypical source of a wide range of elements. There is
a prospective possibility of using sulphate-reducing bacteria of Desulfovibrio
and Desulfotomaculum genera to eliminate negative effects of acid mine drainage on the
surrounding environment.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Slovak Research and Development Agency under the contract No.
APVV-51-027705 and Slovak grant agency VEGA for project No. 2/5148/25.
References
1. DSM Catalogue 1989. Deutsche Sammlung von Microorganismen und Zelekulturen GmbH,
Braunschweig, 1989.
2. Johnson, B.D. 1998. Biodiversity and ecology of acidophilic microorganisms. FEMS
Microbiol. Ecol. 27, 307-317.
3. Johnson, D.B. 1995. Selective solid media for isolating and enumerating acidophilic
bacteria. J Microbiol Methods. 23, 205– 18.
4. Karavaiko, G.I., Rossi, G., Agate, A.D., Groudev, S.N., Avakyan, Z.A. 1988. Biotechnology
of metals - manual. Centre for International projects GKNT, Moscow.
5. Kontopoulos, A. 1998. Acide Mine Drainage Control. In: Effluent Treatment in the Mining
Industry, pp. 1-220. (Castro, S. H., Vergara, F. and Sánchez, M. A., Eds.). University of
Conception- Chile.
6. Kušnierová, M., Luptáková, A., Vašková, H., Jaško, V. 1998. Biogenic hazardous factors of
the old mines remainings in Smolník. In: 4th Conference on Environment and Mineral
Processing, Ostrava, VŠB-TU, p. 565-570.
7. Silverman, M.P., Lundgren, D.C. 1959. Studies on the chemoautotrophic iron bacterium
Ferrobacillus ferrooxidans an improved medium and a harvesting procedure for securing
high cell yields. J. Bacteriol. 77, 642–47.
257
Multicriteria decision aid method used in environmental assessment

Mădălina Aramă
INCD-ECOIND Bucharest - Sos Panduri no. 90-92, Sector 5, postal code 050663, tel. 04.021/410
0377/152, fax: 04.021/410-0575 sau 04.021/412-0042, ecoind@incdecoind.ro attn. Madalina
Arama
Abstract
The increasing pressure of ecological issues made more complex the decision to evaluate new industrial
developments in the context of existing and potential pollution linked to the corresponding location.
The overall environmental impact of projects should to consider a multitude of aspects related mostly to air,
soil, water and land use and the decision makers should be offered tools for ranking the possible alternatives
that make easier for the companies to obtain their permit and for governments bodies to motivate their
decision. The environmental assessment of impacts should offer pros and cons for the optimal decision
related to the environment which should be integrated also from the point of view of economic and social
activities. The goal of this paper is to present a general example of using Multicriteria Decision Analysis
Approach (MCDA) for those projects.
Introduction
The environmental impact assessment is a necessity of our days for any development that might
bring prejudice to the environment. Quantifying these prejudices is a complicated thing that should
consider a multitude of relevant criteria able to measure and to balance the positive and negative
impacts. The sustainable development concept, presented first time by World Commission for
Environmental and Development (WCED) in 1987, in the document named Our Common Future,
known also as Brundtland Report is concerned with links between economic development and
social and environmental impacts brought along with economic progress. The concept is focused
on the intra-generation and inter-generations justice in relation with environment and economic
development. The concept states the moral duty of present generation to preserve the natural
stock of resources in the process of satisfying their needs while keeping open the right of choice
and unrestricted access to options for future generations for satisfying their own needs. The equity
access principle should prevail in using natural resources. Sustainable approach is actually
translated into a differentiated response of developed countries and of developing ones in relation
to the planning process of future sustainable economic development in accordance with principle 7
of Rio Declaration. Developed countries and developing ones have different priorities related to the
way they address sustainable development issues so consequently the three economical, social
and environmental dimensions cannot be equally balanced. The continuous deterioration of the
environment is linked to the unsustainable exploitation of natural resources both renewable and
non-renewable ones without any care about natural environment preservation especially in
undeveloped countries where the subsistence fight is prevailing. The UN action started over 30
years ago at the UN Conference in Stockholm 1972. It signaled the environmental risk attached to
global changes due to the past 50 years of development without any environmental preservation
actions and challenged the world to carefully look into a sustainable future. At this moment 2006,
the entire world following Rio Conference 1992 and Johannesburg World Summit 2002 is already
on track in developing a reliable indicators system able to measure the path of any countries
towards economic, social and environmental sustainability. The Environmental Legislation was
developed in order to sustain the developed international, European and national policies and
strategies.
Case Study
The multicriteria decision analysis (Engl. acronym MCDA) aid tool is a general tool able to deal
with making good decisions when a multitude of criteria measured in different units that can
sometimes give conflicting results should be used in the evaluation process. The key question in a
258
decision making process is how the decision maker can weight different evaluation criteria to
correctly reflect his/her preference at the corresponding moment when decision for a certain
course of action is required. The decision makers, who usually have a background in science and
statistics are tempted to question, when using MCDA tools, the type of used scale and its
appropriateness on the chosen criteria, the scale sensitivity for the investigated field, the
dependence on the employed method and the rank preservation of the final scores. Multi Criteria
Decision Analysis (MCDA) is the scientific discipline concerned with the process that helps a
decision maker to make the “correct decision” in a complex environment.
There are a lot of methods based on multicriteria decision algorithms that enable users to define
actions/alternatives and to evaluate them by relative comparison. Multicriteria evaluation is an
appropriate tool to be used in combination with the participatory decision making process. The
present sustainable development approach supported by the environmental legislation is focused
on stakeholders participation in the decision making endeavor related to the environmental impacts
assessment of different projects. Citizens from many countries are participating on regular basis in
the decision making process for those projects which are of public interest. The initiators of
different public, private or public-private founded projects are opening a deliberative debate with
citizens in order to be exposed to information from different sources about a certain process to
bring their own information, to discuss and weight different proposed options (scenarios) and to
give inputs for the legislative initiatives. In the ranking alternatives process based on multicriteria
method the information is structured, and transparent databases are generated in order to focus
the discussions on the key issues (cited in Stagl, 2004).
It should be noted that strictly related to the environmental impact assessment the overall
environmental impact of projects should consider a multitude of aspects related mostly to air, soil
water and land use. Decision makers should be offered tools for ranking the possible alternatives
that make easier for companies to obtain their permit and for governments bodies to motivate their
decision. The data results are coming from measurements of different phenomena. Usually criteria
are grouped and condensed in a synthetically way with reference to the economical, environmental
and socio-political acceptability.
• Economic criteria are related usually to: investment, transportation and maintenance costs
• Environmental impact criteria are related usually to: air pollutant emissions, increase in
population exposure to the air born emissions, water and soil pollution and population exposure
to the noise.
• Socio-acceptability criteria are related to the way the local citizens groups find the projects
acceptable to their zones based on balancing short and long term benefits and drawbacks the
projects bring to them.
• Political acceptability criteria are related to the way the policy makers and decision makers find
the projects acceptable for their short and long term strategic goals
Within each group several criteria will be used to measure different project components.
MCDA offers a range of algorithms to be used. A well known algorithm is Analytical Hierarchy
Process (engl. acronym AHP) first developed by T. L. Saaty in 1980 (cited in http://
www.expertchoice.com/hierarchon/references/reflist.html)
The AHP method (cited in http:// ecolu-info.unig.ch/~dubois/Mutate_final/Lectures) is based on

pairwise comparisons of criteria and alternatives in order to rank the evaluator preferences when
comparing more than two things, and to help him/her to make a correct decision in a complex
environment.
259
The AHP is a cardinal MCDA method. If we want to compare three (or m) alternatives in terms of
one criterion and rank our preferences among those three (or m) alternatives with respect to this
unique criterion the process is as follows: we write down a 3X3 (or m X m) matrix known as
pairwise comparison matrix and we named it “P matrix”. Any entry in row ”j” and column “k” is
named in our case pjk ( where “j”=1÷3 and “k”=1÷3). The generic entry pjk indicates how much
more important is the alternative “j” when comparing by the same person (evaluator) or a group of
evaluators who reach a consensus in this regard, when comparing with criterion/alternative “k “.
Importance is to be measured on an integer valued 1÷9 scale (cited in Gheorghe 2006). For the
sake simplicity let’s consider now the matrix or pairwise comparison denoted also by “P matrix” but
lines and columns are denoted A,B,C and an entry for example is denoted p A/B which in this
paper for present purpose of exemplification is interpreted as how much more important is
alternative A comparing with alternative B. To represent our degree of preference for the more
valuable of two evaluated alternatives we score each alternative according to the 1÷9 scale.
The scores (numbers) in the scale have the following interpretations:
• 1 represents possible decision when in the evaluator perception with his/her momentarily state
of knowledge A and B are equally important
of knowledge A is slightly more important than B
of knowledge A is more important than B
of knowledge A is strongly more important than B
of knowledge A is absolutely more important than B
Intermediate natural integer numbers can be also used to denote intermediate states in between
the two given examples. For example 2 represents possible decision when in evaluator perception
with his/her momentarily state of knowledge A is very slightly more important than B (which should
represent the middle distance between numbers 1 and 3 that corresponds to number 2 the scale
being accepted from the start as an integer valued scale)
The decision maker should give his/her preference among three alternatives A, B and C and that is
an iterative process which starts by comparing first alternative A and B - Table 1. In decision maker
opinion, related to the criterion 1 the alternative B is three times more valuable than alternative A.
So we can write p A/B = 1/3. However if in the evaluator opinion A and B have the same value
suppose p A/B = 3/3 then a ratio equal to “1” means that the two alternatives are equivalent in the
evaluator perception with reference to the Criterion 1.
That is to say that can be substituted one for other obtaining the same utility function for the
decision maker. A ratio equal to “9” means that first alternative in the pair A, in evaluator perception
weighs nine times more than second alternative in the pair B, (p A/B = 9/1). When the ratio is
smaller than 1 (p A/B =1/9) that means the first alternative in the pair is weaker than the second
alternative in the pair. The process is iterative for criterion 1 in choosing among alternative A and B
and between alternative B and C. Finally we can obtain a P matrix of ratios representing a series of
pairwise comparisons (Table 1)
260
Table 1
Criterion 1 Alternative A Alternative B Alternative C
Alternative A 1 1/3 2
Alternative B 3 1 6
Alternative C 1/2 1/6 1
Normalizing the columns we obtain the following values:
Table 2
Criterion 1 Alternative A Alternative B Alternative C
Alternative A 0.222 0.222 0.222
Alternative B 0.667 0.667 0.667
Alternative C 0.111 0.111 0.111
Averaging over the columns we obtain the corresponding weights necessary for ranking of
alternatives according to the chosen criteria. In the given example we obtained the following
ranking: B, A and C. We can use a great number of criteria in the same way to refine our
alternatives choice.
For the environmental impact assessment of any project we can choose for example any criteria of
interest and compare them. Those criteria might be: economic, environmental and political
acceptance. In the above example we mentioned that we compare three project alternatives A, B,
and C for the criterion 1let’s say which is the economic one and we found the above-mentioned
hierarchy of preference through pairwise comparisons. 0.222 for A, 0.666 for B and 0.111 for C.
We will choose the project alternative B that obtained the highest score. A similar way will be
followed for the other criteria for example for environmental and political acceptance criteria.
Summing up AHP algorithm is as follows: (cited in DITTY International Workshop Valmagne

February 22-23 -presentation 2006).
I. Find criteria/alternative pairwise comparisons denoted by P matrix so that each entry pjk
represents the importance of the “j “criterion/alternative relative to the “k” criterion/alternative on an
integer valued 1÷9 scale
• If pjk>1 then the j-th criterion is more important than the k-th criterion
• The larger pjk (on the scale from 1 to 9) the more important is the j-th criterion compared to the
k-th criterion
• The entries pjk and pkj satisfy pjk=pkj=1 and consequently, pjj=1
II. Compute weights vector by means of simple calculation on the rows and columns of matrix P
(divide each entry of P by the sum of the entries in the same column and average entries on each
row as shown in the numerical example).
The iterative process to find weights and to rank is performed two times: one time for criteria and
another time for alternatives. In the above-mentioned example we had only 1 criterion and three
alternatives A,B,C. As was previously mentioned there might be as many as “r” criteria and “m”
“alternatives.
261
Example for an environmental project

As criteria for an environmental project we can choose 4 indicators regarding: water pollution, air
emission, soil pollution and land use. Each criterion can be expressed by a well chosen aggregate
indicator based on which the evaluation of different project alternatives can carried be our. We can
denote the criteria as follows: Wp (water pollution), Ap (air pollution), Sp (soil pollution), Ul (use of
land). Suppose that one evaluator found - using AHP methodology - that weights of those criteria
summing up 1 are as follows: Wp=0.5115, Ap =0.0986, Sp=0.2433, Ul=0.1466. Suppose we have
3 alternatives for the environmental project. (cited in Gheorghe 2006) For each criterion according
to the methodology the ranking of alternatives is as follows in Table 3
Table 3
Criterion Criteria Alternative A Alternative B Alternative C
Weights
Wp 05115 0.571 0.286 0.143
Ap 0.0986 0.159 0.252 0.589
Sp 0.2433 0. 088 0.699 0.243
Ul 0.1466 0.069 0.426 0.506
Total 0.339 0.396 0.265
The scores in the table were obtained for each alternative as follows in Table 4
Table 4
Wp Alternative A Alternative B Alternative C
Alternative A 1 2 4
Alternative B 1/2 1 2
Alternative C 1/4 1/2 1
After normalization we have obtained the results in Table 5
Table 5
Wp Alternative A Alternative B Alternative C
Alternative A 0.571 0.571 0.571
Alternative B 0.286 0.286 0.286
Alternative C 0.143 0.143 0.143
The weights for the criterion Wp (0.571, 0.286, 0.143) for each alternative.
262
Results and Discussions

How to choose and what to choose in relation with different alternatives is a matter of what is
important in the context of decision making process for each project. The criteria usually are
chosen according to the intended declared goal of the project. As we have presented in the above-
mentioned example we will choose the alternatives that have the highest score according to our
previously ranked criteria. When dealing with inconsistencies which are inherent in such a process
the tool of AHP offers the possibility to check if the inconsistency is slight and can be accepted or
not.
Conclusions
This is a valuable tool to be used when one wants to choose among alternatives in a complex
environment. It is useful because offers the possibilities of relative pairwise comparisons which
might be as good as the chosen criteria and as the state of knowledge of the decision maker in the
moment of decision. That is precisely why, for ranking countries in relation to sustainable
development a set of indicators have been developed in the last decades in order to address the
complicated issues of sustainable development assessment. Even if no general method was
agreed upon the presented one for the environmental field might be an appropriate one. The
presented method along with other Multicriteria Decision Analysis methods are particularly suitable
for this kind of assessments, the only major constraint being represented by the way the criteria
are formulated to best suit to the corresponding economic, social and environmental evaluation
frameworks.
References
1. DITTY International Workshop –Valmagne, February 22-23, 2006 Partner 11. Center for Complex System
Studies, University of Siena – February 22-23, 2006
2. Gheorghe Adrian Lectures – Risk Management 2006 University Politechnica Bucharest
3. http:// www.expertchoice.com/hierarchon/references/reflist.html
4. http:// www.ecolu-info.unig.ch/~dubois/Mutate_final/Lectures
5. Stagl Sigrid Valuation for Sustainable Development – The Role of Multicriteria -Vierteljahrshefte zur
Wirtschaftsforschung 73(2004), 1,S. 53-62– School of The Environment, University of Leeds UK,20041. S
53-62)
263
Land management using G.I.S.

Manea Raluca
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Land Reclamation and Environmental
Engineering, Bucharest, Romania; ral05man05@yahoo.com, Tel/Fax: +40-21-318 30 75; Mobile +40-721 101
670
Abstract
In the paper are presented some aspects concerning the management of land reclamation systems using
general cadastre. The suggested solutions are illustrated on a irrigation system: Calafat – Bailesti.
I propose a program for merging the proprieties, leaving at option of the users the settlement of norms thereto is
shall done this. All through this program can done the exploitation of the system through the determination of the
size of surface irrigated as well as remanent surface anirrigated.
Introduction
An efficient management of agricultural areas could be done by connecting several aspects: 1) Using
general cadastre data; 2) Land reclamation works inventory; 3) Creating an informatics system using
actual data; 4) Terrain merging in order to achieve efficient exploitation.
In EU, cadastre is realized as a territorial data base, open to public, which gathers spatial, graphic and
alpha-numeric data. In May 2002 at Granada, Spain, took place the first Cadastre Congress of EU,
aiming to join all specialized public institutions from all the EU countries. The main ideas have been a
common vision on European cadastre. Rural development in EU is mainly based on half-subsistence
farms, with 20-25 ha surface. In Romania there are around 4,2 million parcels. 60% of these are under
2ha surface. Medium size of an European farm is 19ha since in Romania is 2,5 ha (1). Even not
adopting all European solutions to this problem, we can rely on their experience and adapting us to
today’s conditions, we can find efficient management for agricultural lands and existing land
reclamation works.
Also we don't know the current situation of land reclamation works, many of them was partial
destroyed droving to their inefficient exploitation. It is necessary to update the maps with these works
and a correlation with the current property situation. Due to the crumbliness of agricultural grounds the
land reclamation works can’t be used in the old way being necessary another mode of exploitation.
Integrate management of grounds and land reclamation works can be done only by using a
informatics system.
Through the study accomplished in System of irrigation Calafat-Bailesti it proposed a series of

applications:
► The realization of new farms through merging surfaces;
► The exploitation of the system correlated to these new surfaces.
Description of work
The succession of which phases underlay elaboration of the analysis, presenting as a matter
of fact the scheme of this realization, is presented in fig. 1.
264
Create tabels and graphics

entities
Generating graphics layers
General cadstre Create new farms by Exploatation the

merging surfaces irrigation system in
actual conditions
Analize the new system
Figure 1 The block scheme
The irrigation system Calafat-Bailesti has an area of 49640ha, it is located in the south of
Romania, on the left terraces of Danube and has following limits:
- In the north the irrigation system Cetate-Galicea;
- In the south the units Calafat-Ciuperceni, Ghidici-Rast, Bistret-Nedeia-Jiu;
- In the west the Danube;
- In the east the brook Desnatui.
Administrative, the system is a part from region Dolj and were executed in the
period 1967 - 1971.
The water supply of the system is done from Danube River to km 801+400, through the
pumping station SPA Basarabi which assures a flow rate of 47, 6 m3 with charge of 39m. From total
flow rate merely 38, 2 m3 is allowed to irrigate the surfaces of the system Calafat-Bailesti, difference of
0,8 m3 is for irrigation of surfaces from the systems Cetate-Galicea and Calafat-Ciuperceni.
The station Basarabi is pumping water in the channel of adduction CA, which has a total length
of cca 42 km and crossing whole the surface of the system from west to the east.
265
Figure 2 The station Basarabi
266
Figure 3 The irrigation system
Case study
The digital maps and data bases
The first application had as aim the realization of the cadastral plan and the thematic plans.
The main graphic layers build are: parcels; group of parcels; the administrative sectors;
irrigation network.
Have been achieved 53 graphic layers, disposed as per the next figure:
267
Figure 4 Graphic layers and their legend
Figure 5 The cadastral plan

The study made essentially the overlap of graphic layers with the corresponding attributes, for
the creation of what themes define the areas of utility of the system.
For each owner achieved the thematic plan and the data bases. For instance, on the territory
of Calafat has been grouped the properties in family associations and this can be visualized on map
as follows:
268
Figure 6 The plan of individual properties
Figure 7 Family associations from Calafat
The data bases concerning the proprieties are presented in the following tables:
269
1. The table of owners in the Calafat administrative territory:
Total
Number Total
Owner Arable Non non
of pers. Rivers Roads Buildings improved
prod agric.
Family
65 79.24 0 0 0 0 0 79.24
Ass.
Local
0 0 0 5.82 0.8 1.23 7.85 7.85
council
Individual 191 142.35 0 0 0 0 0 142.35
R.A.I.F. 0 0 1.81 0 0 0 1.81 1.81
Total 256 221.59 1.81 5.82 0.8 1.23 9.66 231.25
2. Structure of the irrigations system for each owners
Irrigated surfaces The surface of parcels

Parallel with Orthogonal on
SPP Fixed APT Movable APT
antenna antenna
0 79.24 0 0 79.24
0 7.85 0 0 0
0 142.35 0 0 142.35
0 1.81 0 0 0
0 231.25 0 0 221.59
3. The tables on owner

Family partners
Total
Number Number Total
Arable Non non
of parcel of pers. Rivers Roads Buildings improved
prod agric.
21 20 4.85 0.00 4.85
22 45 74.39 0.00 74.39
TOTAL 65 79.24 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 79.24
Local Council
Total
Number Total
Number of parcel Arable Non non
prod agric.
16+17+18+19+20 5.42 5.42 5.42
21 0.04 0.04 0.04
22 0.36 0.80 1.23 2.39 2.39
TOTAL 0,00 0.00 5.82 0.80 1.23 7.85 7.85
Owners
Total
Number Total
prod agric.
16+17+18+19+20 191 142.35 0.00 142.35
TOTAL 191 142.35 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 142.35
270
RAIF
Total
Number Total
prod agric.
16+17+18+19+20 1.81 1.81 1.81
TOTAL 0 0.00 1.81 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.81 1.81
Note. RAIF – Regional Administration of Land Reclamation
Setting-up the farms by parcels merging using the proposed program

The management of agricultural lands supposes an inventory concerning the surfaces
dimensions, the slope, the existing engineering work, the hydrological and biological condition of the
area, the structure of crops and so (2).
Also, the management of lands has to be in concordance with local maps.
In the Treaty of the Romania adherence to European Union are finished the protocol
concerning the temporary additional measures of rural development through foundation of the semi
subsistence farms.
Through semi subsistence farms are apprehended the farms which produce first of all for the
own consumption, but which also commercialize a part from his own production.
In Romania the number of agricultural exploitations below 4 ha is of 83,3% from total, which
don't covers the needs of the family. In the system the analysis consisted as the average of a parcel
from a group of parcels can get to 0, 35 ha (4).
From these considerations I proposed a program for merging surfaces useful to the realization
of the farms with optimum sizes of 40-50 ha (3).
Figure 8 Load the program
271
After the shipment of the program is passed to this run with the next made to order succession:
Figure 9 Start the program
In the moment in which it ticked all surfaces want to cumulate, stop the run of the program and
appears displayed the total surfaces.
Figure 10 Display the merged surfaces
272
Afterwards on these new support of property is done the analysis of the irrigation system, and
the new owners can command the wetting systems necessary to obtained the optimum parameters in
exploitation.
Utilizing the program elaborated can do same applications and for another situation such as:
-merging surfaces after the quality of the soils;
-The determination optimum surfaces for the sowing some cults;
-The determination of low zones, carry have potential of it were flooded to a certain level of
precipitations, and therefore the anticipation solutions for drain it;
-The location works of struggle the erosion of the soil in most good configuration.
In conclusion it can asserted that the effectuated analyze about exploitation of the irrigation
system in concordance with actualize property using technology GIS (personalized to an irrigation
system in Dolj county), through the description of principles and realization mode, through the
presentation of data base and through the methods of interactions with other systems, it accentuate
some essential appearances bounded by automatic administration of the cadastral dates.
The application underlay the construction of the informational system of administration of land
reclamation improvements in actual properties structure, realized with means whereat had access, in
demonstrative aim, illustrate completely the utility of realization and use of such a system for complete
information, objective and quick, without important costs and permits the solution of fundamental
problem for the moment to rehabilitated the systems of land reclamation realized in period of the years
1970 – 1980.
The real importance of application consist in that of providing an ensemble of information’s as

much to the decision factors, in particular how much to the lands owners considering the concrete
methods and the efficiency that it can obtained through the utilization of the land reclamation
improvements in the present property conditions of the lands.
The need of this study can start from the following question: It is or not a real problem the
fragmentation of agricultural areas? The answer can come from the analyses of the rural family
incomes having farms with different sizes; the people live on poverty in such conditions. These data
can give an early indicator about the inefficiency of small farms and the need to join the parcels.
Unfortunately, there is no such study in Romania, regarding the impact of land fragmentation at farm
level. This kind of study can be finalized only if there is full and clear data about all agricultural lands.
References
1. Ioan Alecu, Viorel Cazac - Agricultural Management in Romania - past, present and future, Ed.CERES,
2002
2. Ion Bold, Craciun Avram - Organization of the territory, Ed.Mirton, 1999
3. Raluca Manea - Management of land reclamation systems using cadastral evaluation, Phd, UTCB, 2005
4. Statistical Annear of Romania, 2005
273
A gis-based approach of recreation terrain suitability mapping for

resource use management in Apuseni Natural Park
Necşuliu Gabriela
Ph.D. student, University of Bucharest, Bd. Nicolae Balcescu no. 1, sector 1, 010041, email:
gabrielaborto@yahoo.co.uk
Abstract
Apuseni Natural Park (ANP) is an important protected area with rich flora and fauna, unique landforms,
landscape features, and outdoor recreational potential in the region. However, ANP does not have a
recreation management plan. The purpose of this study was to determine the most suitable recreational sites
based on multiple factors and suggest a primary tourism management zoning for Apuseni Natural Park, on
the basis of the Recreational Terrain Suitability Index (RTSI). A geographic information system (GIS) based
methodology was applied for mapping recreation terrain suitability using recreation terrain suitability indices.
The methodology comprised four stages: (1) suitability variables for outdoor recreation activities were
identified by literature review and field research; (2) spatial data of the selected variables were preprocessed
in a GIS environment; (3) weighting scores for each variable were determined and a recreation suitability
model was developed; (4) suitability overlay mapping was implemented using GIS operations. The output of
the methodology was a recreation suitability map based on a set of unique spatial characteristics of the
Apuseni Natural Park and on the specific law provisions. Finally, potential recreation management zones
were designated as the most suitable sites for recreational use and various recreational facilities and
activities were recommended for the most suitable areas on the proposed recreational map.
Introduction
Protected areas are very attractive settings for the growing demand for outdoor activities in natural
environments. Challenges for protected area managers are to ensure that while visitors have
opportunities to participate at desired activities, they are aware of and maintain the values (Eagles,
2002). The number of people taking part in many outdoor activities is growing, especially in hiking,
cycling and water-based activities such as kayak-canoeing or rafting. There has also been a huge
growth in ‘soft’ adventure and ecotourism or nature-based tourism types of trips (Eagles, 2002).
According to IUCN, some kind of recreation and tourism is likely to occur as a management
objective in every category of protected areas, save Category Ia - the strict nature reserve (table
1).
Table 1 IUCN Management Categories of Protected Areas (IUCN, 1994)
Tourism &
Category Description recreation
Strict Nature Reserve/Wilderness Area: Protected area managed mainly
I for science or wilderness protection:
Ia Strict Nature Reserve: Protected area managed mainly for science. –
Wilderness Area: Protected area managed mainly for wilderness
Ib protection. 2
National Park: Protected area managed mainly for ecosystem protection
II and recreation. 1
Natural Monument: Protected area managed mainly for conservation of
III specific natural features. 1
Habitat/Species Management Area: Protected area managed mainly for
IV conservation through management intervention. 3
Protected Landscape/Seascape: Protected area managed mainly for
V landscape/seascape conservation and recreation. 1
Managed Resource Protected Area: Protected area managed mainly for
VI the sustainable use of natural ecosystems. 3
Source: after Eagles, 2002
Key: 1 = Primary objective; 2 = Secondary objective; 3 = potentially applicable objective; – = not
applicable.
274
Tourism is often a main component of the economic profile in the natural parks. Many of them
become tourist destinations, especially for ecotourism, after the implementation of the protection
status, but, more often, they are already traditional outdoor tourism destinations, affected by a
mass, uncontrolled tourism.
Recreation suitability mapping and gis

One of the most serious problems that face local communities and managers of protected areas is
the paradox of natural ecosystems conservation while providing for their recreational use. Each
park and protected area needs a plan that describes how tourism and associated development will
be managed (Eagles, 2002). The plan represents the desired future state or condition of the
protected area and the most efficient and equitable path to that future.
Tourism planning refers to the integrated planning of attraction (i.e., natural, cultural, man-made),
service- (e.g., accommodation, shops, restaurants, visitor information, tour and travel operations,
money exchange, medical facilities, postal services, entry and exit facilitation, etc.), and
transportation facilities (i.e., both material infrastructure and transportation services) here referred
to as ‘tourism infrastructure’ (Gunn 1994). The main process of tourism planning is determined by
a detailed long-term analysis between supply and demand (Gold 1980). Recreation planning also
aims to achieve a balance between resources and community needs with management planning
objectives in order to improve the quality of life for the inhabitants.
In sustainable tourism planning, geographic information systems (GIS) are believed to have great
potential (Boers, 2000). GIS can be described as hardware, software, and procedures, which
support the collection, input, storage, retrieval, manipulation, transformation, analysis, and
presentation of georeferenced data (Malczewski 2004). GIS technology couples common database
operations such as query and statistical analysis to geographically represented object and field
data and consequently can be used as a decision support system involving spatially referenced
data in a problem-solving environment (Malczewski 1999). Although GIS has yet served a variety
of tourism analysis purposes, tailor-made GIS-applications with respect to tourism planning are
scarce, and so is their use (McAdam 1999).
Recreational suitability analysis and mapping is an important stage of tourism planning and it is
devised for the evaluation of each land unit for all site values. Land-use suitability modelling is the
most fundamental and most often used type of spatial analysis in GIS. Central to the land-use
suitability analysis is the concept of cartographic modelling. The concept was developed to model
land use planning alternatives, and applications that require the integrated analysis of multiple
geographically distributed factors (Tomlin, 1990, cited by Malczewski 2004). Broadly defined,
cartographic modelling involves a set of related, ordered map operations that act on raw data, as
well as derived and intermediate data, to simulate a spatial modelling process. It is a generic
method for organizing the basic GIS operations into a complex spatial model. The most important
decision an analyst makes when using this tool is the determination of how relative values, or
weights, are to be given to two or more combined factors. Factors are simply characteristics of land
that are grouped as attributes (Malczewski, 2004).
Suitability techniques are essential for informed decision-making and enable planners and local
decision-makers to analyse interactions in multiple ways (Steiner et al., 2000). The result is a map
showing how suitable each area is for a proposed use. The approaches are diverse and so is the
accuracy of the results.
Recreation suitability index models were first suggested by Levinsohn et al. (1987), who developed
a GIS approach for assessing recreation suitability. Applications range from broad all-
encompassing land use approaches, such as for urban greenway suitability analysis (Miller et al.,
1998), to those focused on specific resources, such as the development of GIS-based habitat
suitability models (Donovan et al. 1987). The application of GIS-based habitat suitability indices
has led to their adoption for simulating management strategies for wildlife objectives (Kliskey et
al.1999).
275
Spatial approaches to recreation have focused on recreation opportunities rather than suitability for
recreation activities.
Gobster et al. (1987) implemented the widely used recreation opportunity spectrum (ROS)
approach using GIS in support of recreation policy development. ROS mapping uses management
derived variables, including measures of physical setting, social setting and managerial setting, to
identify a range of recreation experiences. This approach is useful for inventorying the recreation
opportunity classes from management defined settings but does not accommodate the
representation of specific recreational activities in specific landscapes (Kliskey, 2000).
Kliskey (2000) developed a methodology for mapping recreation terrain suitability that integrates
attitudinal survey data with GIS and completed it for the example of recreational snowmobiling in
the North Columbia Mountains of British Columbia. Suitability variables for a recreation activity are
identified by principal component analysis (PCA) of a recreation attitudinal scale constructed for
the recreation activity and administered through a questionnaire survey. A method of weighting
variables using local expert surveys was applied by Gül et al. (2006) to analyse and map the
recreational suitability in Gölcük Nature Park.
Of such a diversity of methods and approaches of recreational suitability mapping, we have chosen
the one akin to that applied by Kliskey but adapted to our territory and data available at the
moment, as described in the methodology below.
Presentation of the study area

As a result of nature conservation tendencies in Romania, the number of protected areas has
increased since the 1990s. These protected areas include national parks, natural parks, nature
protected areas, and nature monuments defined in L 462/2001 and have been designated to be
managed mainly for conservation purposes but controlled tourism is also allowed. Natural parks
(protected areas included in the V-th IUCN management category) were for the first time
designated in 2000 (L 5/2000). Since then, there are declared 13 natural parks, many of them
being traditional tourist destinations (Bucegi, Apuseni, Maramures, etc).
According to the Romanian legislation and to the World Conservation Union, natural parks are
defined as natural or cultural landscapes which have a high aesthetical, ecological and cultural
value, often with great biological diversity and they aim “to maintain the harmonious interaction of
man with nature by protecting the diversity of habitats and landscape, to promote the preservation
of traditional land use, to encourage and consolidate the traditional activities, practices and culture
of the local population, [...] the possibilities for leisure and tourism, [...] the scientific and
educational activities” (Law 462/2001; IUCN 1994). Their regime permit a great variety of nature-
based tourism activities, including soft ecotourism and rural tourism, which can enhance economic
opportunities, protect the natural and cultural heritage, and improve the quality of life of all persons
concerned (Borto, 2002).
However, there is no tourism zoning or tourism planning strategy at regional or local level, and no
natural park has any recreation management planning yet. Natural parks and other protected areas
in Romania have a lot of problems in terms of planning, design, management, social
demographical dysfunctions, and economic constraints (Borto-Necşuliu, Necsuliu, 2004). In this
context, a sustainable tourism development planning is a priority. Recreation suitability analysis
and a functional zoning is a necessary first stage to reach it. It means designation of specific areas
for different land uses. Zoning strategy is also a control management to minimize the negative
impact of human activities in the protected area.
The only specific regulation on management zoning for Romanian natural parks is Ord. 552/2003
regarding the interior zoning of national and natural parks taking into account only the biological
diversity‘s conservation needs. There are established special conservation areas, which contain
“the most valuable elements of natural patrimony inside the parks”. Controlled tourism, local
grazing and scientific and educational activities are the only activities permitted inside these areas,
276
beside those of conservation, rehabilitation and protection of the habitats and ecosystems. In fact,
all these are allowed on the entire territory of the natural parks, except of strictly protected scientific
reserves.
The Apuseni (Western) mountains of Romania are outstanding in terms of landscape, biodiversity
and culture. Despite the expansion of settlements at high altitudes, with consequent deforestation,
human activities have been broadly sustainable. Since 2000, part of these mountains was declared
Apuseni Natural Park (fig.1).
Sãlaj
#
#
ZALÃU
#
ORADEA
# #
Aleº d
Bihor Huedin
#
Cluj
CLUJ-NAPOCA
#
#
Beius
ª tei TURDA
#
#
Nucet
#
Vaº cãu
Arad #
# Câmpeni Baia-de-Arieº
# # #
#
#
Abrud
#
#
Brad
Zlatna
#
Lipova
#
# Alba
#
ALBA IULIA
#
# human settlements Geoagiu-Bai
Apuseni Natural Park DEVA #
#
# towns
county boundary Hunedoara
commune boundary
0 20 40 60 Kilometers
Fig. 1 Regional position of the Apuseni Natural Park
The park extends over 75.6 thou ha in Alba, Bihor and Cluj counties – providing a buffer for
individual natural reserves and includes 60 permanent settlements, out of which one town (Nucet),
8 commune residences and over 50 small villages and hamlets spread away mainly in the south
east of the park (fig. 2). The present protected territory includes the main tourist objectives of the
region, being a traditional tourist destination.
277
Fig. 2 General map of the Apuseni Natural Park

Given the topoclimatic conditions there is a rich water supply (Sorocovschi 1997) and xerophilous
and/or thermophilous flora, with some alpine-arctic characteristics. Scenery is most varied and
spectacular in limestone areas with dry valleys, steep slopes and precipices, gorges like Cheile
Ordâncuşii; numerous caves including several with fossil ice (Gheţarul de la Scărişoara and others
including Bârsa, Focul Viu and Zgurăşti) (Cocean, 1988). The karst of Padiş (Cetăţile Ponorului) is
outstanding with its portals, galleries, lakes, waterfalls and rocks. There are also numerous isolated
rocks, peat bogs, trees and secular forests and trees protected within reserves (botanical,
geological, hydrological and palaeontological) or as individual monuments of nature. The relief is
fragmented; yet there are extensive surfaces, some of them, like the more continuous Măguri-
Mărişel surface (1,000– 1,300 m) supporting a large number of dispersed settlements (Abrudan
and Turnock, 1999).
The southern half of the park’s territory belongs to the ethnographic region of Tara Moţilor,
distinctive for the extent of the settlement dispersal across the mountain surfaces (up to 900 m and
occasionally beyond) and the relatively small size of the commune centres. The dispersed
settlement pattern is an essential part of the Apuseni landscape, which merits conservation: both
the permanent settlements (linked with stock rearing, forestry work and wood crafts) and the
temporary habitations used for grazing livestock in summer (Surd and Turnock, 2000). Land
resources are fundamental in the socio-economic profile and they involve a balance of farmland
(mainly pasture) and woodland, with the latter frequently the more extensive of the two. The forests
are an important part of the commercial economy and they also support local handicrafts (Pop,
1985). But their ecological value is now of particular significance and after some bias towards the
most productive species, the problems of disease and die-back are calling a return to a natural
forest which would provide greater stability and aesthetic value (Surd and Turnock, 2000).
The environment in the park area is quite unstable due to heavy pressure through grazing,
woodcutting and tourism. This is not unprecedented for there were heavy Moţi deforestations in the
18–19th centuries as large clearings were formed, leading to more torrential activity and
278
degradation in the Arieş valley (Buza et al., 2001). There was heavy cutting again in the early
communist period, and more roads were built to transport mineral extracted as well as wood
cutting, while the forest road system between Beiuş and Huedin gave a boost to tourism on the
Padiş Plateau. However some roads provoked erosion, as in the Gârdişoara and Ribicioara valleys
(Cocean and Onac, 1996; Josan et al., 1997) while the unsurfaced road between Arieşeni and
Pietroasa through the Cobleş and Galbena valleys damaged scenery in the Cheile Galbenei
reserve. At present there is another cycle of cutting underway, following partial privatisation,
judging by the scale of sawmilling which electrification is facilitating in outlying hamlets that can
transport planks to the main road by cart and augment farm incomes. There is also evidence of
some pasture deterioration with more Nardus stricta (reducing water infiltration into the soil) and
reduced biodiversity most evident in the narcissus glades (Buza et al., 2001). There are also flood
hazards mainly in Arieş Valley.
All the region of the Apuseni Mountains is legally declared as a disadvantaged rural area. There
are concerns for developing non-agricultural activities such as rural tourism, in order to increase
the locals’ revenues. But, despite the potential for tourism (Ciangă, 1997), the infrastructure is too
poor to open up the remotest areas that now have relatively unbalanced age structures (Prida and
Gyemant, 2001, Necşuliu and Necşuliu 2005).
Part of the solution for these environmental and social problems lie in more sustainable land use
practices. Sustainable nature-based tourism is one that could be successfully developed in the
region, in order to assure benefits for local communities, for the protected landscape and for the
tourists as well. Nature-based tourism includes a variety of tourism activities, from mountaineering,
agrotourism to soft ecotourism.
Although a modest tourist industry is long-established (Vlad and Truţi, 1984), there is no significant
growth in the remoter villages in view of the poor infrastructure regarding road and telephone
access, and the supply of gas and piped water (by contrast electricity is now more widely
available), though Surd (1992) considers that small hamlets like Casa de Piatră, Ocoale and
Oncăseşti have a future as holiday villages (‘sate de vacanta’) attractive to foreign visitors. At
present, there are many accommodation facilities in the villages especially in the Arieş Valley
(Albac, Scărişoara, Gârda de Sus, Arieşeni), such as rural pensions, chalets, motels, even
camping sites at Gârda de Sus and Arieşeni. Two rural tourism networks, better known, activate in
the region: OVR (Operation Villages Roumaines) and ANTREC. There are also facilities for winter
tourism (ski tracks) at Arieşeni – Vârtop and a regional tourist resort near Fântânele lake, in the
northeastern part of the park. There are several holiday villages developed in the last years, like in
Boga Valley (western part of the park), Ic Ponor (in north - Cluj county) and in the north of Gârda
de Sus village (southern part of the park) and just three officially recognized camping sites in the
inner part of the park, at Padiş, La Grajduri and near Ic Ponor (fig. 2). While most tourism is run
from the towns there are cases of over-concentration and ‘wild tourism’ obvious in rural areas
through large numbers of secondary residences leading to traffic congestion, litter accumulation
and erosion in places like Galbena-Arieseni, Vârtop, or Ic Ponor – Doda Pilii (north-eastern part).
This is a phenomenon that has to be controlled because there are negative impacts on the living
cost for the local communities.
The problem is to make operational the ‘natural park’ concept in a way that will attract local support
by retaining traditional land use practices and allowing for the development of small industries on a
sustainable basis (Chauvin, 1997, p. 35).
Considering tourism a potential sustainable economic activity, our objective is to determine the
most suitable recreational sites in order to designate management zones for a sustainable tourism
development and to suggest recreational activities and facilities for these areas of Apuseni Natural
Park. Finally, we intended to develop an approach for the methodology of recreational suitability
analysis for Apuseni Natural Park or other protected areas.
279
Methodology
An approach to recreation terrain suitability index (RTSI) mapping is developed by applying the
habitat suitability index (HSI) concept (Kliskey et al., 1999) which has become commonly used in
wildlife applications. The RTSI model attempts to quantify terrain quality using attributes
considered important to the recreation user. A RTSI provides a 0.0 - 1.0 index of recreation
suitability determined by aggregating one or more suitability scores for important features of the
recreation activity and experience. The RTSI for a recreation activity at a location indicates relative
recreation suitability, rather than actual recreation use, and is measure of the potential for a
recreation activity. RTSI models are based on the assumptions that a recreation user will select
and use terrain that is best able to satisfy visitor’s expectation, and consequently, greater use will
occur in higher quality terrain.
In this paper, the approach is developed for semi primitive and rural outdoor recreational activities
as they are defined in a ROS approach and specific for Apuseni Natural Park region.
Multiple variables were identified as appropriate to the suitability analysis through field surveys and
factors defined by McHarg (1967), Gold (1980), Hepcan (2000), Kliskey (2000), and Gül (2006).
Thus, the interaction of natural cultural landscape factors and development requirements for
tourism activities, such as trail networks, accommodation, water supply and other services, was
evaluated in order to secure ecological sustainability and integrity of the park ecosystems but also
the local development of the communities living in the region. Thus, the park area was separated
into 50 m x 50 m grid cells taking into consideration its biophysical and visual landscape patterns
but also some visitor management principles and available spatial data.
Spatial data collected was digitised and processed in raster format for the analysis. Once the GIS
database is prepared, the land-use suitability procedure can be represented as an equation and
executed using GIS operations. The concept that underpins land-use suitability modelling (and
cartographic modelling in general) is map algebra (Malcewski, 2004). Map algebra processes
maps (spatial data layers) as variables in algebraic equations. Specifically, the GIS overlay
procedure generates a new layer (output layer) as a function of two or more input layers; the
attribute value assigned to every location (e.g. raster or polygon) on the output layer is a function of
the independent values associated with that location on the input layers (Tomlin, 1990; Berry,
1993).
There are two commonly used classes of map combination operations in GIS: Boolean overlay
(such as OR and AND) and weighted linear combination (WLC). The WLC approach involves
standardization of the suitability maps, assigning the weights of relative importance to the
suitability’s maps, and then combining the weights and standardized suitability maps to obtain an
overall suitability score. WLC was preferred because it is a compensatory method in the sense that
a low score on one suitability criterion can be compensated by a high suitability on another.
The procedure applied can be summarized under four stages as follows:
(1) suitability variables for outdoor recreation activities were identified by literature review and
field research;
(2) weighting scores for each variable were determined and a recreation suitability model was
developed;
(3) spatial data of the selected variables were preprocessed in a GIS environment;
(4) suitability overlay mapping was implemented using GIS operations.
In relationship with characteristics of the park, main variables considered important to outdoor
recreation in ANP were selected as follows (table 2):
280
1. topography (slope, elevation, aspect)
2. landscape characteristics (land cover/land use, proximity to forest)
3. accessibility (proximity to physical and social infrastructure – accessibility to water, built-up

areas with food, accommodation and other social and cultural facilities)
4. current and potential tourist infrastructure (tourist routes, other paths which could be
developed in thematic routes)
Table 2 Model variables for recreational terrain suitability in Apuseni Natural Park
Recreational terrain suitability
Nr
Variables Spatial criteria Moderate
. High (3 points) Low (1 point) Nil (0 point)
(2 points)
1 Slope Slope groups 0–10% 11–20% 21–25% > 26%
2 Elevation Elevation groups 500–1000 m 1001–1400 m 1401–1800m —
North,
South, East, West,
3 Aspect Aspect groups Northeast, —
Southeast, Flat Southwest
Northwest
Water Distance from
4 5–150 m 150–300 m 300–500 m > 500 m
sources water sources
5 Openness Land use groups Pastoral Forest Agricultural Other
Forest Distance from
6 5-100 101-200 201-300 —
proximity forest border
1-500 m 1-500 m
Public transport Individual 1-500 m
Transport
7 Type of transport routes (National transport Non-motorized —
accessibility
and county (motorized rural rural roads
roads) roads)
Tourist Proximity to tourist
8 0–100 m 100–200 m 200–500 m > 500 m
routes routes
Proximity to current
9 Remoteness 0–1000 m 1000–2000 m 2000–3000 m > 3000 m
social facilities
Criterion values were assigned as high, moderate, low or nil suitability depending on the
importance given to those spatial characteristics. Weighting scores that reflect the relative
importance of each suitability variable, range from 5 (most important) to 1 (less important) (table 3).
Table 3 Weightings of terrain suitability variables

Suitability variable Rating score
Slope 5
Water sources 5
Tourist routes 5
Openness 4
Social facilities 3
Forest proximity 3
Aspect 2
Type of transport 2
Elevation 1
The maximum ranking score (5) was allocated to slope, proximity to water sources and distance
from tourist routes, as they were the main factors taken into consideration usually in the literature
but also by the interviewed visitors, during the field surveys. Land use variable was also
considered important for tourism infrastructure planning, the highest scores belonging to the open
281
areas – mainly pastures. The villages that have such social infrastructure (food, medical and other
social facilities) represented accessibility to social facilities’ variable.
Restrictive factors (table 4) were also included in the recreation terrain suitability assessment,
assuming that some conditions such as slopes over 25% and remoteness from a water source at
more than 1 km are unacceptable even for a small semi-primitive campsite.
Table 4 Restrictive areas mapping

Restrictive criteria Restrictive area Non-restrictive area
Slope (SL >25%) Over 25 % Under 25 %
Less than 1000 m
Proximity to water source (WR >1km) More than 1000 m
Restrictive factors mapping model RF = (SL >25%)* (WR >1km)
Finally, weighted spatial criteria for all 9 components were combined into an RTSI equation
representing the spatial recreation model (table 5). The equation was conceived as an arithmetic
mean with a denominator of 90 (the maximum possible weighting score). This is akin to
Levinsohn's (1987) use of recreation suitability indices and to the approaches adopted for habitat
suitability modelling (e.g. Kliskey et al., 1999). The RTSI produces an index value between 0.0
(unsuitable recreational terrain) and 1.0 (highly suitable recreational terrain).
Table 5: RTSI equation for Apuseni Natural Park

Recreation suitability index:
RTSI = (5SRSL + 5SRWS + 5SRTR + 4SRLU + 3SRSF + 3SRFP + 2SRAS + 2SRTT + 1SREL)* RF / 90
Recreation suitability ratings for model variable:

SRSL = recreation suitability rating for slope
SRWS = recreation suitability rating for water sources
SRTR = recreation suitability rating for proximity to tourist routes
SRLU = recreation suitability rating for openness
SRSF = recreation suitability rating for proximity to current social facilities
SRFP = recreation suitability rating for forest proximity
SRAS = recreation suitability rating for aspect
SRTT = recreation suitability rating for type of transport
SREL = recreation suitability rating for elevation
RF = restrictive factors index as defined in table 4
Finally, in the recreational terrain suitability map each unit was classified according to their
calculated levels of total recreational suitability values as “suitable,” “moderate,” ”low” and “not
suitable”.
In the next stage, all collected data were transferred into the ArcView-3.1 format for analysis and
organized into the layers of the same geometric framework. All the suitability analysis was
performed in a raster environment, so the vector data were also rasterised. he variables to be used
in the overlay were selected after assessing the available data and several field surveys. Spatial
criteria denoting one or more GIS layers were chosen for each suitability variable. Each criterion
was related either directly to or derived from, existing 1:50,000 digital topographic data, Landsat
TM 7 (2000) satellite image (for land cover/land use mapping), tourist maps of Padis region (1:30
000) and field surveys. The data from the maps were digitised and stored in ArcView 3.1 format.
Slope, terrain, and aspect were all derived from a digital elevation model (DEM) from the
topographic data (fig. 3, 4, 5). Criteria that came also from topographic data were water resources
(fig. 6), road and trail features used to represent the accessibility variable (fig. 7). Data obtained by
field observations such as type of roads (fig. 8) and built-up areas with current social facilities (fig.
282
9) were transferred to the computer as well. Criteria that came directly from land use/land cover
inventory data included land cover class used for the openness (fig. 10) and landscape variable
(proximity to forest).
A first map of accessibility based only on marked tourist routes showed a great discrepancy
between the western side and the eastern side of the park, even if valuable tourist objectives and
cultural landscapes could also be found in the East. Therefore, a second map of current and
potential tourist trails was produced by introducing in the assessment current trails used by the
locals between the small-scattered hamlets. The lack of signalised routes in the same areas of the
park, the potential for new thematic routes and the increasing tourist interest in cultural landscapes
were the main arguments for this choice. Current unsignalised paths that were assumed to have
potential for cultural thematic routes were assigned to tourist routes, with the same ranking and
weighting values (fig 7).
After this, 9 basic maps, including slope, elevation, aspect, hydrographical network, land use,
proximity to forest, transport roads, tourist routes and built-up areas maps were created, and the 9
different maps were transformed into raster format using 50 m × 50 m grid cell resolution. A raster
format map of restricted areas for recreation facilities was also created by combining the restrictive
conditions of slopes over 25% and remoteness from a water source at more than 1 km. The areas
excluded cover over 23 % of the territory (fig. 11).
Fig. 3 Digital elevation

model of ANP
Fig. 4 Slope
283
Fig. 5 Aspect
Fig. 6 Suitability mapping

for the water sources
variable

for the ‘proximity to
tourist routes’ variable
284

for the accessibility to
public transport’ variable

for the proximity to
current social facilities’
variable
Fig. 10
Landuse/landcover map
of Apuseni Natural Park
285
Fig. 11 Restrictive areas
The above suitability model was executed using map algebra available in ESRI Spatial Analyst 1.1
extension of ArcView 3.1. Both Weighted Linear Combination method (for overlapping the 9
variable raster layers) and Boolean overlay (for extracting the restrictive areas) were used to obtain
the final map of recreation suitability areas. The RTSI values were reclassified in 4 classes of high,
moderate, low and nil suitability (table 6).
Results
Units that had values between 0.75 and 1.00 were deemed very suitable or to have high capability
for recreation facilities implementation and were named as “the most suitable zones.” These areas
consisted of only 4 % of ANP territory. Units that had values between 0.50 -0.75 were accepted as
moderately capable areas and were named as “moderate zones.” These areas consisted of 31 %
of the park. Units that have values under 0.50 were deemed as “unsuitable zones” for recreation
planning, and consisted of 65 % of the park (table 6).
Table 6 Recreation terrain suitability statistics
RTSI No cells % Ha
NIL 0.00-0.25 72764 24 18191
LOW 0.25-0.50 125824 41 31456
MODERATE 0.50-0.75 94287 31 23572
HIGH 0.75-1.00 11359 4 2840
TOTAL 304234 100 76058,5
The most suitable areas (over 0.50 RTSI) cover 2840 ha (11359 spatial units of 50X50 m) and
occurs predominantly in the open areas, with low slope and rich in water sources, with a good
accessibility (in the proximity of the national, county and communal roads) and crossed by marked
tourist trails or local trails, like in the larger valleys, (Arieş Valley, Cobles and Gârda Seacă Valleys,
Albac Valley, Boga and Sighiştel, Valea Mare Cărpinoasa Valley, in the proximity of Pietroasa
village Someşul Cald Valley, near Ic Ponor – La Tău - Smida), but also on the plateaus of Padiş
(the inner side of the park), Beliş and Dealu Negru (at north of Fântânele Lake), at Mătişeşti or
Poiana Horea villages (the Eastern part of the park) (fig. 12).
286
There could be noticed a significative difference in the extension of the most suitable areas
between the western and central part of the park, which includes the majority of the special
conservation areas and, implicitly, of the natural tourist objectives put in value by the majority of the
marked tourist trails, and the eastern part of the park, which is the most humanized but lacking
tourist trails and a valuable tourism image promotion of its cultural landscape (fig. 13).
However, designation and development of tourism facilities in the eastern part of the park could
facilitate the local development of the remote small hamlets that have little other alternatives. New
cultural routes could be developed on the base of the existent paths which link the numerous
sparse little cottages, specific for the mountain landscape of the region.
The unsuitable terrain for recreation planning occurs generally in areas with steep slopes and in
karst regions (like Gheţari plateau), lacking in water sources and in remote and forested areas,
hardly accessible by motorise and even un-motorised means. The most restrictive regions (terrain
with slope over 25 % and at least 1 km remoted from a water resource) cover 18191 ha (24%),
area which is absolutely normal for a mountainous region like Apuseni Mountains. If we add the
units with low suitability (31456 ha), the unsuitable area extends to 65%, which, even so, leave
enough space for sustainable tourism development areas.
An important issue which has to be taken into consideration when designating the recreational
management zones is the existence of a suitable vicinity for these units, so that they could be
easily reached. That’s why we took into account the moderate suitability values of RTSI, too.
These units cover 31 % of the total park area (23572 ha).
RTSI mapping also shows that some high suitability terrain is inaccessible because of unsuitable
terrain (fig. 12) surrounding it. This inaccessible but high suitability terrain denotes areas of latent
recreational areas for a hard type of ecotourism in the park.
Tourism management zoning system proposal

Recreation suitability is the first stage of recreational management planning for the current and
future use of protected natural areas and is very important for the determination or selection of the
best sites or areas for recreation. The next stage of the present research will be the designation of
the tourism zones. Zoning means to establish what kind of recreational opportunities, facilities and
values should be provided in the protected area. Typically, zoning of this type is based on the
degree of impact caused a type of recreation. This, of course, requires a sound information base
related to the function and sensitivity of ecosystem structure, as well as the opportunities and
impacts of existing and potential visitor experiences (Eagles, 2002). So, it will include specification
of the tourist facilities and programmes appropriate to each category of ecosystem management
zone.
Recreational facilities and activities involve finding a suitable location while attempting to minimize
the negative impacts of the facility on the surrounding environment, and maximizing the positive
economic and social impacts (Downham and Wilson 2003). So, tourist facilities and programmes
within protected areas should act as standard-setters in environmentally sensitive design and
operations. Good design and sympathetic operations can increase locals’ and visitors’ awareness
of key park values, and demonstrate to all visitors the protected area management’s commitment
to environmental protection. However, in Apuseni Natural Park, as in many other protected areas
in Romania, land is mainly under private ownership, so that services like accommodation and
catering are likely to be provided by the private sector without direct control from the protected area
agency (though it may be able to determine the location and form of that service through controls
operated under a land use planning system). In this context, there is a great need for specific
tourism planning regulations and procedures for environmental design in protected areas which
should help the stakeholders implied in parks‘ tourism activities. Eagles (2002) provides a series of
guidelines for environmentally and culturally sensitive facilities and an overview of the key aspects
of the design of camp-sites, roofed accommodation, interpretation facilities and transport facilities
in protected areas.
287
Fig. 12 Final Recreational Terrain Suitability mapping
Fig. 13 Recreational Terrain Suitability mapping taking into account only currently marked
tourist trails
288
The methods used to find suitable recreational sites should be incorporated into future recreational
management plans as additional support for finding suitable sites. Recreational design studies
should be realized in selecting the most suitable sites. Moderate areas may be used to reserve
areas for future recreational aims.
Consequently, a tentative of recreation terrain zoning is proposed (table 8), in respect with IUCN
tourism planning principles and akin to Parks Canada zoning system, an integrated approach by
which land and water areas are classified according to ecosystem and cultural resource protection
requirements. Each zone is considered for its suitability and capability to accommodate visitors for
a range of opportunities. The result is a framework for the area-specific application of policy
directions, such as those for resource management, appropriate activities and research. Thus,
zoning provides direction for the activities of managers and visitors equally.
Over 40 sites were found to meet the most suitable recreational criteria and were classified
according to the zoning system proposed above (fig. 14). Some of these sites are already proved
to be intensely used as tourist areas (Boga holiday village in the western part of the park, Padis
Plateau in the center part, Ic-Ponor area in NE, Aries Valley, etc.), fact that confirms the
appropriateness of our methodology. However, improvements must be implemented in the present
and future developing tourist areas either for limiting the present over crowded areas of Padiş
Plateau or to develop and capitalise the valuable resources existent also in the eastern part of the
park, both objectives in respect with the principles of a sustainable tourism development.
Fig. 14 Potential tourism management zones in Apuseni Natural Park
These managerial objectives could be attained through a proper recreational zoning and tourism
planning, which encourage the park peripheral and already humanized areas and establishing an
effective visitor management and monitoring system of the tourism activities. Basic recreation
facilities could be thought for these sites, according to their level of conservation:
289
I. Wilderness: sight-seeing points, emergency shelters, bird watching towers, botanical

observation points, primitive camping sites.
II. Natural environment: semi-primitive camping sites, thematic trails with signage and other
information and interpretive facilities (e.g. panels), picnic shelters, small parking sites, toilet
facilities, water supply
III. Recreation: could be provided, if integrated in the landscape and according to the pre
established density of human use, e.g. small and decentralised accommodation facilities, camp
sites with pit toilets showers, laundry facilities, children’s play facilities and sports facilities, biking
routes, interpretation facilities; cafeterias, food and local outlets, parking lots, tourist information
centres, etc.
IV. Park service: provide a full range of recreation facilities and visitor support services, if
environmentally sensitive designed and integrated in the landscape.
Table 8 Recreation Management Zoning proposal for Natural Parks of Romania
Zone class Zone purpose Boundary Examples in

Management framework
criteria Apuseni
Natural Park
Resources Public opportunity
I Wilderness Extensive The natural Oriented to Internal access by Sighiştelului

areas which extension and preservation of non-motorised Valley
are good buffer natural means. Dispersed
Galbena
representation requirements environment. activities providing
Valley
of the natural of the natural experiences
protected reserves in consistent with
landscape of areas of 2000 resource
the park and ha and preservation.
which will be greater.
Primitive camping
maintained in
areas.
a wilderness
state. Primitive, roofed
accommodation
including
emergency
shelters.
II Natural Areas that are The extension Oriented to Internal access by Padiş
environment maintained as of natural preservation of non-motorised and Plateau
natural environments natural limited motorised
La Grajduri
environments providing environment means, usually
and which can outdoor setting. dispersed activities,
sustain a opportunities and with more
minimum of and required concentrated
low-density buffer areas. activities associated
outdoor with limited
activities with a motorised access.
minimum of
Rustic, small-scale,
related
permanent, fixed
facilities.
roof
accommodation for
visitor use and
operational use.
Camping facilities
are to be the semi-
primitive level.
290
Zone class Zone purpose Boundary Examples in

Management framework
criteria Apuseni
Natural Park
Resources Public opportunity
III Recreation Limited areas The extension Oriented to Outdoor Boga and Ic
that can of outdoor minimizing opportunities in Ponor
accommodate opportunities impact of natural landscapes holiday
a broad range and facilities activities and or supported by villages
of education, and their area facilities on the facility development
Vârtop and
outdoor of immediate natural and landscape
Bubeşti (part
recreation impact. landscape. alteration.
of the future
opportunities
Camping facilities Arieşeni
and related
will be of the basic resort with
facilities in
serviced category winter sports
ways that
(including electricity, facilities)
respect the
showers, toilets,
natural Small
restaurant/cafeteria,
landscape and hamlets in
playing grounds,
that are safe the eastern
information
and inner part of
centres).
convenient. the park:
Small and Cobleş,
decentralised Gârda
accommodation Seacă, Casa
facilities. de Piatră,
Ocoale, etc.
IV Park Town, big The extent of Oriented to Internal access by Nucet town
services villages and services and emphasising the non-motorised and
Big villages,
visitor centres facilities and natural park motorised means.
with a good
(at the gates of their setting and Centralised visitor
terrestrial
the park, e.g.) immediate values in the support services
accessibility
which contain area of location, design and park
(Albac,
a impact. and operation of administration
Scarisoara,
concentration visitor support activities.
Gârda de
of visitor services and
Facility based Sus, Arieseni
services and park
opportunities. – in the
support administration
south, Horea,
facilities as functions. Major camping
Matişeşti in
well as park areas adjacent to,
the east,
administration or within, a town
Câmpani,
functions. /big village or visitor
Pietroasa,
centre to the basic
Chişcău, in
serviced category.
the west part,
Beliş,
Statiunea
Fântânele in
the north
side)
Source: adapted after Parks Canada Zoning System (Eagles, 2002, p.100)
Conclusions
There are several limitations of this study, including some that require further work. This approach
for suitability analysis rests heavily on the data available. Comprehensive information needs to be
available for each of the factors applied in the analysis and also new variables have to be taken
into consideration, such as the property rights on the land, and other management principles such
as a minimum distance between the recreational sites, visitors frequency, visitors demands etc.
291
The demands and needs of visitors must be established with social researches, and the obtained
data should be used to give direction to design and monitoring. There is also a lack of scientific
data about species and habitat diversity in the park. Threatened, endangered, sensitive, and locally
rare species and habitats for flora and fauna should be taken into consideration for recreational
suitability analysis in protected natural areas. The carrying capacity of recreation sites and
activities ratio must also be calculated carefully and monitored continuously and a visitor
management plan must be implemented. Apuseni Natural Park should have a sufficient budget,
staff, and facilities to accomplish these objectives. Education and public information facilities must
be also a priority for the park authority and a solid partnership needs to be established with the
local authorities, universities, nongovernmental organizations, and other official organizations
interested in sustainably protecting and developing this region.
This method that was used to determine the best potentially suitable sites for recreational facilities
and activities was relatively effective, consistent, up-to-date, and applicable; however, it is
recommended that further analyses be made and even improvement of the methodology for
variables selection and weighting, such as using expert assessments or visitor surveys. Variables
and their spatial characteristics used in this study for recreational suitability can be adapted and
improved for other protected natural areas, but given recreational suitability and weighting values
will be different for each location. However, the weights for the factors are subjective to the
perceptions of humans involved.
The method allows a broad approach for multi-objective recreational management planning. In this
study, the park (ANP), which is a protected natural area by law, has potential or most suitable
recreational sites in about 4 % of its area. Protected natural areas should not have more than 10%
of its area designated for recreational use (Mracek 1975).
A comprehensive recreational management planning of Apuseni Natural Park is needed to

facilitate local development while protecting the natural, cultural, and visual values. The results of
this study can be used in the future recreational design of Apuseni Natural Park, as recreational
suitability zones are one of the vital components for sustainable recreational management and
planning.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Prof. Maria Pătroescu and the Centre for Environmental Research and Impact
Studies of the University of Bucharest, who allowed me to use the ESRI Arcview GIS software and
the Spatial Analyst extension and thus offered me the possibility to execute the GIS analysis.
The research for this article was conducted in the frame of the research project for Ph. D students
”Tourism Planning In European Natural Parks And Its Role In The Sustainable Development Of
Local Communities. Comparative Study” funded by the National Council for High Education
Scientific Research (CNCSIS).
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294
Impact of man on the environment as evident from dendroarchaeological

research
Nili Liphschitz
Institute of Archaeology – The Botanical Laboratories, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, 69978 Tel Aviv, Israel;
email: nilili@post.tau.ac.il
Abstract
The comprehensive dendroarchaeological research in Israel shows that the native climax arboreal vegetation of
the Mediterranean territory of the country in the past differed greatly from present-day, although the same
macroclimate prevailed in this region during the last 10,000 years. This change was the outcome of the massive
influence of man on the environment.
Main human impacts were reflected by clearance of areas for settlements and agriculture, and by cutting of trees
for construction timber, fuel and heating. Very often over-exploitation led to disappearance of certain tree
species from the landscape. Heavy grazing resulted in severely damaged landscape. Wars and fires along the
history of the country led to total destruction and abandonment of settlements and agriculture. Consequently, soil
erosion, especially on hilly and mountain regions, resulted in barren land, and in moving sand dunes along the
coast.
The modern settlement and the afforestation of Israel, which started about 80 years ago, brought the country to
flourish again. Closed areas declared as nature reserves in the last decades are leading to upward succession.
Introduction
Direct evidence to the past arboreal landscape and to man’s impact on its environment during the
ages can be obtained from studies of preserved botanical remains gathered in archaeological
excavations: pollen grain analysis, seed and fruit identification, and mainly dendroarchaeological
research. Pollen grain analysis is used to reconstruct the past vegetation in the burial matrix or
sediment cores, but numerous botanical, environmental and methodological factors avoid proper
interpretation especially in historic times. The identification of fruits and seeds furnish information on
the dietary habits of the inhabitants but do not contribute to the native climax arboreal cover or the
climatic conditions in the past. The dendroarchaeological research is based on the identification of
wood remains gathered in archaeological excavations. It provides important data on the distribution of
trees and timber supply, as well as indication for various uses of local native versus imported timber
during antiquity. The proportional amounts of the various tree species found in the excavations
represent their availability in the region. The archaeological wood remains include logs and pieces of
wood, wooden furniture and household tools, baskets, rugs and ropes, all originating of woody
species. Since most archaeological sites in Israel were burnt during wars, most of the archaeological
wood remains are charred. Only few sites were not burnt, and the wood remnants excavated there are
not charred (Liphschitz, 1986, 1988). These sites are usually located in arid regions of Israel.
Material and methods

Dendroarchaeological analysis is based on the identification of archaeological wood remains up to the
species level. Wood samples retrieved from archaeological excavations from various areas of the
country, along the archaeological profile, have been taken for botanical identification. The remains
included charred and non-charred logs and pieces of wood. Samples of ca. 0.5-1 cubic cm were
aspirated in absolute ethyl alcohol, dipped in Celloidin-Clove oil solution for 24 hours, rinsed in
absolute ethyl alcohol and transferred to 50-55 C Paraffin in the oven for 72 hours. Cross and
longitudinal, tangential as well as radial sections were prepared for each sample. Identification was
based on the three dimensional structure of the wood as seen microscopically in these sections.
295
Comparison was made with reference sections prepared from systematically identified recent trees
and shrubs and with anatomical atlases.
Basic assumptions
The accurate identification up to the species level is especially important in Israel because, despite the
small area of the country, it is a juncture of three phytogeographical territories: the Mediterranean, the
Irano-Touranian and the Saharo-Arabian. These three territories represent three different climatic
regimes: the Mediterranean is humid, the Irano-Turanian is semi-arid and the Saharo-Arabian is arid.
Also included in the country is a Sudanian tropical penetration along the Jordan Valley. The
characteristic vegetation changes accordingly from humid Mediterranean forest and maquis to desert
dwarf shrubs and bushes. Different species of the same genus represent different climatic conditions
in a small distance.
For instance, in the genus Quercus, Quercus boissieri (Cyprus oak) represents a very humid, high-
elevation species, Quercus calliprinos (Kermes oak) is a typical Mediterranean species, and Quercus
ithaburensis (Mt. Tabor oak) occurs in the dry region of the Mediterranean territory, bordering the
semi-arid districts.
In the genus Pistacia, Pistacia palaestina (Terebinth) is a typical Mediterranean species, which occurs
together with Quercus calliprinos, and Pistacia lentiscus (Lentisk) occupies the low elevation in the
country, while Pistacia atlantica (Atlantic pistachio) is an Irano-Touranian element, which inhabits the
semi-arid region.
Interpretation based on dendroarchaeological records is based on several basic assumptions.
1. Timbers for everyday use for simple constructions and for fuel were taken from the immediate
environment of the site, and therefore represent the local native vegetation. Import of timber was
precious and was limited for monumental buildings, temples and palaces, as in the case of Cedrus
libani (Cedar of Lebanon). These assumptions were proven after a comprehensive
dendroarchaeological research carried out all over the country for ca. three decades, based on more
than 15,000 wood samples.
2. The basic ecological requirements of plant species in the last 10,000 years are the same of today.
Therefore it is possible to reconstruct on the basis of the past vegetation the ancient ecological and
climatic conditions.
3. Disappearance of plants from an area does not necessarily indicate a climatic change. The effect of
people on the ancient landscape is very prominent and therefore must be taken into consideration.
The clearance of forest areas for dwelling and fuel supply as well as for agricultural, resulted in
increasing proportions of orchards of fruit trees relative to the wild forest and maquis areas, and to the
introduction of new cultivated species and varieties into the area.

A. Reconstruction of the past native arboreal vegetation
The comprehensive research carried out for three decades in Israel shows that the native climax
arboreal vegetation of the Mediterranean territory of Israel in the past is quite different from that of
more recent times. The modern geo-botanists of the last century claimed that the Mediterranean
territory is characterized by four plant associations: 1.Pistacia lentiscus (Lentisk) – Ceratonia siliqua
(Carob) on the low elevations up to 300 m’; 2.Quercus ithaburensis (Mt. Tabor oak) – Styrax officinalis
(Storax) on the 300-500 m’ elevation; 3.Quercus calliprinos (Kermes oak) – Pistacia palaestina
(Terebinth) in the mountains on terra rosa soils; and 4.Pinus halepensis (Aleppo pine) in the
296
mountains on rendzina soils (Zohary, 1962, 1973). Their viewpoint was based on present-day
botanical surveys. The dendroarchaeological research proved that the ancient climax arboreal
vegetation of the Mediterranean territory was dominated along the Holocene (the last 10,000 years) by
the Quercus calliprinos – Pistacia palaestina association (Liphschitz and Biger, 1990). Pinus
halepensis, Quercus ithaburensis and Ceratonia siliqua, which are prevalent in today’s landscape,
were not dominant. Pinus halepensis and Cupressus sempervirens were very rare (Liphschitz and
Biger, 1989, 2001). Ceratonia siliqua was very rare in Israel and its present spread dates from the last
few centuries (Liphschitz, 1987). The view that Quercus ithaburensis was dominant in the ancient
forest which once covered the coastal plain, which was suggested by Eig (1935) and accepted by
Zohary (1962, 1973), is also found to be erroneous (Liphschitz et al., 1987). Olea europaea (Olive), a
typical Mediterranean element, was part of the native climax association of Quercus calliprinos –
Pistacia palaestina, but in very small percentages. However, since its cultivation by man in the Early
Bronze Age period (Liphschitz et al., 1991) its presence in the arboreal landscape became very
prominent.
In contrast to the differences in the arboreal cover of the Mediterranean territory of the country
between ancient times and present day, the typical vegetation which characterizes the semi-arid and
arid regions today characterized it also during the last 10,000 years (Liphschitz, 1996). The Irano-
Touranian territory is characterized by Tamarix aphylla (Tamarisk) and Retama raetam (White broom)
and the Saharo-Arabian territory is characterized by various species of Acacia: Acacia raddiana,
Acacia tortilis and Acacia negevensis. The arid regions in the southern districts of the country are
covered by small bushes or totally bare. Parallel to the important function of the Olive tree as a source
for wood, fuel, fruits and olive oil in the Mediterranean region of the country, Phoenix dactylifera (Date
palm) trees functioned as a source for wood, fuel, rugs, baskets, ropes, and fruits in the arid regions of
the country. It can therefore be assumed quite safely that the macroclimate of Israel during the
Holocene remained more or less steady, and the differences in the arboreal cover of the
Mediterranean territory of Israel during ancient times and today is the outcome of man’s interference
on its environment.
B. Impact on man on the environment:

The native dominant vegetational formations in the Mediterranean territory of Israel today are maquis
(low trees, 3-5 m’ height), garigue (tall bushes) and batha (scrubs and low bushes) (Zohary,
1962,1973). Native forests of tall trees are absent except for few stands surrounding sacred places.
Even these remnants are most probably the outcome of human interference and special care.
Massive settlement during antiquity started since the Early Bronze Age and reached its peak during
the Iron Age and the Roman-Byzantine eras, and resulted in massive deforestation of vast areas and
change of the native arboreal landscape. Clearing of land started together with the first steps of
settlement and development of agriculture. The woods were cut to supply timber for many purposes.
Timber was used for roofing logs in the dwelling houses, for furniture and for household artifacts.
Wood was used for fuel for heating and for pottery production. The increase in number of population
resulted in urbanization and deforestation of vast areas which were previously covered by the native
arboreal cover.
Cultivation of crop plants and domestication of fruit trees greatly changed the landscape and olive
orchards became a dominant component of the Mediterranean cover since the Early Bronze Age.
Introduction of exotic trees and plants also contributed to the change of the native vegetation cover.
On the other hand, since the Early Arab period onwards, abandonment of the settlements and the
neglect of the agricultural fields, following wars, resulted in burning of fields and settlements, and
consequently to soil erosion from the mountain and hill slopes and to moving sand dunes along the
coast. Finally the country became a barren land.
297
The modern settlement, which started at the second half of the 18th century, together with the
organized afforestation of Israel, which started about. 80 years ago, brought the country to flourish
again. Closed areas declared as nature reserves in the last decades are leading to upwards
succession and to climax arboreal cover.
Conclusions
The comprehensive dendroarchaeological research in Israel proved that before the increasing
population invaded the woodland and plains and the slopes of the hills, and later of the mountains, a
climax vegetation of Quercus calliprinos – Pistacia palaestina maquis, covered the Mediterranean
region. Continuous and intensive cutting of wood for dwelling and fuel on one hand, and clearing of
wooded areas for agricultural fields and settlements on the other, changed the landscape. As already
mentioned, since the Early Bronze Age onwards, Olive orchards became very dominant in the
Mediterranean landscape and replaced great areas, which previously were covered by native arboreal
climax vegetation. This change is very well represented by the very high proportions of olive remains,
both timber and stones, in the archaeological excavations, from the great number of oil-presses and
from olive orchards which still cover today’s large Mediterranean districts (Liphschitz et al., 1991).
The historical events, mainly wars, resulted in destruction and abandonment of settlements and
agriculture. Neglect of the fields resulted in soil erosion, especially on the hilly and mountain regions,
and consequently to a barren land. The upward succession line brought to changes in the landscape
and to the cover of the area by low plant communities of scrubs and small bushes – i.e. to the batha
formation, and later on – to tall bushes which characterize the garigue formation. Only afterwards,
tertiary and secondary maquis was developed, characterized by Mt. Tabor oak forest in certain
districts. The upward succession of the maquis can be seen today in areas, which were purposely
closed to avoid grazing, fires or cutting by man.
The history of the Date palm in the arid region of the Negev and Sinai is very similar to that of the
Olive in the humid Mediterranean region of the country. Date palm had a very important role in the
economy during ancient times in the desert regions. The intensive exploitation of Date palm trees by
man in the Dead Sea region resulted in its disappearance from the landscape, although during
antiquity this region was very famous for its Dates. Sites like Ein Gedi and Jericho, once located on
the Dead Sea coast, were called in ancient literature “the city of Dates”. Since the 16th century AD all
pilgrims and travelers stress the fact that the Date palm trees disappeared from the area, and very
often only single trees survived. Today the Date palms are planted again in this region as an important
economic fruit trees. Similarly, extensive exploitation of Populus euphratica (Euphrates poplar) timber
for construction in the very same sites resulted in its extinction from the region, and only few stands of
this tree still grow in Ein Gedi streams, but not in the streams along the Dead Sea (Liphschitz, 1996).
Other cultivated fruit trees like peaches were introduced into the country rather lately. Similarly, logs
and pieces of wood of two conifers: Cupressus sempervirens (Cypress) and Pinus halepensis (Aleppo
pine), which did not grow native in Israel, were discovered in the excavations. Their timber could either
been imported from abroad, or could have been raised by man under irrigation. It is accepted that the
Romans introduced the cultivated variety of Cypress – Cupressus sempervirens var. Pyramidalis in
the country (Liphschitz and Biger, 1989, 2001).
298
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299
Study on traffic noise pollution at major intersection in Yavatmal city
D. K. Parbat 1, P. B. Nagarnaik 2
1
Department of Civil Engg., Government Polytechnic, Nagpur-440 025 (India)
Email: dkparbat@indiatimes.com2 Department of Civil Engg., B .N. College of Engineering, Pusad –445 215
(India), Email: pbnagarnaikt@rediffmail.com
Abstract
Rapid urbanization and the alarming growth of vehicles are causing serious environmental problems.
The noise generated from the vehicular traffic flow is a major source of environmental pollution. In this
study, an attempt is made to study the noise assessment due to vehicular traffic flow at major State
Bank intersection at Yavatmal city, district place of Vidarbha region in Maharashtra. Traffic volume data
and noise level data are collected at all approaches intersecting at SB Intersection.. The noise levels
were assessed at selected locations i.e. N – approach, E- approach, S- approach, W -approach and NW
approach. The noise level data were recorded with precision sound level meter (TES-1352 A data logger
SLM, IEC651 Type2, ANSI S1.4) at the interval of 2 second during peak (morning and evening). To assess
the extent of noise pollution, data is processed and noise descriptors, TNI and NC were computed.
Traffic volume data were analyzed to know % composition of traffic at each location. It is observed that
two wheelers are found to be most dominant mode of transport in the traffic flow followed by bicycle,
LCV, truck/ bus & others. Traffic noise level data were analyzed to evaluate noise descriptors in the form
of Lmax, Lmin, L10, L50, L90, Leq, LNP, and TNI & NC (Noise climate). Some points are identified which
causes noise pollution & remedial measures are also suggested to minimize the noise levels.
Introduction
Noise is one of the environmental pollutants that are encountered in daily life. It creates interference in
communication and health. While primary source of noise is the individual vehicle, the nuisance is
caused by the accumulation of sound of individual vehicles of a traffic stream into traffic noise. Noise
pollution has become a major concern of communities living in the vicinity of highways / road corridors,
intersections. The present area of research is comparatively new and efforts made by researchers are
still in the initial stages as far as Indian condition is concerned. Most of the noise pollution studies were
carried out in Metropolitan cities of India / abroad. It is observed that very less attention has been
given by the scholars to assess noise status for the Intermediate cities of developing nation like India.
The present investigation is proposed to evaluate the vehicular traffic noise status of Intermediate City
Need and objective of study

Literature review revealed that a number of investigators have carried out research on vehicular traffic
noise pollution for metropolitan cities in developing as well as developed countries. However, a large
cluster of suffering population also resides in Intermediate cities, for which a very limited research has
been carried out and reported. This situation offers a substantial scope for studies, which would be
relevant for Intermediate cities, & hence would have wider scope of application. Noise pollution has
become measure concern for communities living within the city in light of rapid growth and ill effects of
noise pollution; there is a need to study noise pollution from transportation point of view.
300
The main objectives of the study are as.
a) To assess the traffic Noise pollution, T. N. I. (Traffic Noise Index), NC (Noise Climate) at the
selected Intersection.
b) To evaluate the % composition of the traffic volume at the selected locations.
Yavatmal Profile
Yavatmal is a major district place, intermediate city having the population @ 3.75 Lacs,
including adjacent sub-urban blocks, in the Maharashtra State. The city is comprising of 31 municipal
wards, located at 20°23' N latitude, 78°07' E Longitude & having four Major Entry Roads (parts of
State Highway), some arterial roads and Intersections. However, the investigations are carried on
major signalized Intersections. The data regarding increase in the vehicle population registered in
ARTO office, Yavatmal is presented as below:
Table 1. Vehicle population registered in ARTO Yavatmal
Category of Vehicles/
Sr. No Year 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
1 Motorcycle 14960 18383 24564 30352 36316 43773
2 Scooter 11459 12703 13259 13516 14288 14703
3 Mopeds 20844 22491 24893 27407 28848 30058
4 Motor cars 1254 1495 2002 2394 2833 3251
5 Jeeps 2025 2119 2387 2563 2816 3052
6 Station Wagons 84 48 48 47 47 51
7 Taxi cabs 191 243 357 537 760 843
8 Auto rickshaws 2624 2881 3623 4259 5134 6043
9 Stage carriages 400 400 253 322 399 396
10 Contract carriages 292 315 326 324 242 220
11 School Buses 11 11 18 15 15 18
12 Private service vehicles 2 1 7 7 7 8
13 Ambulance 13 16 18 18 20 39
Goods vehicle
14 Trucks and lorries 1832 1869 2002 2087 2249 2388
15 Tankers 103 103 103 105 105 108
Delivery vans
16 (4 Wheelers) 369 427 488 515 567 697
Delivery vans
17 (3 Wheelers) 192 283 396 501 637 881
18 Tractors 1789 2026 2356 2497 2611 2816
19 Trailers 1817 2061 2429 2574 2676 2849
20 Others 42 42 43 43 46 48
Total 60303 67917 79319 89761 100616 112242
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Parameters studied and theory

The parameter universally used in discussions of noise pollution of the environment is Leq, the
equivalent continuous noise level expressed in dBA. Leq gives the energy equivalent sound level
received by the ear and hence is an indicator of the physiological disturbance to the hearing
mechanism. This parameter can be obtained by a direct objective measurement with an integrating
type of sound level meter or can be computed from a sample record of the time variation of the noise
level during that period. Another parameter used is the noise pollution level LNP that can be computed
from the time varying noise level using the relation
A Weighted Sound Level:

By itself the sound pressure level does not indicate the human response to noise since human
annoyance with sound varies with the frequency of the noise as well as with the intensity, higher
frequencies bring more annoyance than lower frequencies. To account for this subjective feeling, A
weighted sound levels are used.
The average noise level is based on the energy content (acoustic energy) of the sound. Leq can be
thought of as the level of a continuous noise, which has the same energy content as the fluctuating
noise level. The equivalent noise level is expressed in units of dBA.
Leq = L50 + (L10 -L90) 2/60 --1
Noise Pollution Level (LNP):
Robinson concluded that with fluctuating noise Leq the equivalent continuous noise level on an energy
basis was an insufficient descriptor of the annoyance caused by fluctuating noise the included another
term in his noise pollution level LNP.
LNP = Leq + a (L 10 – L90) --2
Robinson examined the available Griffith and Langdon date and concluded that a =1.0 for the
constants in these equations.
LNP = L50 +[(L10 –L90) 2 /60]+ (L10 –L90) --3
Where L10, L50 and L90 respectively indicate the levels exceeded for 10% 50% and 90% of the time in a
record of a noise level in a given interval LNP is also expressed in units of dBA. LNP takes into
account the variations in the sound signal and hence serves as better indicator of the pollution in the
environment for physiological and psychological disturbance of the human system.
Traffic noise index:

Traffic noise index (TNI) is another parameter, which indicates the degree of variation in a traffic flow.
This is also expressed in dB (A) and can be computed using the relation.
TNI in dBA = 4 (L10 – L90)-L90 - 30 dBA --4
The index attempt to make an allowance for the noise variability (with the first term i.e. L10). Since
fluctuating noise is commonly assumed to be more annoying. The second term L90, represents the
background noise level, while the third term is simply a constant chosen, to yield more convenient
numbers.
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Noise climate:
Noise climate (NC) is the range over which the sound levels are fluctuating in an interval of time and is
given by the relation.
NC = (L10 –L90) --5
Where L90 the level exceeded for 90% of the time of record is very near to the background noise level
in the absence of any motor vehicle traffic. The environmental noise level due to motor vehicle traffic
primarily depends on the volume and structure of traffic (number of vehicles/hour and the categories of
vehicles moving) besides other factors.
Methods and Measurements

Selection of study location
Traffic noise parameters are the functions of the composition traffic, traffic flow, condition of land use,
and type of vehicle, surface of road, weather condition. Considering above factor in view, we choose
six study locations depending on land use and traffic flow characteristics. The selected location were
presented in table No. 2 below
Table no. 2. Details of Study Locations

APPROCH DIRECTION
Location Name of Approaches DESIGNATION WIDTH OF TRAFFICE
State Bank
Intersection
Dhamangaon Road SBI-NB 10 m Two Way
Apsara Talkies Road SBI-EB 7m Two Way
Post Office Road SBI-SB 10 m Two Way
Waghapur Road SBI-WB 10 m Two Way
Sandip Talkies Road SBI-NWB 6m Two Way
Noise Measurement
Noise measurements were carried out in “A” weight age in fast mode using the sound level
meter (TES-1352 A data logger SLM, IEC651 Type2, ANSI S1.4), It is measured in “dBA”. Noise
levels were measured at selected locations during morning, evening peak hours. The Noise levels
were recorded at a rate of one reading per 2 second. Adequate no. Of observations were recorded
with a 2 second interval in morning and evening peak hours.
Traffic volume measurement
A manually count method is adopted for traffic volume survey. Along with the noise level the
traffic density (The no of motorized vehicles passing a point both direction per hour) was also studied.
Traffic volume is studied under the groups as Bus, Truck Tractor, LCV, Car, Vans, two-wheeler,
Bicycle and other slow moving vehicles. The measurements were taken in morning and evening peak
hours.
303

Assessment of Traffic composition
The collected traffic volume data at 15 min interval for each location is processed and presented in fig
No. 1. to study the % composition of traffic. It is observed that, at all approaches the most dominant
mode of transport Two Wheelers followed by bicycle, LCV, Bus/Truck and Others.
60
50
NORTH
40
EAST
30
SOUTH
20
10
WEST
0
B/T LCV TW BICYCLE OTHER

NORTH- WEST
TRAFFIC CATEGORY
FIG NO 1 % TRAFFIC COMPOSITION on SB Intersection
Assessment of Noise Descriptors
Noise levels in dBA are recorded and data is analyzed on the selected approaches. Traffic noise level
data were analyzed to evaluate noise descriptors in the form of Lmax, Lmin, L10, L50, L90, Leq, LNP,
and TNI & NC (Noise climate) on all approaches. The graphs were prepared to know the variation of
noise descriptors and traffic volume composition for all approaches and sample graph for North
approaches shown as below Fig No. 02
Bus / Trucks % LCV % Two wheelers % Bicycle %

Others % Lmax(dBA) Lmin(dBA) L10(dBA)
L50(dBA) L90(dBA) Leq(dBA) Lnp(dBA)
120. 00 TNI NC
100. 00
80. 00
60. 00
40. 00
20. 00
0. 00
9. 30-9. 45 9. 45-10. 00 10. 00- 10. 15- 10. 30- 10. 45- 11. 00- 11. 15- 5. 00-5. 15 5. 15-5. 30 5. 30-5. 45 5. 45-6. 00 6. 00-6. 15 6. 15-6. 30 6. 30-6. 45 6. 45-7. 00
AM 10. 15 10. 30 10. 45 11. 00 11. 15 11. 30 PM
D U R A T I O N ( T I M M I N G S)
F I G N O 0 2 Va r i a t i o n i n t r a f f i c v o l u m e & n o i se l e v e l o n N o r t h b o u n d
a p p r o a c h a t st a t e b a n k i n t e r se c t i o n
Frequency analysis of noise levels
304
The 2 sec interval recorded data is also analyzed for frequency distribution to know the % occurrence
of particular noise level range. A Bar chart is prepared and shown in Figure No.03
10 20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 71-80 81-90

91-100 101-110 111-120
% frequency occurrence
70
of Noise level range
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
n mor n eve e mor e eve s mor s eve w mor w eve nw mor nw eve
Various locations & tim ing at vatrious locations at state bank intersection
Fig no 3. Variation of noise level range on various approaches at SBI
Conclusions and Recommendation

Following conclusions have been drawn on the basis of study carried out and data analyzed
1. Traffic volume compensation of vehicles was ascertained of each study location. It is
observed that all the study locations, two wheeler category is found to be most dominant
mode of transport, followed by Bicycles, LCV, Bus/Trucks and others.
2. The average noise descriptors were determined are as follows, It is observed that at each
location noise level exceeds than permissible value.
Table Showing average noise descriptors at study location

Name of Approach Lmax Lmin L10 L50 L90 Leq LNP TNI NC
Location
SB SBI-NB 95.66 27.77 78.66 70.48 63.32 74.71 90.05 94.69 15.34
Intersecti SBI-EB 90.01 37.47 77.24 69.79 64.42 72.69 85.61 85.72 12.82
on SBI-SB 95.12 28.61 79.66 71.29 65.18 75.07 89.56 93.13 14.49
SBI-WB 89.50 24.82 76.59 69.06 63.81 72.03 84.81 84.93 12.78
SBI-NWB 90.57 26.08 75.10 68.28 62.64 71.07 83.53 82.47 12.46
3. It is observed that, at all approaches in morning and evening peak hours. The noise level
range occurred during the survey is presented as below.
Noise level range 61-70 dBA 71-80 dBA 81-90 dBA

% Occurrence ( Range) 35 to 62 % of time 32 to 52 % of time 0 to 11 % of time
Maxi. Noise range and Location 62 % at northwest 52 % at South 11 % at south
approach in approach in morning approach ion
evening peak hours peak hours morning hours
Findings
The general causes of noise pollution are summarized below.
1 Blowing of air horn at prohibited areas.

305
2 Operation of poorly maintained vehicles.
3 Poor road condition in the town
4 The encroachments of road site which slow movement of vehicles with frequent use of
horns.
5 Higher the percentage of automobile traffic in mixed traffic flow, higher are the values of
traffic Noise parameters.
Recommendations
Following are the suggestions to over come the problem created due to noise pollution.
1 Strict enforcement of existing law to prohibit air horn in side the town.
2 Proper maintenance of the vehicle.
3 Laying good roads and their maintenance.
4 Strict enforcement of the existing law to remove encroachments on the road site.
5 Planting of trees and other vegetation inside the town on roadsides and /or around the
silence zone will reduce the noise levels when they reach the people.
Acknowledgement
The authors of paper are thankful to Prof. R.K.Khadase, Principal, Govt. Polytechnic, Yavatmal and
Prof. D.G.Jawale, Principal, B.N.College of Engineering, Pusad for their constant inspiration, guidance
and providing necessary facilities to carry out the present work. The author is highly grateful to The
Director and Secretary, Maharashtra State Board of Technical Education, Mumbai for encouragement
and providing financial assistance to present the paper.
References
1. Rao , V.B. , Rao, P.V. & Vithal Murty, K.P.R. , " Traffic Noise Pollution at Three important Junction of
Vishakhapatnam " , Indian Journal of Environmental Protection , Vol 7 , No 1 , Jan.1987 , P.N.21 - 26
2. Tiwari ,T.N. & Ali , Manzoor , " Survey of Noise Pollution in Rourkela: Traffic Noise ", Indian Journal
Environmental Protection, Vol 8 , No.8 , August 1988 , P.N. 595 - 600
3. Rao , P.R. & Rao , Sheshgiri . M.G. , " Urban Traffic Intensity : A Prediction of Noise levels " , Indian Journal
of Environmental Health , Vol 33 , No. 3 , July 1991 , P.N. 324 - 339
4. Chakroborty D. , Santra , S. , " Status of Road traffic Noise in Calcutta " , Journal Acoustic Society of
America , 101 ( 27) , 1997, P.N.943-949.
5. Pandya , G.H. & Verma , R.R. , " Characterization and measurement of Noise levels in an urban
Environment ", Indian Journal of Environmental Health , Vol 31 , No.2 ,1997, P. N.141 -148
6. Koushki , P.A., Al-saheh, O.I. & Ali S.Y. , " Traffic Noise in Kuwait : Profiles and Modelling Residents
Perceptions ",ASCE Journal of Urban Planning and Development ,Vol. 125 , No. 3 , Sept.1999.
7. Singh , Nalini Mohan & Rao, S.N., " A Reconnaissance of Traffic Noise Pollution in city of Patna", Indian
Journal of Environmental Health, Vol 43 , No.4 , Octo. 2001 , P.N. 138 - 143
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Air pollution from the Varna airport activity

P. Todorov, R. Chuturkova
“Technical university – Varna”, Sea Science and Ecology Faculty, Department of “Ecology and
Environmental Protection”, h/c Asparuhovo, 36 Iscar Str., ap.34, Varna 9003, Bulgaria
E-mail: tribiani@abv.bg
Abstract
Varna international airport is located near Varna city, Bulgaria. Regarding to the sea resorts and
tourism as a whole, the airport serve mainly charter flights. However each year the number of flights
increase and is connected of course with higher air pollution. For example at the year 2000 there were
9425 flights, and in 2003 their numbers increased to 10346 and continue to grow. Probably half of the
flights were done with Tupolev – 154M airplanes, which have huge consumption of fuel – about 4500
kg/h or 5850 l/h. Other planes like Russian IL – 86 use 8-10 000 kg/h (10400 – 13000 l/h), and only for
take-off the fuel consumption is about 500 kg (650 litres). The average consumption of most of the
planes used Varna airport is about 4300 kg/h (5590 l).
The main pollution effect at the area of Varna airport is during landing and taking-off of the planes. The
emissions which are spread for 24 hours by a typical traffic for the different types of plane engines are:
Tupolev – 154(19 flights): Hydrocarbons – 612.19 kg, CO – 1836.57 kg, NOx – 247.32 kg., for IL – 86
(1flight): Hydrocarbons – 36.33 kg, CO – 77.36 kg, NOx – 27.87 kg., Airbus 320 (1 flight):
Hydrocarbons – 0.89 kg, CO – 7.6 kg, NOx – 10.43 kg, Boeing 737 (1 flight): Hydrocarbons – 0.9 kg,
CO – 7.03 kg, NOx – 10.0 kg and so on.
In most of the summer days air traffic can reached more than 60 flights.
As a whole in rush hours, engine emissions are: for 30 minutes rush hour: Hydrocarbons – 59.97 kg,
CO – 173.5 kg, NOx – 23.48 kg., and for a period of one hour: Hydrocarbons -119.94 kg, CO – 347.05
kg, NOx – 46.97 kg.
Introduction
Varna airport is located in the North East of Bulgaria on the Black Sea Coast .The distance
from the city center is 10 km. It benefits from its favorable location near Varna city and the
surrounding beaches which are a reputed attraction for tourists in the summer. The airport
operate domestic and international flights to about 70 destinations in 25 countries for more
than 100 Bulgarian and foreign airlines.
Varna international airport has a long
history, starts at the beginning of 19th
century. It changed his location couple of
times until 1946, when a committee was
elected to choose a site for a new one. In
December the committee came up with their
decision: the site chosen for the purpose
was located several kilometers away to the
west of the city close to the village of
“Aksakovo”. On 9th May 1948 the new
airport of Varna was officially opened for
exploitation. The first aircraft from Sofia its
official guests on board landed on the
aerodrome at 10:40 AM. Construction works
continued throughout the following years. In 1961 a new concrete runway 2500m in length
and 24-26 cm in thickness was ready for exploitation. In 1967 the stopping place was
widened and 4 new tracks were built.
On 25th September 1972 a new airport reception building started functioning.
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Traffic information
Increased air traffic and the number of passengers per year in the last decade, regarding to
the closest location of the airport to the city and its citizens define pollution from the air
transport as more and more considering problem.
The data about the air traffic for the first few years of the new century are as follows:
Table 1: “Passengers and cargo traffic data for the first few years of the 21st century”
2000 2001 2002 2003
Aircraft
9425 9543 10 414 10 346
movements
International
5932 7102 8050 8818
flights
Domestic flights 3493 2441 2364 1528
Passengers
691 689 893 473 1 095 918 1 183 578
handled
International
No Data No Data 1 049 946 1 144 488
services
Domestic
No Data No Data 45 972 39 090
services
Cargo (t) No Data No Data Total 50 Total 55
International No Data No Data 50 55
Domestic No Data No Data 0 0
The air traffic is rising every year, and the projected traffic for 2025 is as follows: Passengers
– 1 700 000; Aircraft movements – 25 000
However, this numbers probably will be reached sooner, even until end of the first decade of
the century.
Meteorological data
The climatic characteristics are very important factor for the air pollution. Speed of wind, air
humidity, air temperature and atmospheric pressure determine air pollution. That’s why,
climatic characteristic of Varna international airport is very important for examine its
environmental impact. The main climatic parameters are:
Average maximal monthly air temperature (July) – 27.9º C
Average maximal monthly air temperature (January) – -2.0º C
Atmospheric pressure (July) – 987.9 – 989.0 HPA
Atmospheric pressure (January) – 996.2 – 997.5 HPA
Visibility below 400 meters – 5 days per year
Number of days with strong wind (V3 15m/s) – 13.9 per year, N/NE
Determination of air pollution by the Varna International airport activity is too complex
process, demanding by analyzing of plenty of factors. That will enable to be made more
adequate and correct decisions for the protection of the environment and human health.
308
Methodology
Varna International airport hasn’t got its own monitoring system for measurement of the
emissions produced by its activity. The monitoring activity is accomplished by the “Regional
inspection agency for environment and water”. For this purpose they used automatic and
manual sample-taking methods.
The samples usually are taken in different moments during the twenty-four-hour period, at
different distances from the working plane engines during the landing and taking off. Some of
the samples are from hours with high traffic and some of them are from hours with low traffic.
That allows results to be compared and to be made conclusion about the global effect of
Varna airport activity to the region surrounding it.
The main estimated parameters are dust with different size of the particles (mainly total
suspended dust and ultra-fine particles – 10 micron in diameter – PM10), hydrocarbons (HC),
Carbon oxide (CO), and Nitrogen oxides (NOx).
For estimation of polluting effect by the airplanes activity for determinate period of time is
used the next formula:
m(t)
Mk (T) = ∑ ni (T) Dpik (1)

i=l
where Mk (T) is weight of the pollution substances by type k (k is equivalent of CO, CnHn,
NOx), m (t) is the number of aircraft engine types worked at the airport for a period T; ni (T) is
the number of aircraft engines from the type i, worked at the airport at the period T; Dpic is the
weight of gaseous polluting substance by type k, emitted at the atmosphere at the time of a
standard cycle of landing and taking off.
a) The monitoring periods are as follows:
i. Per year
ii. Twenty-four hour period
iii. 30 minutes
b) The number of types of aircraft engines m (t) is calculated by a data base for aircraft
vehicles operating to and from airport at the observation period.
c) Number of engines by type i, worked at the airport for the period T; ni (T) is estimated
also used the data base for the operating aircraft vehicles, and counts the number of
engines located on the airplane.
d) The weight of gaseous polluting substances by type k, estimated at the atmosphere for
the period of a standard cycle by taking off and landing Dpic is estimated by standard
normative regulations for the aircraft engines or by data base from direct measurements
for the exact engine type.
309
e) For estimation of requested parameters is used data for the number of accomplished
flights for the time period T.
To be estimated the real effect of the airport activity, there are few other sample-taking
stations located in different parts of the city, staying at different distances from the airport.
We have two monitoring stations located nearly to the airport – station “Bus station” and
station “Strashimirovo”. Also there is a station located at housing-complex “Vladislavovo”,
which is situated next to the airport.
By analyzing the collected data from the stations located on the territory of the airport with
the data from the surrounding territories it is possible to be made comparison between them.
That will allow to be made an impartial assessment of the real effect from the airport activity.

Airplanes exploitation is realized mainly at the air and usually at height of about 10 000
meters. That’s why we can say that the main negative environmental influence should be
concentrated there. From the other hand, the highest rates of pollution are during the
process of landing and taking off. All of these factors determine widely-spread effect of air
transport activity.
Picture 1: “Divisions of the atmosphere”
Analyzing Varna international airport activity we can notice that the ways of air pollution are
not only cause of the airplanes traffic, but also as a result of the airport activity.
Mainly the sources of air pollution can be divided into two main groups:
• Pollution caused by organized standing sources
• Pollution caused by airplane activity
Pollution caused by organized standing sources

On the territory of Varna international airport periodically, depending of season are
functioning the following standing sources of air pollution:
1) Heating plant for heating the building of the airport. The heating plant has the
following characteristics:
310
• 4 boilers as which of them is consuming 90 liters per hour
• The equipment works with diesel fuel
• It works seasonally depending on the outside air temperature
• The average fuel consumption per heating season is about 300 tons
2) Heating plant of Air traffic guidance (ATG) with the following characteristics:
• 2 boilers, each of which consuming 60 liters per hour, every day
• The equipment works seasonally depending of the outside air

emperature
• The average fuel consumption per season is about 100 tons
3) Incinerator for waste materials
• It works episodically
• The burning process is accomplish in to burning chambers which

decrease emissions of noxious materials
• In advance is put into practice separation of the waste materials and

removing of metal and other non-burning materials
• The equipment works with 2 torches, each of which is using waste

kerosene. The fuel consumption is 15 liters per hour and 35 liters per
hour for both torches. There is no available data about the fuel
consumption per year.
The waste gases and emissions of polluting substances are determined by calculation
methods. The results represent the worst scenario like:
• All of the standing sources work at the same time
• Every single standing source works with full power
Varna airport heating plant
The results are by the next characteristics of the fuel:
• Heating ability of the fuel – 41 868 kJ/kg
• Sulfur contentment ≤ 1%
• Fuel consumption at all – 360 kg/h
• Smoke gases temperature - 140º C
• Air overstock coefficient 1.3
• Smoke gases outflow – 8490 cubic meters per hour
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• Sulfur dioxide outflow – 2.389 g/s
• NOx outflow – 0.257 g/s
By using these results, the emissions of waste gases are as follows:
For SO2 = 1016.0 mg/m3, by MLE (Maximal limit emission) = 1000 mg/m3
For NO2 = 108.8 mg/m3 < MLE = 450 mg/m3
By the results above it is clearly visible that using fuel with sulfur concentration of 1% leads
to SO2 content at the waste gases close to the MLE. That’s why it is recommendable by fuel
delivery to be required certificates for sulfur content, and to be prohibited use of fuel with
sulfur concentration above 1%. For NOx the results are 4 times below MLE, so they are not a
concern.
Air Traffic Guidance power plant
The main parameters of the fuel and of the burning process are the same as these for the
airport heating plant. The main difference is only the fuel consumption which in this case is
120 liters/hour
Waste gases and emissions are as follows:
• Smoke gases temperature - 140º C
• Air overstock coefficient 1.3
• Smoke gases outflow 2830 m3/h
• Sulfur dioxide outflow – 0.799g/s
• NOx outflow – 0.082 g/s
SO2 = 1016.0 mg/m3 = MLE = 1000 mg/m3
NO2 = 108.8 mg/m3 < MLE = 450 mg/m 3
As in the previous case by the high sulfur concentration in the fuel, SO2 emissions reach
MLE.
Blast-furnace for waste burning
Heating ability of the fuels are approximately the same as for the other facilities, because the
kerosene fuel is mixed with water in indefinitely proportion:
• Quantity of sulfur ≤ 0.5%
• Fuel consumption – 50 l/h
• Smoke gases temperature 140º C
• Smoke gases outflow 1179 m3/h
• Sulfur dioxide outflow – 0.167 g/s
312
• Nitrogen dioxide outflow – 0.034 g/s
SO2 = 509.2 mg/m3 = MLE = 1000 mg/m3
NO2 = 103.7 mg/m3 < MLE = 450 mg/m3
The results are definitely below MLE, and after starting of process of separation of the waste
materials and recycling of some of them, now the results should be even better.
Estimation of the missions connected with the airport activity

Main moving sources of pollution on the territory of Varna international airport are the planes.
Different types of planes have different types of engines also. In the aircraft construction are
used mainly 3 types of engines.
The three most common types of jet engine are the turbojet, turboprop, and turbofan. Air
entering a turbojet engine is compressed and passed into a combustion chamber, where the
oxygen from the air combines with the fuel—that is, burns it. Hot gases produced by the
burning fuel spins the turbine that drives the compressor, creating an effective power cycle.
Turboprop engines are driven almost entirely by a propeller mounted in front of the engine,
deriving only 10 per cent of their thrust from the exhaust jet. Turbofans combine the hot air jet
with bypassed air from a fan, also driven by the turbine. The use of bypass air creates a
quieter engine with greater boost at low speeds, making it a popular choice for commercial
aircraft.
Turbofan engine pushes nearly three times as much air through the bypass ducts as it pushes
through the central core of the engine, where the air is compressed, mixed with fuel, and
ignited. Turbofan engines are not as powerful as turbojets, but they are quieter and more
efficient.
Picture 2: “Most common types of jet engines”
The main types of aircraft vehicles operating on the territory of Varna international airport are
presented in table 2.
313
Table 2: “Main types of aircraft vehicles operating on the territory of Varna airport”
1995 1996 2003

Aircraft type % movements % movements % movements
TU154 41.8 1748 43.4 1862 5391
TU134 5.0 211 4.8 207 220
B737 46 70 85
B767 4 25 0
A320 4.2 175 3.3 143 912
AN24 34.3 1433 36.2 1552 457
AN12 11 9 0
IL76 3 4 0
L410 1.5 64 1.4 62 2
YK40 2.5 106 2.1 90 526
LR35 32 22 0
YK42 26 1.4 59 50
DA2010 0 8 0
B707 4 10 0
B757 14 8 274
IL86 3 46 283
IL62 2 21 0
B727 26 1 0
Other 269 91 2146
Total 4177 4290 10 346
Analyzing of data from table 2 shows those 5-6 main types of aircrafts forms about 90% of
the traffic to and from the airport. From the other hand there is not enough data for the type
of about 2-4% of the served planes. That’s why estimation of the polluting effect by the Varna
international airport is realized by using the main types of aircrafts. To add the estimation for
the rest plane types we will use three basic plane types distributed equally by the rest of the
groups. Namely:
• ATR72, BAE146, CRJ refer to the group of AN24;
• MD series, PC9, F100, B727 refer to the group of B737;
• B757, A310, B707 refer to the group of B757;
• C21, P180, B20, L410 refer to the group of C21.
Graphically the above presented data will be shown at three different charts, separated by
the type of polluting components. The charts will be as follows:
• HC polluting from the aircraft engines
• CO polluting from the aircraft engines
• NO2 polluting from the aircraft engines
The presented data is based on the emissions of polluting components from aircraft engines
for a typically busy twenty-four hours period.
314
Table 3: “Standard emissions of polluting components by some types of aircraft

engines by the standard period of landing and taking off”.
Emissions, D0F00 (average) (g/kH)
Aircraft Engine (u) Power , kH HC CO NO2
type
A320 CF6-80C2A2 233.4 17.6 69.1 45.8
B707 JT3D-3B 80.1 395.4 328.2 37.7
B727 JT3D-7 63.5 39.9 135.8 50.9
B737-200 PW2037 89.4 4.9 39.3 55.8
RB211-535E4 176.1 9.3 32.6 84.6
B757 RB211535C 163.3 4 40.3 60.4
B767-200 CF6-80A 208.8 12.1 43.6 61.6
JT9D-7R4D 213.5 2.4 16.2 64.7
TU154A NK-8-2U 103.0 505.1 532.0 49.0
TU154A NK-8-2U 103.0 180.3 305.0 -
IL86 NK-86 127.5 157.5 171.1 43.7
IL86 NK-86A 130.5 69.6 148.2 53.4
NK-86MA 130.5 15.2 100.5 37.3
Tu134B D-30 IIser. 66.6 207.8 257.6 75.5
IL76TD D-30KP-2 117.6 47.2 208.6 49.5
HC polluting emissins from the aircraft engines for a normal busy 24 hours
period
700
676,63
612,19
600
500
400
Kg
300
200 146
100 72,66
45,04
16,86 36,33
0,9 0,892,67 1,94 1,85 5,05
0
AN12 AN24 B737 A320 L410 TU154 YK40 B767 IL62 IL86
Aircraft types
1995-1996 2003
IL62 D30KU 112.7 37.4 191.7 43.8

TU154M D30KU-154 107.5 53.1 292.8 40.4
IL18, AN12* AI-20M 56.3 200.0 250.0 40.0
AN24* AI-24 36.5 200.0 250.0 40.0
Chart 1: “HC polluting emissions from the aircraft engines for a normal busy 24 hours
period”
315
Chart 2
CO polluting emissins from the aircraft engines for a normal busy 24 hours
period
2500
2029,89
2000
1836,57
1500
Kg
1000
500
182,48 77,36
56,3 86,42 77,36
7,03 7,6 22,8 5,72 10,51 18,2
0
Aircraft types
1995-1996 2003
Chart 3
NOx polluting emissins from the aircraft engines for a normal busy 24
hours period
300
273,35
247,32
250
200
Kg 150
100
55,74
50 29,2 31,29 25,72 19,75 27,87

9 10 10,43 6,66
1,34
0
Aircraft types
1995-1996 2003
316
Estimation of polluting components for a 30 minutes period

Estimation of the polluting components for a period of 30 minutes hasn’t got very big practical
meaning, as far as the standard estimation cycle for the aircraft engines is about 33 minutes,
from which: 26 minutes working on the ground: 4 minutes landing: 0.7 minutes for taking off.
During the rush hours we have the highest level of pollution. That is also proved by the
results of the realized measurements. The estimation for a rush hour can be presented as for
the whole 60 minutes period, or for the 30 minutes period, which usually is half of the result
for an hour.
Table 4: “Emissions of polluting components from aircraft engines for a rush 30

minutes time interval”
Emissions of polluting components; kg
Index
HC CO NOx
60 minutes 119.94 347.05 46.97
30 minutes 59.97 173.5 23.48
Presented data at table 4 didn’t show the real global picture of polluting. From the other hand
the number of flights is rising all the time, which means that even now the pollution is higher.
Airport activity is rising every year. Typically Varna international airport is a seasonal airport
with main activity during the summer season – between April and October. Anyway, during
the past few years were open few new destination flights, which are permanent and that
erase the clearly visible difference between summer and winter season in the past. he
pollution is in a direct ratio to the number of the flights. How it was presented by the charts
above, the pollution is higher at the territory of the airport. However, because of the air
masses movements airport activity affect also and the surrounding territories and near
standing housing complexes.
Calculations and analysis of pollution of atmospheric air with waste emissions are located in
eastern direction.
The main considerations are as follows:
• Mainly most affected by the atmospheric pollution are contiguous territories of

the airport in eastern direction. They are located by one of the main directions
of the most common winds. Main sources of emissions - runway, starting
territories and parking net are located that way, the winds from eastern
direction served them longwise.
• By this moment temporary build-up housing area exists at east-north-east

from the airport.
• The built model for estimation of air pollution from Varna airport doesn’t
include background levels, and also pollution from the main road system from
the airport – (highway – Varna – Sofia, etc.).
• In the borders of this estimation territory are presented lineal sources of

pollution. The calculating net is build at the eastern part of the housing area.
Coordinates of the calculating map are presented at tables 5 and 6.
317
Table 5: "Coordinates by horizontal direction by direction Y”

Designations
Y I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X
- 500 -200 100 400 700 1000 1300 1600 1900 2200
Table 6: “Coordinates by vertical direction by direction X”

Designation
X E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6
1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200
• There are estimated intermediate concentrations for a 24 hours period and

single maximal parameters of emissions of two basic polluting agents: Carbon
oxide (CO), and nitrogen oxide (NOx). It’s consider that these two polluting
sources and especially nitrogen oxides give enough information for estimated
additional imission burden of atmospheric air of Varna airport.
The process of distribution of emissions in the air is realized in the following conditions:
• Wind with speed 1m/s – north / south-west;
• Wind direction variations - 15º;
• Air temperature - 21º C
• Class of atmospheric stability “B” (daily period, light sun radiation with broken
clouds).
It’s believed that these climatic parameters are preliminary attitude of maximal aggravate air
pollution conditions.
In the next tables are shown the prognosis pollution loading. With the symbol “•” is shown
insignificant value concentration, closer to zero.
Table 7: “Zone “Iztok”, south-west wind, imissions NO2, (mg/m3)”

Y Intermediate 24 hours concentrations Maximal
X E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6 E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6
I ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
II ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
III ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
IV ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
V ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
VI ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
VII ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
VIII ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
IX ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
X ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
MLC = 0.1 MLC = 0.2
MLC – Maximal Limit Concentration
318
Table 8: “Zone “Iztok”, south-west wind, imissions CO, mg/m3”

Y Intermediate 24 hours concentrations Maximal
X E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6 E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6
I ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
II ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
III ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
IV ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
V ● ● ● ● ● ● 0.35 .035 0.24 0.15 0.24 0.15
VI ● ● ● ● ● ● 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.24
VII ● ● ● ● ● ● 0.35 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.24
VIII ● ● ● ● ● ● 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.24 0.24 0.24
IX ● ● ● ● ● ● 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.24 0.24
X ● ● ● ● ● ● 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.24
MLC = 10 MLC = 60
Conclusion
By analyzing all of the available data about airport activity, number of flights, type of typically
used aircrafts, and specific climatic characteristics for the region, we can mark off the next
few concluding things:
• Varna International airport can not be considered as a serious atmospheric air pollution
source for the territories located in the immediate vicinity of it.
• More considerable is pollution of the air at the territory of the airport complex, which is
normal for such transport-communication complex. Only for the few limited territories
level of polluting imissions, and basically Nitrogen dioxide reach value closer to the
maximal limit concentration.
• For the territories located at east direction from the airport complex it is not estimated
direct air pollution with carbon oxide, both for intermediate 24 hours concentration and
maximal single concentration.
• Carbon oxide imissions are close to the MLC
• Polluting agent connected with the transport activity and also with some pursue serving
activities are carbohydrates (CH). In Bulgaria there are no normative regulations,
inspecting all different types of carbohydrates. That’s why pollution caused by different
types of carbohydrates is not presented.
References
1. “Varna International Airport environmental influence - 1996
2. Microsoft, “Microsoft Encarta 98 Encyclopedia”, 1998
3. “Varna International Airport Visit Card”
4. “Varna International Airport data base”
319
A geo-based modelling and management tool for determining urban

morphology and natural ventilation potentials
Hsie Tung-Shen
School of Architecture, The University of Sheffield, The Arts Tower, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK,
e-mail: t.hsie@sheffield.ac.uk
Abstract
The provision of fresh air in cities is one of the main drivers for sustainability, helping to preserve occupants’
health and comfort both indoors and outdoors. Moreover, it is well known that there is a crucial correlation
between the natural ventilation potential “NVP” and the composition of urban morphology in built
environments. However, only limited information on natural ventilation design within cities is available to local
authorities and designers when considering urban planning strategies, and this is having a crucial influence
on subsequent building design.
This paper is going to explain the ideas and problems behind the proposed research and the strategies to
tackle over as well. With helps from up-to-date Geography Information System ”GIS” and Computational
Fluid Dynamics “CFD” programmes, strategic guidelines and standards for urban morphology, microclimate
and energy density can be identified and represented in a serious of GIS-based climate maps. The
methodology adopted for this study may be applied generally to provide data in other locations which will
make a significant contribution to evidence-based policy-making and management.
Introduction
The motivation behind the research is the UK Government’s emphasis on the significance of
scientific knowledge in evidence-based policy-making in the field of sustainable development. The
work comes within the scope of environment and energy prediction which is embedded in the
Geography Information System ”GIS”, the principle interface for data input, storage, retrieval, and
manipulation. Further queries, mapping, modelling, visualisation and spatial analysis can be
carried out using the Geo-process function, which is highly useful for the Decision Support
System ”DSS”.
The aim of the research is to formulate a correlation between urban form and microclimate,
especially the natural ventilation potential “NVP” to assess their effects on energy density at an
intermediate scale corresponding to the neighbourhood or city block with the ultimate aim of aiding
policy-makers. The first step of this research is to develop a GIS-based spatial analysis method for
obtaining urban morphology indicators based specifically on the climatic features and urban fabrics
of the UK. GIS with its unique Geo-process function will be utilised to integrate, analyse and
evaluate those interdisciplinary data which can affect NVP within urban areas and show the
various attributes of the data in different GIS layers. The next step is to combine GIS with up-to
date building Computational Fluid Dynamics “CFD” programmes to simulate and obtain further
details of air distribution, airflow rate and Pressure Coefficient ”Cp”. The outcomes of the CFD
simulations will be plotted onto GIS as different layers for Geo-Processing in order to explore their
correlation with the layers of Urban Morphology Indicators. Eventually, guidelines and standards
will be established and the results will be shown in a serious of urban climate maps for the
purposes of visualisation, communication and decision-making.
Natural Ventilation in Urban Context
Significance of Natural Ventilation in Urban Areas

The provision of fresh air in cities helping to prevent sick building syndrome and maintain
occupants’ health and comfort indoors. Moreover, it affects quality of life for users outdoors. The
320
significant energy demands of air conditioning can also be reduced by means of adequate
sufficient and appropriately designed Natural Ventilation Systems.
The enhancement of NVP creates the possibility of ensuring an acceptable indoor air quality by
natural ventilation only. To date, the vast majority of publications on natural ventilation deal with its
behavior within a single building, such as single and multi-zone models, possibly coupled with
thermal models. However, in order to achieve better urban sustainability, it is essential to consider
natural ventilation on a macro scale.
The knowledge of air movement patterns around buildings and within urban areas is important in
relation to various aspects. Optimum natural ventilation can dilute indoor air pollution and moderate
Urban Heat Island Effect, enhancing air quality and thermal comfort within cities, especially during
the hottest season of the year. Low wind movement can seriously affect ventilation cooling in the
summer and contribute to an increase in air pollution from traffic and industrial and heating
systems.
A well-designed urban ventilation system is also necessary to provide appropriate wind shelter,
which enhances thermal performance in the winter. This is because high wind velocity leads to
discomfort in the winter, and inappropriate wind protection cause excessive energy consumption.
However, local authorities and designers considering urban planning strategies lack information on
NVP designs in cities at the initial design stages, and this has a detrimental effect on subsequent
individual building design.
Even though the UK’s energy demand for buildings, especially for domestic air conditioning is one
of the least in the OECD countries indoor and outdoor natural ventilation within cities is still
essential for urban sustainability. Increased global warming, inappropriate urban planning,
increased building density, air and noise pollution, and inappropriate building design in terms of
orientation, openings, materials and construction all threaten health and comfort of the public both
indoors and outdoors, as well as compromising energy efficiency and the environment.
The Changing Policy

In the last decade, the UK Government’s determination to Achieving a better quality of life1 has led
to the announcements of a number of related documents, regulations and institutions. It is well
known that nearly 50�of all CO 2 emissions are from buildings. As indicated in the Energy White
Paper, the revision to Part-L as an important response to reduce greenhouse gas emissions that
are the cause of global warming. To fulfill the requirements both the Part-L Revision and the
Energy Performance of Building Directive ”EPBD” is a tough target.
According to the Amended Approved Document Part-L, the energy efficiency of all new buildings
should be improved by 25� compared to the 2004 standard; existing dwellings, which contributed
30�of CO2 emissions in the UK in 2001, will also be subject to the code. The key requirements for
existing housing, such as the improvement of energy efficiency, the encouragement of renewable
energy, air pressure testing to reduce thermal bridging and air leakage, the prevention of
overheating in buildings without mechanical cooling, and energy performance certificate labeling
will all come into effect at the end of 2005.
Following the introduction of the Amended Approved Document Part-L, the Amended Approved
Document Part-F came into effect in 2004. This required enhances air tightness for heating
efficiency improvement on one hand and encouraging natural ventilation for comfort and health on
the other. To conform to the even stricter regulations, it is necessary to define the standards of
urban morphology indicators for NVP in the early planning stages when urban areas are
regenerated or developed.
Natural Ventilation or Energy Efficiency

In the UK climate, significant energy savings can be achieved by enhancing the efficiency of space
heating, which accounted for 40�of all non-transport energy consumption in the UK in 2000. The
321
conflict between energy performance and occupants’ quality of life, which is the key issue in
sustainability, is always challenge practitioners. Approximately 30�of the energy delivered to
buildings is dissipated in the outgoing ventilation and exfiltration air stream.
It is evident that the UK government intends to reduce energy wastage by enhancing air-tightness
and envelope insulation performance through stricter building regulation. However, their attempts
must also take into account the need for natural ventilation in order to maintain adequate indoor air
quality and prevent discomfort due to overheating in the warmer season. It is well known that
sealed building without appropriate ventilation can cause sick building syndrome and poor user
satisfaction.
Defra’s 2003 report showed that there has been no significant progress in the headline indicator
health, but a significant decline in the headline indicator air quality since the Government’s
Sustainable Development Strategy launched in 1999. Thus, there is an urgent need to explore the
right balance between adequate air quality and energy efficiency, and to formulate reliable
standards for both.
Problems that Facing

According to the monitoring report for the Home Energy Conservation Act 1995 conducted by
Optima Energy in 2001. Local Energy Conservation Authorities in England felt they were unlikely to
achieve the 30� improvement in energy efficiency required under HECA. 85�of all ECAs identified
the lack of a clear, simple, and practical methodology for modelling local environments and
monitoring progress, and the difficulties of establishing baseline data, as the key barriers.
ECAs has the right to make the decisions about where the limited funds available are directed.
However, insufficient staff and lack of revenue and capital resources to implement measures, have
made it difficult for ECAs to target those households in need of subsidies. Ultimately, 94�of all
ECAs think clear guidelines or a methodology, including a consistent set of software and
monitoring systems for information collecting and progress measuring, are urgently needed to fully
implement the HECA. Currently, practitioners can only rely on their empirical estimation when
considering natural ventilation design, given the lack of Pressure Coefficient and air distribution
information. An absolute indicator or standard corresponding to various urban forms is needed to
guide decision-makers trying to identify whether the layout of buildings is appropriate and the
quantity of air is sufficient. With the illustration of climate maps, baseline can be identified and
progress monitored, and the problematic areas within cities can be recognised.
Equations of Natural Ventilation

The formulae that listed are cited from Section A4 of CIBSE Guide A which is the basis for air
infiltration and natural ventilation design in the UK. Equation”1”represents the amount of airflow
rate through opening and equation “2”represents the figure of pressure coefficient.
⎛ 2Δp ⎞⎟
0.5
Qv = ACd ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (1)
⎝ ⎜ ρ ⎠ ⎟
Qv = volume flow rate ”litre/s”
Cd = discharge coefficient”0.61”
A = area of opening” m 2 “
Δp = applied pressure difference ”Pa”
ρ = density of air ”kg/ m3 “
( p - p0 )
C = (2)
p 1
2 ρur 2
C = pressure coefficient
p
p= mean pressure at any point on surface of building ”Pa”

p0 = static pressure in undisturbed wind “Pa”
ur = mean wind speed at height equal to building height “m/s”
322
Urban Morphology and NVP
Urban Morphology and Microclimate

The composition of urban morphology has a crucial effect on microclimate performance and
energy density, especially with excessive urbanisation posing a global threat. It is essential to
extend the concepts of urban morphology for NVP into the built environment, in order to provide
reliable strategic guidelines and management methods for practitioners.
Given the effects of urban form on NVP, it is highly advisable to look at the built environment as a
whole. Focusing on buildings in isolation will not only limit the progress towards sustainability, it
can have the opposite effect on building itself and adjacent environments as well. By adopting a
macroscopic approach to natural ventilation and considering the effects from adjacent
environments, the sustainability can be enhanced.
Literatures on Urban Morphology

Research into Urban Morphology has began since the end of the 19th century, and the majority of
the work that has been carried out were generally in the fields of geography, history, archaeology,
sociology and estate management. In the last two decades, the so called Space Syntax theory
developed by Prof. J. Hanson and B. Hillier has been successfully applied to forms of quantitative
spatial analysis such as pedestrian modelling, crime analysis, traffic pollution prediction, and way-
finding processes. With improvements in IT capability, even more precise and efficient spatial
analysis tools have become available, such as GIS along with various extended programmes, e.g.
Axwoman of ArcGIS and Morphologic of MapInfo.
The current work was inspired by Prof. Luc Adolphe’s theory of urban morphology indicators in
1999 which is embedded in one of the leading GIS programmes MapInfo. Among those 9
indicators that proposed, the first three indicators Rugosity, Porosity and Sinuosity are crucially
correlated with NVP in different urban patterns. Prof. Adolphe has used this self-developed GIS-
based method so called the Morphologic to examine the forms of three different cities in different
locations with its won climate and historical periods. His research has made a significant
contribution to an understanding of the correlation between urban morphology and microclimate.
The formulae that listed are cited from Prof. Adolphe’s work on urban morphology indicators.
Equation ”3” and equation “4” represent the indicator of absolute rugosity and relative rugosity
respectively. Equation “5” represents the indicator of porosity and Equation “6” represents the
indicator of sinuosity.
∑ Aihi
Hm = built
(3)
∑ Ai + ∑
built nonbuilt
Aj
Ai = footprint area of building i
hi =height of building i
Aj = area of non built element
1/ 2
⎡ 2 2⎤
⎢ ∑ ( hi − hα ) li ⎥
Rα = ⎣ i ⎦ (4)
∑ li i
hi =height of the”built or non built”element I of the canopy.
hα = mean height of the urban canopy in the direction of α .
hi li = width of the element I of the canopy in the plane of direction α .
323
hi ∑ li =diameter of the urban canopy which is studied.

i
∑ π r Li 2
hi
lh
Po = openspaces
r = A = π rh 2 (5)
∑ Vi + ∑Vj
openspaces built
h
1+ h u
A = π r =useful area of the street

2
u hi
Li =length of the open space
r = hydraulic equivalent radius

h
Vi = mean volume of the built volume
Vj =mean canopy volume above open space
l =mean street width
h =height of the canopy of the street
∑ Li cos2 (θ i )
So =
StreetSegment
(6)
∑
StreetSegment
Li
Li =length of the linear segment
θ i = angle between the given flow azimuth and linear azimuth
Gaps in previous Literature

The experiments of Prof. Adolphe merely compared factors in different locations in relative aspect,
but did not establish absolute factors for any given region and its climate. This means that the
Standards of NVP in one particular climate zone can’t be established. Moreover, his broad view of
Urban Morphology means that the investigation of NVP and its effects on urban morphology are at
the rough estimation stage. Further precise simulation and analysis of NVP need to be carried out,
and more indicators which correlate to NVP such as Terrain indicator and Vegetation Indicator
need to be added to complete this multi-criteria theory.
GIS and NVP
The Advantages of GIS

As urban sustainability becomes an interdisciplinary concern, GIS is one of the formalised
computer-based information systems that capable of integrating data from various sources to
provide the information necessary for effective decision-making in urban planning. GIS allows
practitioners to perform spatial analysis by using geo-processing functions such as map overlay,
connectivity measurement, buffering and interpolation to manipulate useful images.
Moreover, it also serves as a database and a toolbox for practitioners and authorities enabling
efficient data retrieval, mapping and queries of thewhat if scenario. Practically, the visualisation
merits of GIS can improve analysis quality in turn leading to better communication between
participants throughout the whole design process.
324
The Use of GIS in Built Environment
GIS has typically been applied in the profession of geography and planning for the specific
purposes of land use management, transport and pollution prediction, housing stock and
environments mapping. In the last decade, there has been an increasing tendency in many OECD
countries to extend the use of GIS into different sorts of built environment in the drive to achieve
evidence-based evaluation.
For instance, air flows and air quality prediction, solar irradiation mapping, heat emissions
mapping, Thermal comfort performance, renewable energy evaluation, and post occupancy
management etc. are all examples of GIS application in the built environment.
The performance of GIS is even more powerful when combined with advanced 3D digital
technology. In the UK, institutions such as CASA of UCL and GEES of University of Birmingham
have made remarkable contributions to the field in the form of images and map processing of the
built environment which providing designers and policy-makers an alternative but essential way of
visualising the built environment.
Methodology and Procedure
City of Sheffield as the Objective

The city of Sheffield is one of the most rapidly growing cities in the UK. An intensive urban
regeneration programme is drawing massive investment for future development. Overall, Sheffield
has seen a 16.8% increase in the number of planning applications since 1999, the housing and
retail sector seeing a 30% and 3% rise respectively. The continued rise in planning applications is
a reflection of the overall increased attractiveness of the city as a place to live. Sheffield is very
likely to see another 4105 dwellings built in the city centre over the next 10 years in addition to the
2,000 residential units which already exist in the city centre12.
With a potential total of 6,152 dwelling units required and limited housing sites available, the city
council has carried out assessments of a number of sites that are not appropriate for housing
development but which are still likely to be used for this purpose. It is evident that the urban
morphology will be dramatically changed, and that this will seriously impact upon the on
microclimate and energy performance.
It is estimated that the population in the city centre will grow to 18,000 by 2010, a three fold
increase on 2002’s baseline figure of 6,500. Evidently, unless careful consideration is given to
urban design, the effect on the population’s quality of life will be dramatic. It is important to make
the right decisions at the initial stage of every planning application. This research is essential to
enable Sheffield city authority and planners to assess changes in urban forms and their effects on
sustainability.
The latest GIS programme of ArcGIS 9.0 from ESRI and the CFD simulation programme of IES will
mainly be used throughout the research process. Firstly, the basic GIS maps the so called DigiMap,
which can provide initial understanding of the shapes, areas and adjacent environments of built
environments is supplied by the web-based EdiNA database. Further site surveys will be carried
out to obtain information relative to NVP such as opening, layout, orientation and height of
buildings. This information will then plot onto GIS as the basic spatial and attribute data.
In the second phase, a self-developed analysis tool based on ArcGIS and written in the language
of MS Visual Basic will be employed to calculate and analyse the indicators of urban morphology
such as the factors of rugosity, porosity, and sinuosity. The outcome of every indicator will be
shown as an individual GIS layer and the factors will be subdivided into appropriate intervals which
will be represented in different colours to identify the different levels.
A CFD simulation programme will be used in the third phase to obtain detailed information on air
distribution, airflow rate and Pressure Coefficient factors. The outcome of the CFD simulation will
325
be plotted onto GIS as the fourth and fifth layers for subsequent Geo-Processing in order to
explore their correlation with the first three urban morphology indicators obtained in the second
phase. The fourth and fifth layers will closely linked to the latest UK building legislation, which sets
out the required standards for natural ventilation potential.
Fig. 1. The methodology and procedure of research
326
Fig. 2. The outcomes of GIS Climate Map for NVP
Conclusion and Recommendation

Eventually, the layers identified in the geo-processing will be shown in the form of a series of
climate maps enabling decision-makers to understand, visualise and communicate throughout
design process. Using this method, urban areas with poor or excessive NVP can be identified.
Allowing the authorities to invest more attentions and budgets in improving those problematic
areas. Furthermore, when the baseline standards for urban form and NVP are established, this will
enable authorities and practitioners to monitor the level of progress being made and facilitate the
review of policy performance throughout the whole process.
However, given the limited time available, this study of the links between urban morphology,
microclimate and energy density will only be able to provide guidelines and standards for NVP
design which suits the climatic feature of the City of Sheffield, or more specifically Sheffield City
Centre. If more time and financial support is made available in the future, it is highly recommended
that comparison be made between different zones of the city using the same method in order to
validate the research. Intercity comparisons would further validate the method, when
circumstances allowed.
Reference
1. Adolphe L.,”2001”, A Simplified Model of Urban Morphology: Application to an analysis of the
Environmental Performance of Cities, Environmental and Planning B: Planning and Design, Vol. 28,
183-200.
2. Atkinson P., Martin D., (2000), GIS and Geocomputation, Taylor and Francis, London.
3. DEFRA, (2003), Achieving a Better Quality of Life: Review of Progress towards Sustainable
Development, Government Annual Report, DEFRA, UK.
4. DTI, (2005), UK Energy in Brief, DTI, UK.
5. DTI and National Statistics, (2002), Energy Consumption in the UK, DTI and National Statistics, UK.
6. ECOTEC Research and Consulting Limited “2002”, An Updated Baseline for Sheffield: A Final
Report for Sheffield One, ECOTEC Research and Consulting Limited, UK.
7. EDiNA, Edinburgh University Data Library, http://edina.ac.uk/index.shtml
8. Gauthiez B., (2004), The History of Urban Morphology, Urban Morphology Journal, Vol.8, No. 2, 71
89.
9. Jiang B.,”1999”, Geometric Accessibility and Geographic Information: Extending Desktop GIS to
Space Syntax, Computers Environment and Urban Systems, Vol. 23, 127-146.
10. Jones P., Lannon S., Williams J., (2001), Modelling the Building Energy Use at Urban Scale, 7th
IBPSA Inter. Conference, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
11. ODPM, (2004), Proposals to Amend Part-L of the Building Regulations, ODPM, UK.
12. ODPM, (2004), Review of Approved Document F-Ventilation, ODPM, UK.
13. Roulet C.A., Germano M., Allard F., Ghiaus C.”2002”, Potential for Natural Ventilation in Urban
Context: An Assessment Method, Proceeding Indoor Air, France.
327
Aluminum species distribution and equilibrium relations in

groundwater from Romania
Alin Tudorache1 , Constantin Marin1 , Vlădescu Luminiţa2
1
”Emil Racoviţă” Institute of Speleology, Calea 13 Septembrie, 13, Bucharest RO-50711, Romania. E-
mail: altudorache@yahoo.co.uk;
2
University of Bucharest, Faculty of Chemistry, Sos. Panduri, No.90-92, Bucharest, Romania
Abstract
The purposes of this work are: (1). to document aluminum concentrations in various groundwater
categories that occur in Romania, a special concern being yet devoted to mineral water. The measured
concentrations range spans between 0.17 and 246.1 µg Al/L. Significantly in excess of the stipulated limit
of potability are concentrations measured for certain mineral water discharges such as: mineral water
discharges close to an assumedly still active magma chamber - that of the present-day “extinct” Ciomadu-
St. Ana volcano (Calimani-Gurghiu-Harghita area); and (2). to inspect the distribution of Al speciation in
groundwater and to evaluate its possible ecological effects.
Introduction
Aluminum is the most abundant metal in the earth crust (8,3%), being surpassed in terms of
chemical elements general abundance only by oxygen (45.5%) and by silicon (25.7%). It is a
major constituent of a large variety of volcanic and metamorphic rocks. As a result of alteration
processes affecting those rocks, aluminum accumulates in clay minerals (kaolinite, dioctahedral
smectites, Al-hydroxy-vermiculite), oxyhydroxides (boehmite -AlOOH) and hydroxides (gibbsite,
-Al(OH)3). Bauxites, that are the exploitable deposits for the extraction of aluminum for industrial
purposes, consist mainly of boehmite and gibbsite, and are they generated, as a general rule,
as a result of the karst processes which operate on carbonate rocks.
Aluminum solubility in natural, both surface and underground waters, is to a large extent
dependent on the pH, but also on the occurrence of complexing agents, as for instance the
oxalic acid, which is responsible for a significant enhancement of aluminum solubility. This
circumstance explains aluminum mobilization in acid soils, and its increased concentrations in
natural acid waters, with severe detrimental effects on the aquatic flora and fauna (ANDRÉN &
ANDERSSON, 2001).
An outstandingly important issue related to the occurrence of aluminum in natural waters is its
speciation. In the total dissolved Al concentrations, the free ion Al3+ occurs only as minute
percentages. Alternatively, aluminum occurs especially as monomeric hidroxide-complexes,
which under alkaline pH conditions may polymerize. Aluminum also forms ion pairs and
complexes with a series of inorganic ligatures that commonly occur in natural waters
(carbonate, sulfate, phosphate, silica, fluoride). Among these, fluoride-complexes are the most
stable, Al having the ability to get in combination even with the teeth glaze fluorine. Additionally,
most organic compounds which include carboxyl or hydroxyl groups are subject to aluminum
complexing. Among them, humic and fulvic acids display the strongest complexing effects,
having the ability to form, under certain circumstances, bulky aggregates, up to colloidal sizes,
that include large amounts of Al (BARTON et al., 2002)
The importance of the knowledge of aluminum speciation in natural waters derives from this
element toxicological effects. The toxicity of Al depends on the forms present in the water,
rather than its total concentration only. Free Al3+, aluminum hydroxide Al–OH complexes
[including AlOH2+ and Al(OH)2+] are thought to be the most toxic species, whereas Al fluoride
complexes (Al–F) may mitigate toxicity and organically complexing Al (Al-org) are non-toxic (BI,
2001). Elevated levels of Al have been implicated in the etiology of Alzheimer’s disease,
Parkinson’s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, diabetes, and cancer (CARSON, 2000;
328
FLORENCE, 1998). Although increased exposure to Al alone has not been proven sufficient to
cause any of these diseases, the possibility remains that elevated levels of Al may initiate or
accentuate these diseases (BERTHON, 2002).
In the process of selecting a specific analytical methodology for determining aluminum species
in natural waters, one must consider a series of factual issues, such as: (i) the relatively large
number of species that may occur, and which are in a dynamic equilibrium; (ii) the normally low
concentrations of total dissolved Al, from a few μg/L, up to a maximum of several mg/L; (iii) the
presence of the humic and fulvic substances in the water and their ability to form colloids; (iv)
the presence of suspensions (which consist, as a general rule, of clay particles) favoring Al
adsorption on the surface of the particles (ELKINS & NELSON, 2002).
Among the methods used for the analytical separation of the various species of aluminum, the
most common are: centrifugal hydro-extracting, filtering, dialysis, steric exclusion
chromatography, ion-chromatographic separation (BUSCH & SEUBERT, 1999), capillary
electrophoresis, etc. Quantitative analysis of the separated species uses techniques of
spectrophotometry (BOHRER, 1998; HE & WANG, 2000), spectrofluorimetry (ALONSO et al. 2001;
MIZUGUCHI et al., 2000; PARK & CHA, 2000; SMITH & KRAMER, 1998; ZHANG, et al., 2000), atomic
adsorption spectrometry or electrometric methods (LIU, et al, 2000). Of a special interest are the
non-destructive analysis methods, especially 27Al NMR at concentration levels known in natural
solutions.
The aqueous Al speciation can be calculated by using stability constants for all possible
complexes and assuming thermodynamic equilibrium.
Experimental
Water samples, most of them taken from drilled wells, have been collected in pre-cleaned
Nalgene (conventional polyethylene CPE) bottles. Immediately after being collected, unfiltered
samples were acidified by using 1 mL Nitric acid 65% Suprapur (Merck catalog No. 100411) for
1 L of sample.
The determination of total Al concentrations was carried out with a Perkin–Elmer atomic
absorption spectrometer, model AAnalyst 700 with deuterium arc background correction,
equipped with an AS-800 autosampler, an HGA-800 graphite furnace, pyrocoated graphite
tubes with integrated platforms (Perkin–Elmer catalog No. B3001262) and a Lumina Single-
element HCL – Aluminum source lamp (Perkin–Elmer catalog No. N3050103). The instrumental
settings and analysis temperatures are listed in Table 1. The signal was measured in the peak
area mode. Each completed determination was followed by a 4 s clean-up step of the graphite
tube at 2600°C.
Table 1. Operating parameters for the graphite furnace atomic absorption

spectrometer
Parameter Al
Wavelength (nm) 309.2 nm
Slit-width (nm) 0.7 nm
Hollow cathode lamp current 25 mA
Energy 43 e.u.
Temperature Duration (s)
(°C) Ramp time Hold time
Pre-drying 100 5 20
Drying 140 15 15
Ashing 1700 10 20
Atomization 2500 0 5
329
Method Detection Limit (MDL) was established using a low level natural water sample
containing approximately 5 times the estimated detection limit. To determine MDL values, seven
replicate aliquots of water which have been processed through the entire analytical method. The
MDL was calculated by means of equation:
MDL = t * S
where, S = the standard deviation of the replicate analyses, and t = Student’s t value for n-1
degrees of freedom at the 99% confidence limit; t = 3.143 for six degrees of freedom. The
determined method detection limit is = 1.35 μg Al/L.
At the time the samples were collected, the temperature, the water pH, and the total alkalinity
have been determined. There have been also performed differential fixings for the various
compounds that had to be analyzed in the laboratory. The water temperature was measured in
the site by using an electronic thermometer with an accuracy of ±0.1°C. The combination pH
electrode was calibrated at the ambient temperature before measurement of pH (±0.01 units).
The field pH-meter (Consort C933) compensated for temperature changes. Total alkalinity were
determined by Gran titration procedure (HANSSON. & JAGNER, 1973).
Na, K, Ca, and Mg were analyzed by standard flame atomic absorption spectrometery
Methods. The total boron was determined by carmine method (BULL et al., 1975), and dissolved
silica was analyzes photometrically with molybdate (PAKALNS & FLYNN, 1967). Nitrate was
analyzed by a UV method. Sulphate was determined turbidimetrically (AMINOT, 1974), and
chloride was analyzed titrimetrically by Mohr method. In order to measure total fluoride ion
concentration a ion-selective procedure was used.

The main analytical results are provided in Table 2. Recorded Al concentrations vary in the
0.17–246.1 µg/L range, while pH varies in the 5.63-8.66 range. At the same time, fluorurides
occur in the 0.01–2.22 mg/L concentrations range.
One of the principal method of interpreting natural groundwater geochemistry is to assume that
all dissolved species are at equilibrium. This assumption permits the use of thermodynamic
models of aqueous solutions to calculate the distribution of dissolved species, a technique
adopted for this study. A wide variety of computer-based models is available to calculate
distributions and activities of dissolved species. The aqueous model used during this study is
contained in the PHREEQC Interactive 2.12.5 computer program (U.S. Geological Survey,
version November 16, 2005) (PARKHURST & APPELLO, 1999). From theoretical point of view, In
aqueous solution, Al exists in a number of complexes, all in dynamic equilibrium. The ‘free’
aqua-ion, Al(H2O)3+6 , is acidic, and hydrolyses even below pH 3. The aqua-ion therefore rarely
dominates among Al species in natural waters. With increasing pH, monomeric hydroxo
complexes are formed. If the pH is increased still further, polymerisation can occur. The exact
nature of these polymeric complexes is still under debate. The main inorganic ligand, apart fiom
hydroxide, is fluoride, that forms very strong complexes with Al. In natural waters, sulfato
(RIDLEY et al., 1999; RUDOLPH & MASON, 2001), carbonato, phosphato and silicato complexes
(SALVI et al., 1998; SPADINI et al., 2005) also exist. In some cases, for example for the
phosphato complexes, the formation constants of these complexes are only approximately
known.
An example of how Al speciates in a certain groundwater is illustrated in Fig. 1. In the insert,

species which occur with significant weights are shown as percentages of the total Al
concentration of the sample. In the right hand box, there are indicated the temperature, pH and
concentration values which have been used in the computations.
330
Table 2. Chemical analyses of some groundwater sources from Romania.
pH Na K Mg Ca B Al HCO3 Si NO3 SO4 F Cl

mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L µg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L
Domogled C2 6.65 0.7 0.5 2.3 80.6 0.1 3.72 211 1.6 7.8 23.9 0.01 6
Iasi Copou, Izv. 3 7.67 36.6 2.4 126.8 50.3 0.6 2.89 679 6.6 58.4 72.8 0.89 34
Baia Borsa Izv. 1 6.02 407.9 30.3 24.5 93.6 18.9 48.57 918 26.0 1.9 39.7 0.21 330
Baia Borsa Izv. 1bis 5.95 177.6 14.4 17.1 56.6 9.2 44.56 431 14.8 1.4 46.1 0.19 152
Baia Borsa Izv. 2 5.68 184.4 15.6 17.0 70.8 9.2 130.80 528 23.9 1.1 32.4 0.19 142
Dorna Candrenilor F1bis 6.33 10.7 2.5 15.2 372.0 0.1 78.56 1218 12.5 0.1 8.2 0.18 8
Poiana Cosnei, Izv. Felicia 5.94 38.8 4.1 13.7 101.7 1.5 152.20 454 37.0 0.1 9.6 0.08 14
Moara Dracului C3 7.43 2.4 2.0 2.3 7.7 0.0 52.23 17 14.0 4.8 7.7 0.02 8
Moara Dracului C7 7.50 3.0 2.4 2.6 9.9 0.0 74.57 2 13.3 5.2 5.1 0.02 24
Poiana Vinului F5 6.33 18.6 3.0 9.4 323.0 0.8 127.80 1022 8.1 0.0 30.3 0.35 14
Poiana Vinului F9 6.23 7.4 1.3 10.9 397.0 0.5 62.57 1267 13.4 1.0 1.5 0.15 10
Poiana Negri Fd 6.49 217.6 24.6 43.2 276.3 3.3 14.41 1564 41.5 0.7 4.6 0.23 62
Rosu F2 6.63 35.9 6.1 86.8 316.7 0.8 30.99 1456 29.6 0.1 18.2 0.53 16
Tosorog F1 ISLGC 6.44 37.4 5.4 59.6 127.4 0.1 21.76 722 2.7 4.5 34.0 0.15 14
Tosorog II 6.97 15.0 6.1 15.3 96.4 0.1 4.08 327 5.4 23.0 27.5 0.04 20
Bampotoc FH5 6.39 11.0 2.4 47.5 338.1 0.8 32.69 1265 6.4 0.0 7.0 0.98 14
Biborteni F7 6.22 218.5 38.1 94.4 261.5 13.9 3.12 1783 55.4 0.0 7.8 0.15 68
Biborteni F8 6.18 195.2 32.0 81.9 21.7 9.4 8.40 903 36.9 0.7 30.2 0.13 60
Biborteni F9 6.23 223.2 35.9 91.1 244.0 14.9 26.38 1656 50.6 0.0 16.0 0.13 100
Malnas F1bis 6.41 217.4 11.7 17.2 141.3 10.1 11.47 880 34.2 1.0 36.4 0.12 108
Bodoc F13 6.36 531.7 21.0 27.9 165.2 17.6 3.28 1831 6.9 2.7 39.8 0.20 118
Bodoc Izv. Matild 6.63 608.2 28.0 49.0 210.1 18.4 43.65 2265 11.0 4.6 26.4 0.26 140
Valcele F9 6.99 343.3 11.0 292.0 345.2 2.6 33.29 3308 22.6 2.5 0.2 0.20 78
Valcele F. Elisabeta 6.81 340.5 10.4 282.5 338.8 2.6 39.64 3249 22.1 2.2 6.2 0.23 64
Tg. Secuiesc F2 6.11 85.3 3.6 21.0 69.9 1.6 35.44 496 20.5 0.2 6.1 0.10 28
Tg. Secuiesc F4 6.15 81.4 3.2 27.7 80.7 0.3 18.86 531 26.9 0.2 8.1 0.09 42
Covasna FI IAFAA 5.63 68.1 25.7 10.6 57.0 2.3 120.90 327 5.5 1.8 29.0 0.04 56
Covasna FII IAFAA 6.13 599.3 40.8 23.4 90.2 28.3 36.96 1296 6.8 3.2 24.7 0.07 418
Covasna F4 RAMIN 5.71 119.5 15.2 12.7 65.1 5.3 246.10 377 10.7 0.2 33.3 0.07 112
Covasna F7 IMFBRM 6.77 1903.0 109.4 47.4 123.8 72.1 32.54 4015 15.4 13.4 21.8 0.12 1035
Covasna F5 IMFBRM 5.85 172.9 19.8 19.4 34.8 6.7 10.74 402 10.0 1.4 61.3 0.07 126
Covasna F2 GEOLEX 6.42 723.5 23.6 58.3 136.3 27.3 8.77 2043 10.4 2.3 39.7 0.16 332
Covasna F1 ISLGC 6.19 441.7 27.5 18.6 58.4 16.8 57.99 1016 8.7 2.4 36.2 0.09 246
Stanceni F2 6.05 30.3 0.9 52.1 100.4 0.1 7.60 610 35.1 0.5 20.2 0.04 8
Zizin F1bis 7.09 64.5 3.2 16.6 124.4 1.7 63.91 528 2.8 7.1 29.3 0.10 38
Zizin F2 6.74 302.1 6.4 44.1 153.9 8.7 13.67 1130 5.9 6.6 29.9 0.20 190
Tusnad Nou FH35 6.39 236.3 12.2 109.8 294.2 14.9 4.81 1556 4.4 1.7 2.9 0.08 310
Tusnad Nou Izv. Zanelor 7.01 12.5 3.9 11.5 22.6 1.6 10.95 68 32.5 36.6 7.9 0.10 30
Iacobeni Casin Izv. 1 6.55 709.6 26.7 47.2 581.5 19.8 2.57 3701 47.0 4.0 10.0 0.35 126
Cetatuia F1 6.20 41.6 7.1 43.3 288.6 1.2 0.91 1173 25.5 1.7 3.9 0.05 28
Covasna FIII IAFAA 6.08 321.5 29.7 16.1 37.3 12.8 8.33 660 6.8 2.6 42.3 0.06 222
Tusnad F2 6.27 446.9 24.8 98.4 221.1 25.9 7.69 1716 41.0 4.3 0.9 0.16 390
Covasna S1 6.40 61.3 7.2 10.2 59.4 2.7 3.39 236 8.0 25.1 24.0 0.08 68
Covasna S2 5.79 160.3 8.8 17.9 62.6 6.1 7.24 429 9.4 44.4 8.7 0.07 140
Certeze Izv. 2, Mihai 6.01 58.6 14.9 38.9 112.0 0.1 1.96 684 26.6 0.4 3.2 0.04 16
Certeze F8 6.51 29.7 4.1 11.1 51.5 0.2 0.22 271 17.9 0.7 9.8 0.13 8
Bilbor F1 SNAM 6.97 237.3 79.8 161.0 465.6 6.0 88.84 2811 28.8 0.4 6.3 2.22 90
Covasna S5 6.37 174.2 5.3 15.0 70.8 6.8 50.92 486 8.2 0.8 37.1 0.09 134
Sacosu Mare F1H 6.70 100.5 9.8 48.4 184.3 0.2 13.44 1038 39.2 0.2 10.6 0.21 20
Vata de Jos F1 8.66 293.8 2.4 0.0 84.6 4.4 40.50 73 18.1 1.2 383.3 1.53 276
Busteni Izv 1 7.99 1.1 1.4 2.0 34.4 0.0 0.17 102 1.9 2.1 6.9 0.02 4
Busteni Izv 2 7.92 1.5 1.2 2.3 34.3 0.1 1.14 100 2.2 2.0 10.4 0.02 4
Doboseni FH1 7.00 113.6 16.1 94.6 46.7 7.7 17.82 854 52.2 3.2 11.9 0.10 42
Doboseni FH2 6.18 81.4 12.6 60.3 34.5 4.6 11.88 559 54.6 21.2 5.1 0.11 34
Bodoc F1 SNAM 7.56 83.5 4.5 20.3 102.6 2.0 36.34 574 11.0 2.8 5.4 0.31 34
Lebes, Izvor 7.58 6.8 1.0 5.1 17.5 0.1 3.04 67 2.7 2.3 3.6 0.09 14
Lebes, Foraj F1 7.22 22.9 2.5 18.7 38.5 0.2 15.73 244 6.1 1.0 5.1 0.15 14
Certeze F4 RAMIN 6.58 547.0 39.8 15.6 64.4 8.2 6.56 1448 12.6 0.8 16.2 0.71 184
Certeze F9 SNAM 6.53 655.4 46.5 16.4 78.9 9.2 5.78 1643 12.9 1.1 6.2 0.37 280
Poiana Vinului F8 6.25 99.1 11.4 27.5 374.5 5.0 13.52 1459 9.5 1.6 20.8 0.33 42
331
Fig. 1 – Al species distribution calculated at Bilbor F1 well.
Fig. 2 – Calculated species distribution for the whole group of samples having
been analyzed, PHREEQC code with ‘llnl’ database.
332
When considering the whole group of samples having been analyzed (Fig. 2), one can notice
that the Al3+ ion occurs as insignificant percentages, when compared to the weight of the other
species. Among the latter, hydroxyl-complexes can be seen to bear the most significant
weights, followed by fluoride-complexes and, to a quite small extent, by sulfate-complexes.
The distribution of the hydroxyl-complexes is to a large extent controlled by pH values (Fig. 3).
The correlation diagrams follow and
equation of the type:
y = a + be − x / c
where the equation parameters being indicated in Table 3.
Fig. 3 – Distribution of the Al hydroxo complexes concentrations, expressed as –

log (molalities), vs. pH.
Table 3. Values of the equation parameters and correlation coefficients for Fig.’s 3
distributions.
Al(OH)2+ Al3+ Al2(OH)2+ 4 Al3(OH)4+ 5 AlO2 AlOH2+

a 0.7991 4.1984 9.02599 11.43956 6.37263 5.68403
b 9.85499 0.12756 0.0175 0.00684 2621.41 0.01369
c -0.74398 -1.75435 -1.17565 1.00052 0.75218 -1.25956
r2 0.741 0.928 0.873 0.844 0.231 0.872
It is worth mentioning that in the case of the Al13O4(OH)247+ species, no apparent correlation
seems to exist between its concentrations and the corresponding pH values.
333
The toxicity of Al depends on the forms present in the water, rather than its total concentration
only. Free Al3+, aluminum hydroxide Al–OH complexes (including AlOH2+ and Al(OH)2+) are
thought to be the most toxic species, whereas Al fluoride complexes (Al–F) may mitigate toxicity
and organically complexing Al (Al-org) are non-toxic.
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334
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335
Nitrogen compounds dynamic in Argeş Lower Basin

Cristian Ioja, Marius Matache
University of Bucharest, Centre for Environmental Research and Impact Studies, 1
Balcescu Blvd, Sector 1, Bucharest, Romania, ccmesi@yahoo.com
Abstract
The nitrogen compounds represent very important parameters which have a big influence on the aquatic
ecosystems, and also on the water use potential for the economic activities. In Arges Lower Basin, the
nitrogen compounds concentration (ammonia, nitrate, nitrite) are high, being characteristic by III-V th Quality
Class. The critical areas appear on the Dambovita river (downstream of Glina), Argeş river (downstream of
Dambovita confluence) and Sabar river (downstream of Arges-Sabar vegetable area). The high values
determine the groundwater’s contamination and decrease of the regeneration aquatic ecosystems capacity.
Introduction
The Arges Lower Basin includes the most transformed Romanian space, Bucharest urban
agglomeration, which affects the water quality. The high number and diversity of the water
consumers and effluents, the water degradation sources concentration, the topographical and the
hydraulic works (neck cut-off, improvement works, irrigation and draining systems, etc.) and the
economical activities dynamics have a big influence to the aquatic ecosystems from the Arges
Lower Basin.
The water nitrogen compounds dynamic represented the subject of more research, which followed
to find solution in order to improve the water quality in critical areas (Tyson et al., 1993, Gu and
Dong, 1998, Ongley and Booty, 1999). Orlob, 1982 (QUAL1 Model), Water Resource Engineering,
1973 (QUAL2 Model), Brown and Barnwell, 1987 (QUAL2E Model), DHI, 1992 (MIKE11 Model),
Aalderink et al., 1995 (DUFLOW-EUTROF1 Model), Reichert et al., 2001 şi Derksissa et al, 2004
(RWQM1 Model) realize the water quality assessment models, possible to apply to inorganic
nitrogen compounds. These models can generate the relevant results using the short data series
and a low parameters number (BOD, COD, dissolved oxygen, ammonia, nitrate, nitrite, phosphate,
organic substances, heterotrophic and nitrification biomass). Sobczak et al. (2003) assess the
relation between the nitrogen compounds and the oxygen indicators, observing a direct correlation
between nitrate and dissolved oxygen, and between ammonia and COD. The key factor which
influences the water nitrogen compounds dynamics are biotic environment. Gächter at al (2004)
study the agricultural activities importance for the nitrate concentration increase in the rivers and
ground waters.
In Arges Lower Basin, the nitrogen compounds monitoring from the rivers was realized using the
statistical data of Romanian Waters Company for following sections: Budeşti, Clăteşti (Argeş river),
Budeşti (Dâmboviţa river) and Vidra (Sabar river). Between Mars and July 2006, University of
Bucharest, Centre for Environmental Research and Impact Studies realizing the measurements in
six monitoring points (Colibaşi, Hotarele, Şoldanu, Clăteşti on Argeş river, Budeşti on Dâmboviţa
river and Câmpurelu on Sabar river). We use the Colorimeter for environmental analysis C207 in
order to determine the ammonia, nitrate and nitrite concentration. For ammonia, we use the
D1426-92 Nessler method, in which HI 93764 reagents and ammonia causes a yellow tint in the
sample. In case of nitrate and nitrite we use chromotropic methods (David et al, 2003).
336
Nitrogen compounds sources in Argeş Lower basin

In the Arges Lower Basin, the nitrogen compounds concentration are influenced by the natural
(animal and vegetal life forms, suspensions, etc.) and human (domestic, agricultural and industrial
wastewaters, chemical fertilizers using, landfills, etc.) sources.
Main influenced factors are the domestic, agricultural and industrial wastewaters discharges
(especially from Bucharest urban agglomeration), the natural and chemical fertilizers excess use
(Vegetable Area, see Table no. 1) and landfills. The maintaining of the high concentration of the
water nitrogen compounds in Arges Lower Basin is determined also by the high organically in
charge of the sedimentary deposits due to the low water speed or the big wastewater volumes.
Table no. 1 - Natural and chemical fertilizers indicators in Arges Lower Basin
Chemical Fertilizers
Natural Fertilizes
Nitrogen Phosphates Complex
Setlements %
% from from % from % from
kg/ha2 kg/ha2 kg/ha2 kg/ha2
arable1 arable arable1 arable1
1
Adunatii Copaceni 49,39 90,51 2,72 60,61 0 0 2,97 30000

Bolintin Deal 58,65 70,96 0 0 0 0 4,73 4000
Bolintin Vale 76,19 62,5 0 0 0 0 76,19 170,4
Colibasi 38,02 1000 15,20 750 15,21 500 9,50 30000
Comana 23,31 110 0 0 0 0 0 0
Crevedia Mare 56,48 58,37 2,44 25 0 0 0 0
Gaiseni 52,10 200 0 0 0 0 1,30 20000
Gradinari 68,17 50,92 11,54 47,10 9,20 68,18 1,30 2000
Greaca 93,83 78,68 0,45 2 0,45 2 0 0
Hotarele 37,94 97,33 0 0 0 0 0 0
Joita 25,78 56,75 8,89 39,90 0 0 3,59 20000
Ogrezeni 47,99 40,70 0 0 0 0 0,37 30000
Ulmi 59,47 51,40 11,46 57,30 0 0 6,19 20000
Valea Dragului 27,81 80 20,86 60 0 0 6,95 2000
Varasti 48,12 100 24,06 60 24,06 60 6,01 30000
1 – percentage from arable surfaces where is utilized natural and chemical fertilizers
2 – rapport between quantity/surface which applied natural and chemical fertilizers
Nitrogen compounds dynamic in Argeş Lower Basin

During 2002-2006 period, the water nitrogen compounds concentrations was decreased due to the
high water discharge. Thus, on more rivers, the water nitrogen compounds concentrations pass
from Fourth or Five to Third Quality Class.
Dambovita river (downstream Glina) continues to be a critical area, where ammonia concentration
overpass 8 mg/l. Also, Arges river, downstream of Dambovita confluence, the nitrogen compounds
concentration are high, but better than Dambovita river.
At nitrate, the high concentration appears also on the rivers that pass through the important
agricultural areas, where natural and chemical fertilizers are used. (Gächter et al, 2004). Thus,
high concentration on the Sabar river (maximum 12,6 mg/l) and Argeş river (maximum 13,4 mg/l to
Budeşti) are influenced by agricultural activities. After Arges-Dambovita confluence, the low nitrate
and nitrite concentration are determined by the deficit of the dissolved oxygen (Fig. no. 1, 2,3 and
Table no. 2).
337
Table no. 2 - Nitrogen compound concentration dynamics in Arges Lower Basin (after
Romanian Water Company, 2004)
2002 2003 2004

Monitoring point Indicator
average maxim average maxim average maxima
Nitrate 7,35 17,00 8,02 13,40 1,74 3,05
Arges-Budesti Nitrite 0,09 0,29 0,08 0,50 0,02 0,04
Ammonia 0,97 2,42 0,28 1,47 0,13 0,66
Nitrate 4,12 7,60 3,28 8,30 1,06 1,85
Arges-Clatesti Nitrite 0,07 0,10 0,07 0,18 0,06 0,13
Ammonia 5,82 10,10 4,68 7,45 3,60 4,86
Nitrate 6,37 7,90 6,16 7,30 1,50 1,80
Dambovita-Budesti Nitrite 0,05 0,36 0,11 0,91 0,02 0,07
Ammonia 11,30 18,10 9,57 16,00 8,55 10,86
Nitrate 5,30 9,30 5,15 12,60 1,12 2,55
Sabar Nitrite 0,08 0,25 0,06 0,12 0,06 0,14
Ammonia 0,92 1,90 0,58 1,32 0,24 0,65
In the Arges Lower Basin, the decrease of the nitrogen compounds concentrations emphasized
through the results of the measurements campaigns (Mars to July 2006 period), when it rest same
critical areas with the nitrogen compounds high concentration (Dâmboviţa, Arges and Sabar
rivers). It’s necessary to mention that the water discharge was high and the dilution processes was
characteristic (Table no. 3).
Therefore, the maintaining of the nitrite low concentration correlated with the high ammonia and
nitrate concentration emphasize the dissolved oxygen deficit and high level of COD in the Arges
Lower Basin.
The monthly dynamic, the higher nitrogen compounds concentrations appear in the spring (Mars-
May), correlated with the increase of the wastewater volumes due to the rainwater and with the
application of the nitrogen fertilizers. The lower concentrations is specify to July-August period,
determined by the decrease of the degradation sources influence and by the high biotic activities.
In the Arges Lower Basin, the nitrogen compounds dynamics was correlated with COD, dissolved
oxygen and water discharge. The dynamic of the nitrogen compounds depends of the water
discharge variations. The increase of the water discharges means a decrease of the nitrogen
compounds concentrations.
We observed a direct correlation between COD and ammonia concentration, especially in the
anaerobic environment (Fig. no. 7). For example, to Dambovita river - Budesti section, the organic
substances decomposition is realized in the anaerobic environment, unfavorable for oxidation of
ammonia in nitrite and nitrate.
338
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Arges- Arges- Dambovita- Sabar-
Budesti Clatesti Budesti Vidra
2002 2003 2004
Fig. no. 1 – Nitrate dynamic in Arges Lower Basin
0,12
0,10
0,08
0,06
0,04
0,02
0,00
2002 2003 2004
Fig. no. 2 – Nitrite dynamic in Arges Lower Basin
339
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
2002 2003 2004
Fig. no. 3 – Ammonia dynamic in Arges Lower Basin
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
2
0
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII
2002 2003 2004
Fig. no. 4 –Monthly dynamics of ammonia on the Dambovita river (Budesti section)
340
12
10
0
2002 2003 2004
Fig. no. 5 – Monthly dynamics of ammonia on the Arges river (Clatesti section)
12
10
0
2002 2003 2004
Fig. no. 6 – Monthly dynamics of nitrate on the Sabar river (Vidra section)
341
80 20
70 18
16
60
14
50
12
Ammonia
COD
40 10
8
30
6
20
4
10 2
0 0
COD Ammonia
Fig. no. 7 - Corelation COD-Ammonia on Dambovita river (Budesti section)
7,9 0,12
7,8 0,1
7,7
0,08
Oxygen demand
7,6
Nitrite
0,06
7,5
0,04
7,4
7,3 0,02
7,2 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Oxygen demand Nitrite
Fig. no. 8 – Corelation dissolved oxygen-nitrite on Arges river (Clatesti section)
The dissolved oxygen influences the nitrite concentration. Thus, the dissolved oxygen deficit
means the nitrite low concentration (for example Dambovita river downstream to Glina). (Fig. no.8).
Conclusion
The nitrogen compounds dynamic has a big influence to the aquatic ecosystems functionality,
being a key criteria for the water use potential through the human settlements. The high nitrogen
concentrations in the rivers from the Arges Lower Basin favors the development of the simplified
aquatic ecosystems, ground waters degradation, etc.. The decrease of the nitrogen compounds
concentration should be realize through the Bucharest’s wastewater plant construction, which in
the project two denitrification steps have.
342
Acknowledgments
These researches was realized in the project „Integrated impact assessment of the human
activities on the water quality from Arges Lower Basin for ecological reconstruction - EVA”, grants
no. 648/2005, financed by Ministry of Education and Research, Program Research for Excellence
(MENER).
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the Simulation of 1-Dimensional Flow and Water Quality in a Network of Open Water Courses.
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of the International Conference on Water Quality Modelling, ASAE, Orlando, FL, U.S.A., pp. 416–
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QUAL2E-UNCAS, Documentation and User Manual, EPA-600/3-87/007, U.S. EPA, Athena
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Fluorimetric method for nitrite determination with proflavine, Revue Roumaine de Chimie, 48(4), 287
295Deksissa, T., Meirlaen, J., Ashton J.T., P.A.Vanrolleghem (2004), Simplifying Dynamic
Riverwater Quality Modelling: A Case Study of Inorganic Nitrogen Dynamics in the Crocodile River
(South Africa), Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 155: 303–320
4. Gächter, R., Steingruber, Sandra M., Reinhardt, Miriam, Wehrli, B. (2004), Nutrient transfer from soil
to surface waters: Differences between nitrate and phosphate, Aquat. Sci. 66, 117–122
5. Gu, R., Dong, M. (1998), Water quality modelling in the watershed-based approach for wasteload
allocations, Water Science and Techology, 38(10), 165–172.
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Conventional modelling versus knowledge-based prediction’, Water International, 24, 31–38.
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8. Sobczak, W.V., Findlay, S., Dye Susan (2003), Relationships between DOC bioavailability and
nitrate removal in an upland stream: An experimental approach, Biogeochemistry 62: 309–327
9. Tyson, J. M., Guarino, C. F., Best, H. J., Tanaka, K. (1993), Management and institutional aspects,
Water Science and Technology 27(12), 159–172.
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QUAL-II Prepared for U.S, Environmental Protection Agency, System Analysis Branch, Washington,
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343
Environmental Quality Changes in the Argeş Lower Basin

R.M. Damian, L. Niculita, C .Ioja, M. Matache, Maria Pătroescu, C. Roman, S. Marginean
G. Pavelescu, D. Savastru, J. Ciuciu, M. Stanciulescu, G. Chiriac, S. Capra, C. Cata
Abstract
The Arges river represents one of the Romanian’s polluted rivers as a consequence of the industrial activities
carried along the stream. This river provides an important percent of the water that is necessary for industry,
agriculture and household activities. The paper aims to analyze the state of art of the environmental factors: air,
water, soil and vegetation in the Arges Lower Basin. Seawater physical and chemical parameters, chlorophyll
concentration and zooplankton structure were taking into account in pollution analysis. The presence of heavy
metals (Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn etc), organic and bacteriological substances were put into evidence in different location.
The characteristics of the spectral fluorescence of water (intensity, shape, bands) in connection with the
extraction area and pollutants type were also analyzed.
Introduction
If we consider environment as a support system, a externalities receiver and a values generator for
the natural and human ecosystems, it is necessary to change the approach of the environmental
quality. Thus, initially the environmental quality was considered as a result of the subjectivist
perception of the interests group or as the interpretation of the final data obtained from the
environmental monitoring systems. Presently, the environmental quality assessment permits to known
ecological, social and economical systems state, which is necessary in order to adapt the national,
regional or local politics and strategies for the environmental protection and conservation.
The Arges lower Basin is characterized by the higher level of human changes, which affect the
environmental quality and the natural ecosystems regeneration capacity. Therefore, human and
economical activities concentration in Bucharest urban agglomeration represents a main causes of the
environmental quality degradation in the Arges lower Basin.
The environmental quality assessment the Arges lower Basin imposed the degradation sources
identification and classification, and the estimation of their effects on the environmental components.
That was realized from the sampling and estimation on the environmental indicators and indices.
Environmental degradation sources

In the Arges Lower Basin, after the degradation sources types, we determine industrial, domestic,
service, agricultural, medical, transportation and other categories (landfills, abandoned infrastructure
works, etc. ) sources.
More of the industrial sources was concentrated in the Bucharest urban agglomeration. The biggest
environmental problems are generated by the energetic (Sud, Vest, Grozăveşti, Progresul, Titan
Thermo-Electric Power Plant), chemical (POLICOLOR SA, SICOMED SA, DANUBIANA SA, ARTECA
SA, SINTOFARM SA, FIROS SA, CHIMESTER SA, GUZU CHIM SA, MUNPLAST SA, ISOVOLTA
SA, DUFA ROMANIA SA, PROLOGICA SA, CHIMTITAN SA etc.), metallurgical (NEFERAL Brăneşti,
TUROL Olteniţa, SC SETUM SA, LAROMET), machine-building (KVAERNER IMGB, VULCAN,
FAUR, TURBOMECANICA, REPUBLICA, AVERSA, GRIRCO, SEMANATOAREA, IFMA, URBIS,
ACUMULATORUL), extraction (Bolintin-Vale, Jilava, Căţelu oil fields, ballast extraction in the Argeş
and Sabar floodplains), electronic and electro technical (ELECTROMONTAJ SA,
ELECTROAPARATAJ SA), construction (CESAROM SA, MARMOSIN SA) industries. These industrial
sources impose the increase of the technogen risks and the overpasses of the Maximum Permitted
344
Concentration for more pollutants. More of the industrial sources eject without cleaning the industrial
wastewater in Bucharest public sewerage systems or in the rivers (Argeş, Ciorogârla, Sabar, etc.).
The wastewaters volumes are very important, remarkable being following companies: Vitan Thermo-
Electrical Power plant - 990 000 m3/month, SICOMED SA - 581970 m3/month, FAUR SA - 170000
m3/month (CCMESI, 1999).
The agricultural sources have a high manifestation space, because the dominant profile of the Arges
Lower Basin is agricultural. The intensive agriculture (mechanization, fertilizers use, irrigation,
monocultures) contribute at the soil, groundwater, surface water and natural ecosystems degradation.
Also, the intensive agriculture affects the human habitat. The inadequate agricultural techniques
(chemical substances wrong utilization, etc.), which characterized the subsistence culture, is
necessary to assess.
In case of the zoo technical activities, the main environmental problems are the evacuation of dirty
wastewater with the high level of the organic substances and microorganisms. The most important zoo
technical unities from the Arges Lower Basin are SC Agricom Prod SRL Valea Dragului (3800 pigs),
SC Agronutrisco SRL Mihăileşti (217000 birds), SC Golden Chicken SRL Mihăileşti (180052 birds),
SC GAT Ferme SRL Mihăileşti, SC Avicola Mihăileşti (153000 birds), SC Mixalim Mihăileşti (89700
birds), Lar Nyk Joiţa (16 bovines, 180 sheeps), SC COMSUIN SA Ulmeni, SC NUTRICOM SA
Olteniţa, SC Avicola Buftea, SC Avicola Frumuşani, Avicola Crevedia..
The residential spaces represent the important environmental degradation sources in the Arges Lower
Basin, due to the high number of inhabitants (environ 2,5 millions) that are the waste generators
(inclusive wastewaters) and resources and services consumers (energetic resources, food products,
water, recreation services, etc.). The high environmental impact of the domestic sources is determined
by the lack or bad functioning of the wastewater plant (especially Bucharest city).
Between the environmental degradation sources with the limited action areas we identify mobile
sources (transportation vehicles), hospitals (the high biological risk), landfills (for example Glina,
Chiajna, Sinteşti-Vidra), abandoned buildings or infrastructure works (for example, Argeş-Danube
Channel), fishing ponds and special transportation (oil, gas and other chemical substances pipes).
Therefore, the Arges Lower Basin is characterized by the higher diversity of the environmental
degradation sources, which have a complex effect of the natural and human ecosystems. Thus, the
natural spaces, which contribute at the minimization the negative effects of the degradations sources
(inclusive protected areas), smalls surfaces have.
Environmental quality in Arges Lower Basin

The environmental quality is defined from the indicators and indices values, which legislation
reference found.
Air quality
The air pollution level in the Arges Lower Basin is higher in Bucharest urban agglomeration and lower
in the rest of territory. The air quality indicators values for Bucharest urban agglomeration are lower
than other European city. Therefore is necessary to resolve the particles matters, volatile organic
compounds, lead and nitrogen oxides problems. That it’s necessary because the environmental
degradation sources diversify (increase of the auto garage, industrial activities diversification, increase
of the domestic consume, etc.), the depredated areas are more and the measures with low efficiency
(decreased of green surface, the high price of air reduction pollution, etc.). Thus, the level of Air
Quality Index divides the Arges Lower Basin in two areas: Bucharest urban agglomeration with bad air
quality and the rest of the territory with better air quality (Table no. 1).
345
Table no. 1
Air Quality Index distribution in the Arges Lower Basin (2004)
Cercul Mihai Drumul Lacul

Indicator Average Berceni Titan Balotesti Magurele
Militar Bravu Taberei Morii
Particle
matters 143,8 119,2 188,9 188,4 145,9 139,0 103,6 128,8 133,0
Ozone 38,3 43,3 23,3 30,0 43,3 31,7 50,0 43,3 41,7
Lead 28,0 36,0 40,0 40,0 60,0 20,0 14,0 30,0 28,0
Carbon
monoxide 176,5 144,0 237,1 237,1 237,1 220,7 211,6 169,7 169,7
Nitrogen
dioxide 209,9 117,6 623,0 541,2 191,8 254,7 15,4 63,7 163,1
Sulfur
64,5 108,5 128,6 83,3 80,0 75,0 177,8 68,8 72,7
dioxide
Average 110,2 94,8 206,8 186,7 126,4 123,5 95,4 84,0 101,4
The most important problems appears due to the overpasses of the Maximum Accepted Limits at the
nitrogen dioxin. The value of the Air Quality Index for nitrogen dioxin overpasses 500 units (air quality
very bad) at Cercul Militar and Mihai Bravu. Also, the overpasses of the Maximum Accepted Limits
appears at the carbon monoxide and particles matters. Same zoning we can make in case of the
noise pollution, the critical areas in Bucharest urban agglomeration we can identify.
Water quality
The surface water qualitative degradation are characteristic for the rivers situated in downstream of
Bucharest urban agglomeration. Other degradation sources contribute to increase the pollution
effects. The critical areas appears on the Dambovita river (downstream of Glina) and on the Arges
river (downstream of the Arges-Dambovita confluence), where the river water is degenerate due to the
overpasses of the Maximum Admitted Value to the organic matters, nutrients and some toxic
substances (heavy metals, phenols, surfactant, etc.). The Arges Lower Basin water quality has
following characteristics:
1. Argeş river –included in Second Quality Class to Budeşti (sporadic overpasses of these class at
the ammonia, nitrate and nitrite) and in Fourth Quality Class after Budesti (frequent overpasses of
organic indicators, nutrients, heavy metals, bacteriological indicators, other special parameters).
2. Dâmboviţa river – included in the First Quality Class to Glina and the Fifth Quality Class after the
discharge of Bucharest city waste water (frequent overpasses of organic indicators, nutrients,
heavy metals, bacteriological indicators, other special parameters) (Fig. no. 1);
3. Ciorogârla river – included in Third Quality Class with local problems at the nutrients (ammonia,
nitrite, nitrate) and special indicators (surfactans).
4. Sabar river – included in Third Quality Class after the waste water discharge from Jilava and Vidra
(Fig. no.2).
5. Colentina river – included in the Second Quality Class, with sporadic overpasses to the organic
and nutrients indicators.
346
6. Pasărea – included in the Second Quality Class, with sporadic overpasses to the organic and
nutrients indicators.
50
40
30
mg/l
20
10
0
Oxigen dizolvat CBO5 CCO/Mn
Indicatori
Dragomiresti Balaceanca Budesti
Fig. no 1 – Oxygen indicator in Dambovita river (Budesti section)
6
5
4
mg/l
3
2
1
0
Amoniu Azotiti Azotati Fier Fosfor
indicatori
Vidra Tantava
Fig. no 2 – Nutrients in Sabar river (Vidra section)
From March to July 2006 period, in EVA project was organized monthly campaigns in order to
determine the organic indicators, heavy metals, pesticides, mineralization indicators, others indicators.
The results demonstrate that the critical areas same rest, due to the abandoned works to the
Bucharest wastewater plant.
A point of view of saprobe indicators, the most rivers are included in α-β-meso-saprobe category. The
critically areas rest same.
The ground waters have the bad quality in Bucharest city, also in Cernica, Dragomireşti, Bragadiru,
Jilava, Glina, Sinteşti, Mogoşoaia. In this areas the main problems are organic pollution. A point of
view qualitative, groundwater from Arges Lower Basin don’t respect the potable criteria. That is an
347
important problems, because the most settlements use the groundwater for drinking (Hotarele,
Vărăşti, Colibaşi, Goştinari, etc.).
Thus, the water resources management represents a main components of the territory planning which
has a big influence in the community comfort.
UPSTREAM DOWNSTREAM
Low preoccupation for downstream

PREDATOR PREDATOR
METROPOLIS METROPOLIS
VULNERABLE HUMAN
-Natural resources and ECOSYSTEM -Deficient waste and
services overexploitation wastewater management
- Unsustainable territory P
High resources
demand
Strong
contamination E
- Unsustainable
planning V
development
O
-Environmental degradation V
A
-Deteriorated spaces
sources concentration I
C
appereance
S
U
I
SUSTAINABLE HUMAN A
IDEAL
ECOSYSTEM T
IDEAL
METROPOLIS
N
I
METROPOLIS
Low resources Low O
-Efficient waste
demand contamination
-Eficient natural resources
and services exploatation management
- Sustainable territory -Sustainable development
planning -Sustainable planning
-Lack of the environmental High preoccupation for downstream territory
degradation sources
concentration
Fig. no. 3 – Approach of the environmental problems in Arges Lower Basin – main
transformation agent Bucharest city
Soil quality
In Arges Lower Basin, the soil is the important resource for the food production and the environmental
quality maintaining. The soil represents a carbon stock component and the support of the human and
natural ecosystems (Florea, 2003). In the Arges Lower Basin the usually soil degradation types are:
cover with the buildings and infrastructures, nutrients loses, hardpan creation (especially at the rivers
confluences), heavy metals and pesticides pollution, erosion, waste landfills, acidification due to the
acid rain, technological accidents (especially with the oil products. The problems are increase because
the dominant regime of propriety is private and the soil using techniques is not in conformity of the
environmental law. Also, the soil fertility due to nutrients loses, acidification and hardpan creation
decrease imposes the improvement works in order to limit these processes.
Vegetation quality
Vegetation are an environmental components which suffers strong transformation through the
increase of the human ecosystems (agricultural terrains, buildings, infrastructures). In Arges Lower
Basin, the natural vegetation are affected by the drought, the surface and ground water flow changes,
the air, water and soil pollution. These processes determine affect the productivity and health
vegetation. Near of the settlements appears the high forestry delinquency, being characteristic timber
and other forest products exploitation, waste deposits, etc. Also, the acid rains high frequency (pH
under 4) determines the increase of the drying vegetation surface.
348
Also, in Arges Lower Basin the specific problems of the degradation vegetation are air pollution
(Cernica, Pustnicu, Căldăraru, Pantelimon Parc, Pantelimon Crâng, Săftica, Brânzeasca affected by
the noxes emitted by industrial factory from Bucharest urban agglomeration), waste water discharge
(Râioasa, Snagov), habitat condition changes (Arges Channel riverside forest), recreational activities
(Băneasa, Tunari, Snagov, Cernica etc.) or the high delinquency (Piteasca, Săbăreanu, Tânganu,
Mogoşoaia, Găneasa, Vlădiceasca, Roşu, Comana).
Conclusions
In order to promote the sustainable development of the Arges Lower Basin is necessary to pass at the
end-of-pipe-line strategy (Bassand et al, 2000) to friendly environment strategy (Calthorpe, 1993).
These imposes the decrease of the transfer dysfunctionalities level to the neighborhood region.
(Cathan, 1994, Cuhna, Racine, 1996, Pătroescu and Borduşanu, 1999, Wust et al, 2002).
Thus, the environmental quality improvement in the Arges Lower Basin is not possible without of the
Bucharest problems correct approach (the waste water plant finishing, the equitable planning territory,
sustainable waste management, etc.) which impose the high environmental costs for the
neighborhood human settlements.
References
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et developpement durable: lèau et l`habitat precaire a Ho Chi Minh Ville, Presses Universitaire Romandes,
Lausannes
2. Bolay, J.C., Thai Thi Ngoc Du (1999), Sustainable development urbanization and environmental risks:
the priority of local action in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, Journal of Urban Technology, vol. 6, no.2, pag. 65-85
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4. Breuste, J., H. Feldman, O. Uhlmann (1998), Urban ecology, Springer, Berlin
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populaţiei din România, Calitatea vieţii, XII, nr. 1-4, p. 95-116.
6. Daniels, T. (1999), When City and Country Collide. Managing Growth in the Metropolitan Fringes, Island
Press, Washington
7. Ellger, C., J. Schrein (2000), After Industrial Society. Service Society as Clean Society? Environmental
Consequences of Increasing Service Interaction, The service Industries Journal, 17, pg. 564-579
8. EPA (1994), A conceptual Framework to Support the Development and Use of Environmental
Information, Environmental Statistics and Information Division, Office of Policy, Planning and Evaluation, EPA
230-R-94-012, USEPA, Washington
9. Hertig, J.A. (1996), Etudes dìmpact sur lènvironnement, Presses Polytechniques et Universitaires
Rommandes, Lausanne, Suisse
10. Iojă, C. , Simona Toma, (2005), Dynamics of land use and their reflection in the quality of environment
witin Bucharest`s metropolitan area, Analele Universităţii din Craiova, Seria Geografie, vol.8, pag. 64-71
11. Lăcătuşu, R. Beatrice Kovacsovics, Doina Plaxienco, Carolina Contantin, S. Cârstea, Mihaela Lungu,
Mihaela Preda, Daniela Mihalache (2001), Effect of urban waste dumps in Glina Bucharest upon environment,
Ştiinţa Solului, nr.1-2, XXXV, 128-135
12. Pătroescu, Maria, Marta Borduşanu (1999), Politici de protecţie a mediului în municipiul Bucureşti şi aria
sa metropolitană, Comunicări de Geografie, III, Editura Universităţii din Bucureşti
13. Pătroescu, Maria, Cenac-Mehedinţi, Marta (1999), Scenarii de restructurare ecologică urbană specifice
ariei urbane şi metropolitane a Bucureştiului, Analele Universităţii Spiru Haret, Seria Geografie, 2
14. Rey, Violette, Ianoş, I,, Groza O, Pătroescu, Maria (2001), Atlasul României, Editura RAO, Bucureşti
15. Rojanschi, V., Bran, F., Diaconu Gh. (1997), Protecţia şi ingineria mediului. Editura Economică,
Bucureşti:
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349
Impact assessment on the Pinus nigra ssp. banatica site by natural and
anthropic causes in the area of Domogled – Valea Cernei National Park
Pătroescu Maria, Dobre Mariana, Necşuliu Radu, Ioja Cristian, Rozylowicz Laurenţiu
University of Bucharest, Center for Environmental Research and Impact Studies, 1 Nicolae Bălcescu, 010041,
Bucharest, tel/fax +40+213103872, email: ccmesi@yahoo.com
Abstract
The forests with Pinus nigra ssp. banatica in Romania had evolved in geological and historical time in strong
connection with the ecological potential of its distribution area. The natural processes and phenomena that
manifest in the habitat of Pinus nigra ssp. banatica have different effects on the landscape’s equilibrium and also
on the habitat and species health state. The annual and seasonal dynamics of the climatic components with
impact on the environment of the Pinus nigra ssp. banatica site were analysed. Also, it was calculated and
graphical represented the spatial distribution of the ecometric (bioclimatic) indices, showing in this way the
synergic effect of climatic components on the pine’s biology and anatomy and also on the community that he
forms. A special attention was given on the analysis of the human impact through the land use and touristic
activities on the Pinus nigra ssp. banatica species, proving that this one deserve its place among NATURA 2000
network.
Introduction
In the south – west part of Romania, more precisely in the Cerna and Banat Mountain, due to the sub-
mediterranean climatic influences, a diverse landscape had developed in which we can find floristic
and fauna elements that are endemic and rare.
An example in this way is the presence of Banat black pine (Pinus nigra ssp. banatica), endemic
species, protected at European and national level.
The introduction of Pinus nigra ssp. banatica site in NATURA 2000 network, needs an impact
assessment on the site by natural and anthropic causes, in order to forecast correctly protection and
conservation measures that are imposed.
The identification of the impacts by natural causes on the forests with Pinus nigra ssp. banatica had
needed the selection and hierarchisation of their projection both on species and habitats.
Emblematic component of the landscape of Domogled – Valea Cernei National Park (Fig. 1), the
Banat black pine forest (Pinus nigra ssp. banatica) is the most sensible indicator of the spatial and
temporal variation of the quality of environment’s components and of the interaction of biogeographic
regions in this area.
The health state and the architectural model of the associations are dependent on natural processes
and phenomena, on their annual and seasonal intensity but also of the anthropic pressure that is
manifesting in the Park’s area through many forms.
The geographical distribution of living forms, plants and animals, is not immutable but it modifies in
time, and environment’s components that participate at this distribution suffer also transformations.
In the case of Pinus nigra ssp. banatica site, the relief and the lithology fulfil the role of ecological
determinants, because in function of their quantitative and qualitative parameters or the physical –
chemical parameters of the lithology, its ecological potential was defined.
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Fig. 1 - Natural processes and phenomena that can induce impacts on

Pinus nigra ssp. banatica site
From the lithologic point of view, the Banat black pine site, in National Park Domogled-Valea Cernei
is dominated by limestone, whose chemical composition directly related with pedogenetic factors
offers a special substrate for Banat black pine and also of the species from its habitat. Especially, it
favours the phenomenon of biometeorisation. From the hypsometry point of view, (Fig. 2) the Banat
black pine site is situated between 550-1100 m, the dominants of the plant formation being situated
between 700-1000 m, also the hypsometric level with the higher extension.
The relief morphology is also easily differentiated. The calcareous plateau of Domogled has variable
width between the Feregari and Ţesna valleys, from few hundred meters to almost 2 km in Cracu
Rudina Mare sector, being dominated by exocarst forms, gorges, sinkholes and endocarst, caves
(Grota lui Şerban, Grota Tătărţii, etc.).
The slopes with bare rock in their superior parts have different declivities and are fragmented by
narrow valleys with gorges appearance (Valea Ţesna, Valea Şeaua Padinei, Valea Feregari, etc) or
valleys that form waterfalls when they cross the calcareous bars.
The length of the slopes is reduced, less than 500 m, introducing a discontinuity of the areas of pine
associations.
The vertical and horizontal fragmentation of the relief is doubled by a higher amplitude, which
determines local microclimatic modifications that favour the presence of termophyte, helophyte and
xerophytes elements.
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Fig. 2
352
Fig. 3
353
The Banat black pine’s associations are situated in the superior part of the slopes where the climatic
modifications are determined only by the declivity that reaches high and very high values (> 18°) (Fig.
3), and favours the rapid drainage of the water from precipitations and not its infiltration in the soil.
This explains the radicular system of pine, mechanical and chemical erosion that is affecting the
biological horizon of soil, but also the biometeorisation phenomena, very active in the area of
Domogled – Valea National Park Cernei.
The general exposure of the site is sunny and very sunny if we consider the fact that it is localized on
the calcareous plateau, in the superior part of the slopes (Fig. 4). In the analysed area, we can admit
that the influence of the substratum declivity is cumulated with the one of the aspect fragmentation
and of the relief amplitude, directly conditioning the drainage system, the sunshine duration, the
process of alimentation with nutritive substances of the vegetal cover and indirectly the
biogeochemical circuit in the area of Banat black pine.
The actual processes of relief modeling constitute a limitative factor within the partial repartition and
composition of the vegetal coverage.
Among the actual processes of relief modeling prevails the physical degradation, followed by the
chemical one, both of them feeding the mechanical and chemical erosion that have impressive values.
(Trufaş V. et al. 1988). The intensity of these processes must be correlated with the declivity,
exposure and lithology in the hole area of Banat black pine.
Spatial and seasonal analysis of climatic components that can induce impacts
on Pinus nigra ssp. banatica site.
The climatic potential of one territory reflects the quantitative reports between the cosmic –
atmospheric factors of environment meaning light, temperature, precipitations, evapotraspiration.
Among the climatic components, temperature has the role of limitative factor, but it doesn’t act
isolated, but in association with the precipitation regime and the other ecological factors.
Thermal regime was analysed through the spatial variation of the multiannual average values for the
interval 1900-2000. Generally the site is situated in the area characterized by annual mean values that
are oscillating between 8,0-10,5°C. The hypsometric distribution, generally determined by altitude, in
the case of Banat black pine, is influential due to the canyon character of Cerna’s Valley, in the space
of National Park Domogled – Valea Cernei. The temperature values express the air sewerage function
of the valley and the slope’s orientation.
Precipitation regime determines the cenotic composition of the pine forests, the spatial dynamic of
the precipitation values conditioning the presence of the xerophile or xero-mesophile elements. And in
this case we mustn’t only take into consideration the value of precipitation, but it must be correlated
with the declivity, slope, exposure and rock crack through biometeorisation, defining elements for the
rhythm and regime of the soil moistening.
The Banat black pine site, beneficiates, theoretically, of a quantity of precipitation that varies between
800-1156 mm. But if we mention that real evapotranspiration can reach 500-600 mm (Clima RSR, vol.
II) the cenoses that characterize the site also beneficiate of a reserve of 300-400 mm annually,
conferring it the characteristics of a continental climate with excessive influences and it explains the
presence of xerophyle or xero-mesophyle elements.
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Fig. 4
355
Ecometric indices used in the impact assessment on the Banat black pine site
by natural causes.
The favorability of climatic conditions for plant and animal organism or the ecosystem functionality can
be appreciated more precisely after the value of ecometric climatic indices, named also bioclimatic
indices (Pătroescu, 1988). They express the synergic effect of the climatic elements but also the
interaction of the biotic and non-biotic factors within a territory.
For the pine site, the values of Mayr tetratherm grow from north to south and decrease with altitude,
varying between 18,9°C and 7,4°C. The lowest values are recorded in Vf. Inălaţul Mic (1128,0 m),
Domogled (1104,9 m), Vf. Hurcului (1099 m) and Rudina Mare (1198,0 m) (Fig. 5). The values of
these indices also vary in function of the climatic characteristic of every year.
Fig. 5
356
Fig. 6
Concerning the sum of the precipitation from the period with maximum evapotranspiration (July
- August), the analysis distinguished that the values grow with the altitude, offering only locally
optimal conditions for formation of the nutritive solution for soils (for example between Valea Şaua
Padinii and Valea Ţesnei, on Domogled Plateau). The values of the indicator that represents the sum
of the precipitation of the months of moisture accumulation in the biologically active soil
horizon (November-March), apparently the values of this indicator would express a substantial
growth, from the Valea Feregari, on the calcareous plateau and slopes, to the Valea Ţesnei. Due to
the high declivity and rocks cracks, this moisture is not retained to serve as a source for the formation
357
of the nutritive solution, very necessary especially for phanerophyte and camephyte, which participate
to the formation of the specific Banat black pine community. Maybe this explains the reduced weight of
this bioforms in the biological spectrum of the site.
The aridity indicator “de Martonne”, calculated yearly and monthly, shows the xerophyte climate,
even with aridity influences in the sector between Feregari and Şaua Padinei (Fig. 6).
Index of climatic erosivity (Fig. 7) has a spatial dynamic of values explaining the degradation of
habitat conditions from south to north by reducing trophic relations and soil volume on this vector's
direction. This explains the spatial variation of mesophilous species at altitudes higher than 900 m.
The value of erosion oscillates influenced by the declivity and by the percentage covered by forest
vegetation, showing the bad development conditions for some plants with high biomass volume within
the tree and arborescent layer or even the absence of a regenerative layer on the studied transects
(Valea Ţesnei, Domogled, Crucea Albă.)
Fig. 7
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Evaluation of anthropic impact on the environment in the site of

Pinus nigra ssp. banatica
The site with Pinus nigra ssp. banatica is in the proximity of old settlements, but it only offered the
privileges of proximity for the human communities.
The densification of permanent settlements was made in the last centuries and was localised on the
main rivers Cerna, Belareca, Danube, Coşuştea or Bahna, who are closer or further to the site. The
farmers and shepherds cut the forest in order to increase the pasturing area and to construct huts
where they accompanied the cattle. They advanced to the site of the Banat black pine, especially from
Bahna valley, from the villages Podeni and Gornenţi climbing with cattle even today to Domogled
Plateau.
Another category of human activities affecting the conservation status of Pinus nigra ssp. banatica site
is the selective extraction of wood within the buffer area.
The tourism more or less organized, constitutes a growing activity. Tourist trails starting from Băile
Herculane do not have a great accessibility; they are not sufficiently promoted and are not a real
danger for the site with Banat black pine.
The road transports are favoured by the forest roads crossing the site (very few) or are in the proximity
of the site, and by the new axis linking Băile Herculane to Baia de Aramă, less utilised, because the
present slope processes (falls, landslides, etc.) were very active in the last decade. As there are no
recordings of concentration of pollutants resulted of transport means' emissions, there are no
conclusions that can be taken into account for the habitat management plan.
Evaluation of land use impact on the site of Pinus nigra ssp. banatica
The analysis of the impact of land use was based on statistical data between 1970 and 2002 (National
Institute for Statistics) existent for administrative units overlapping partially the territory of National
Park Domogled-Valea Cernei. Using these statistical data indexes and indicators were calculated out
of which:
- human pressure by land use, dynamics of land use in different periods of time (1970-2002, 1990-
2002, 1970-1990) (%), proportion of different categories of land use (proportion of agricultural terrain,
of arable land, pastures and hay fields, vineyards and orchards from agricultural, vegetable cultivated
of arable, built area of total area) (%), pressure of domestic animals on different categories of land use
(heads/area).
The human pressure by land use varies a lot in the administrative-territorial units within National Park
Domogled-Valea Cernei. The lowest value is 0,1 ha/inh (Băile Herculane) and the highest is 4 ha/inh
(Boteni), the high variations being related to the differences of population number. The very low
population density within National Park Domogled-Valea Cernei (under 35 inhabitants per km2, with
the exception of towns Baia de Aramă and Băile Herculane), determines high values of agricultural
human pressure index. These values should be analysed with prudence, as they do not correspond to
the site itself, but is an average for the administrative area including the park. The pasturing character
of communes within National Park Domogled-Valea Cernei is shown by the high pressure of hay fields
and pastures. The values of the pressure by pastures vary between 0,07 ha/inh (Băile Herculane) and
2,29 ha/inh (Cornereva), the average being of 1,09 ha/inh. These values show the territories have a
strong use of pastures, some of them being abandoned or underexploited. The pressure by ovines
and bovines is thus very low (0,2 bovines/ ha pastures+hay fields and 0,92 ovines/ ha pastures+hay
fields), with higher values in the area of Topleţ. The latter is because of the lower pastures and hay
359
fields areas, and not because of a large number of animals. The index for evaluation of overpasturing
(number of animals / ha pastures) had low values (0,27 bovines/ha pasture, 3,35 ovines/ha pasture),
so the overexploitation of pastures near the Park has no influence in the state of the Banat black pine
habitat. The index of human pressure by hay fields is 0,43 ha/inh, lower in case of Baia de Aramă and
Băile Herculane (0,06 ha/inh) and higher in Teregova and Podeni (0,9 ha/inh). The low number of
animals, doubled by quite vast hay fields show the existence of large green crops that supports the
animal breeding activities outside the site of Banat black pine. An interesting issue is the density of
sheepfolds situated at the upper limit of the site, their animals can affect the natural regeneration of
black pine forests. Also, the goat breeding in temporary households may have negative effects on the
herbaceous layer where occurs the natural regeneration of associations specific to the pine forests.
Impact of tourism on the site of Pinus nigra ssp. banatica

Tourism must be regarded as an alternative for development of human community within protected
areas and for financial support of protection activities in the national parks, and also for the promotion
of their image. In the National Park Domogled-Valea Cernei the tourism is limited to balneary tourism
and to hiking, although there is a great potential for educational and scientific tourism or for extreme
sports (escalade, paragliding, etc.).
The impact of touristic activities on the site with the black pine can be summarized to:
- illegal collection of flora species attractive as ornaments or as medicinal plants; formation of paths
because of non-respect of marked trails; uncontrolled and controlled household waste disposal sites;
increase of fire risk; appearance of vandalised areas, especially near tourist trails, belvedere points
and even camping sites and hotels.
In Băile Herculane the development of accommodation infrastructure determined an increase of built

areas, with local impact on natural ecosystems, prevalent being the habitat fragmentation.
The impact of tourism is however insignificant due to the low flows of visiting tourists.
Conclusions
1. The environment of the Banat black pine, by its internalities and externalities has diverse
problems concerning the maintenance of its ecological potential and the biological exploitation.
2. The site with Pinus nigra ssp. banatica has an inherent natural dynamic but also different
impacts as far as the genesis and intensity are concerned.
3. The Banat black pine self-defended until now, occupying difficult-accessibility biotopes, if we
refer to the anthropic impact. It could not avoid natural impacts, the ecological stress being
often more important than the one caused by human activity.
4. The safest way to rehabilitate the conservation status of Pinus nigra ssp. banatica is to reduce
the anthropic impact and to favour the self-regeneration by monitoring the species and the
health state of the site.
5. The ecology of the Banat black pine is very little known.
6. The natural regeneration must be related with other categories of non-biotic and biotic factors
and first with the rate of germination from own cones and the habitat reaction to natural
impacts.
360
7. The biodiversity and functionality of ecosystems as basis for any strategy to restore and
rehabilitate the environment needs a careful monitoring on long term, insuring a database that
allows the hierarchisation of factors disturbing the biogeochemical circuit, as source to feed
with nutrients the primary producers specific for the site of Banat black pine.
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361
The risk of habitat fragmentation caused by the Romanian transport

infrastructure
Rozylowicz Laurentiu, Dobre Mariana, Iojă Cristian, Necşuliu Radu, Pătroescu Maria
University of Bucharest, Center for Environmental Research and Impact Studies, 1 Nicolae Bălcescu, 010041,
Bucharest, tel/fax , , tel/fax +40+213103872, email: ccmesi@yahoo.com
Abstract
Through its technical characteristics and density, during its construction or functionality, the transport
infrastructure induces real modification on short, medium and long term, to the biological functionality and
diversity of the ecosystems and habitats. In this study, we analysed the risk of habitat fragmentation induced by
transport infrastructure in Romania, aspect that should be taken into consideration, in the programs meant to
enhance and enlarge the road and railway networks, but also when elaborating the National Territorial Planning
document.
Introduction
Territorial planning is a practical action in order to define priorities and directions in which a country’s
space is used. A prospective vision in respect with the human communities needs and natural capital’s
value is imposed.
The existence of different transport categories and their different evolution in time places Romania
among those countries with problems in the development and modernization of the transport
infrastructure.
The current transporting territorial system was created in time, in order to connect the economical
attraction poles, polarization center of the labour force, to transport raw materials, etc. A connection
was not made in the same time with the habitats that are environmental indicator, with their biological
diversity and their ecological value.
The existing transport categories cause direct and indirect environmental impacts with diverse effects
as area and intensity of the unbalance induced to the natural ecosystems. Often, the impacts are
cumulative and have a synergic effect, to the relations between the environmental components and to
the rehabilitation costs.
The habitats diversity at the level of major Romanian environment types

The succession of different environment types in Romania imposed a certain configuration of transport
infrastructure (Fig. 1).
In Romania there were identified over 292 plant communities (Doniţă et al. 2005) whose diversity is
accentuated from the Danube’s alluvial plain to the mountains areas.
The natural potential and the biological forms of exploitation, places 85 from Romanian’s habitats
among the communitarian important habitats, offering in this way a higher value to the environment’s
types but also to the rehabilitation costs, as a succession of human impact.
The mountain environment holds a higher diversity of habitats that are affected by the road and rail
transport infrastructure.
362
The impact is produced especially on the direction of trans-Carpathian axes from the Nordic and
Central Groups of the Oriental Carpathians, where the effect of cut-and-fill roads and railroads has a
synergic character.
In plains, the communities of continental steppe, halophytes and gypsophytes are the most diverse but
also the most exposed to degradation, due to the density of the railways (Fig. 1), and of the road
networks of different levels (European, national, county, communal and agricultural roads, etc.). The
new construction programs for motorways and modernization of the railways included in the IV pan-
European corridor, will have to take into consideration the stability of pontic – sarmatic communities
and of the pontic – panonic meadows, that shelter numerous vulnerable species. More than this,
protection measures are needed due to the high pressure on these vegetal communities, not only by
transport infrastructure but also by agricultural practices.
Apparently the least affected by transport are the Carpathian south – east communities, that populate
rocky slopes with saxicol vegetation. The construction of the Bucureşti – Braşov motorway and also
the modernization of the roads Băile Herculane – Baia de Aramă and Orşova – Moldova – Nouă bring
up big problems concerning the habitat’s health state used for meadows or forests.
The habitats manifestation vectors of the fragmentation risk in Romania is multiplying through the
construction of access ways to high transport main axes.
The ecological effects of the development of transport infrastructure

The observation of the possible ecological effects caused by the transport infrastructure to the wildlife
not only in Romania but also in many countries of the world, were not performed after a well
established plan and also they are not predicted for the future. Seiler (2001) talks about primary
ecological effects caused by transport infrastructure
363
We make the complementary comment that any primary effect leads to plenty of secondary effects
whose manifestation is amplified in time and space.
Throughout the construction of any road or railway we lose a certain surface of a habitat. On the size
of this surface depends the habitat stability and functionality as a support for certain plants and animal
communities, that populates them. An example in Romania is “Aninişul de la Sinaia - Cumpătul”,
fragmented by road and in this way degraded in its most representative area.
The construction of road and railway infrastructure and the further function with different intensity of
the traffic disturbs the habitat’s favorability for certain species of plants and animals by changing the
chemical composition of the biologically active horizon, of the topographic surface declivity. This effect
should be correctly monitored, especially in Romania, in the protected areas in the mountain
environment. (Bucegi Natural Park, Cozia National Park, Apuseni Natural Park, etc.).
Habitats fragmentation is given by the barrier effect produced by roads and railroads, especially when
they are constructed on embankments. In the meadows and in the low plains, the fragmentation of
habitats by embankments causes a regress of initial plant communities and of terrestrial animals area,
except for the birds. The effect can also be positive, upstream of these embankments wetland habitats
can appear, favouring the development of riverside communities, enlarging or maintaining the area of
hygrophyte species.
The intensity of traffic causes the deaths of numerous animals, some of them vulnerable. The number
of collisions increases as the speed and traffic amplify. Most affected are the reptiles and mammals,
as their mobility in habitats has diverse causes (water, food, night shelter, etc.). There are no precise
recordings of these losses in Romania, but their monitoring is necessary, especially since the only
caution signals on roads refers to species of cervide.
The corridor effect of the transport infrastructure is a positive fact as the edges of roads and railroads
embanked with shrubby and sub-shrubby vegetation that can be refugees, habitats or even transit
corridors for many species of plants or animals.
The ecological effects of the development of transport infrastructure must be analysed on long term
impact and by their synergic effects. Each category of network has its own features, and the effects
are cumulated and projected on the biotic level in a certain area.
Analysing the relation between the road and railroad networks with natural and national parks (Fig. 2)
we notice the „corridor” role of the European roads E79, E60, E70 but also the determinant role in
habitat fragmentation of these protected areas. Seasonal and daily variability of the traffic values need
to be monitored simultaneously with the habitats phenology in order to take into consideration the
measures to diminish their vulnerability at degradation or fragmentation.
364
The loss, fragmentation or disturbance of the habitat state and functionality by transport infrastructure
is manifested depending on the construction type and its functioning. These effects are perceptible at
a distance depending on the ecological potential of the habitat (Formann et al., 1997) and on the
management of traffic and environment.
The loss of habitats due to the transport infrastructure can not be evaluated from the point of view of
its nature (traffic road, parking, gas station, gauge, etc.), due to the lack of data at national level and
the sample roads that were observed do not lead us to valid conclusions for the entire territory of
Romania. The hole surface of disturbed habitats can be much higher, there are cases in which the
barrier effect is isolating the favorable habitats for certain species, in this way we can lose this habitats
for that species.
Conclusions
The analyzed ecological effects need to be evaluated concretely in relation with every habitat category
and its health state. The indicators used in evaluation of the habitat fragmentation because of
infrastructure should be calculated. It is important to recommend standardization and legal certification
so that their value can be taken into account when elaborating territorial planning documents at local,
regional or national level.
The identification of areas with different risk level of habitat fragmentation caused by the transport
infrastructure allows the recommendation of the best technical solutions for adapting the traffic,
infrastructure and habitat to the manifestation of the barrier effect and the mortality of individuals of
some species.
365
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366
Romanian climate strategy: simulations of Kyoto Protocol and

European Trade Scheme by dynamic CGE model
Rodica Sandu-Loisel 1
University of Rouen, France, CARE, EA - 2260
Abstract
This research estimates the economic impacts of the implementation of the CO2 tradable market at the
national level. Applying an intertemporal dynamic general equilibrium model to Romania, the paper simulates
the reduction of CO2 emissions by 10% related to the year 2001, under the assumptions of two scenarios
where participants to the trade are all sectors (PK- Kyoto Protocol) or only energy intensive ones (ETS -
European Trade Scheme). Both cases show that social and economic costs for reducing the level of
emissions are not significative, reflecting the high potential of Romania to reduce its energy intensity and the
CO2 emissions with low cost measures. The estimation of marginal abatement cost of one tone of CO2
shows that ETS case represents a better option for reduce the national level of emissions than the KP
scheme.
JEL classification: C68, H2, Q43, Q48.
I am indebted to Professor Olivier Beaumais for his helpful comments on this paper; its suggestions on
formalization aspects made possible the building of a coherent structure of the model. All remaining errors
are mine.
Introduction
In response to the global warming, 189 countries joined an international treaty - the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), entered into force on 21 March 1994. The
Convention sets an overall framework for States to cooperate in preparing national and
intergovernmental strategies for reducing greenhouse gas emissions (GHG), including the
provision of financial and technological support to developing countries.
In addition to this treaty, it has been approved in 1997 the Kyoto Protocol that shares the
Convention’s objectives, principles and institutions by committing Annex I Parties to individual
targets to limit or reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. 163 countries have ratified the Protocol
to date. The individual targets for Annex I Parties are listed in the Kyoto Protocol’s Annex B. These
set a total cut in greenhouse-gas emissions of at least 5% from 1990 levels in the commitment
period 2008-2012. The Kyoto Protocol entered into force on 16 February 2005. Under the Protocol,
three flexible mechanisms are proposed: joint implementation projects2, clean development
mechanism3 and international tradable permits4.
The European Union has ratified the Kyoto Protocol in May 2002, with the commitment to reduce
the GHG emissions by at least 5%. For reaching this target, the EU introduced into the Community
climate strategy (Directive 2003/87EC) one major component that is the European Emissions
Trading Scheme (ETS) for CO2 (EU, 2003). The ETS is designed to achieve reduction of CO2 from
1 Email: rodica.sandu@univ-rouen.fr
2 Under joint implementation mechanism, an Annex I Party may implement an emission-reducing project or a project
that enhances removals by sinks in the territory of another Annex I Party and count the resulting emission reduction
units towards meeting its own Kyoto target.
3 The clean development mechanism provides for Annex I Parties to implement project activities that reduce emissions
in non-Annex I Parties, in return for certified emission reductions. The reduced emissions can be used by Annex I
Parties to help meet their emissions targets under the Kyoto Protocol.
4 The emissions trading provides for Annex I Parties to acquire units from other Annex I Parties and use them towards
meeting their emissions targets under the Kyoto Protocol. Only Annex I Parties to the Kyoto Protocol with emission
limitation and reduction commitments inscribed in Annex B to the Protocol may participate in such trading. Such
Parties may therefore be prepared to transfer units when they do not require them for compliance with their own
emission targets.
367
main energy-intensive installations, which are responsible for around 45% of European CO2
emissions. The countries’ individual objective is based on the Kyoto target and is set in the
National Allocation Plan (NAP) developed by each Member State. The NAP states the total
quantity of CO2 quotas and the allocation rules to participating sectors. The ETS started in January
2005 in 25 EU Member States and is designed for two periods, 2005-2007 and 2008-2012, the
latter being also the first period of the Kyoto Protocol.
In the context of Romania, the climate change policy is one of the major challenges of the current
environmental reform resulting from national targets to improve the environmental quality and the
energy efficiency. Besides the national concern, the Romanian government considers the
requirements from the future membership of the European Union (EU)5 as well as from
international commitments under the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol.
Romania ratified the UNFCCC by Law 24/1994 and the Kyoto Protocol by Law 3/2001 with the
commitment to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions by 8% comparing to 1989 levels in the
period 2008-2012. Historically, the total GHG emissions decreased in Romania by about 50% in
2002 compared to the reference year 19896. Several joint implementation projects have already
been contracted in Romania, mainly with Denmark, Netherlands, Sweden and Italy; they amount to
7.2 M tones CO2 equivalent, corresponding to a value of about 40 millions EUR. Concerning the
clean development mechanism, Romania will not use this option during the first period, given its
compliance with the Kyoto Protocol (Romanian Ministry of Environment, 2005a). As for the
international emissions trading, the theoretical potential is very important, the surplus emissions
(the so called hot air) being estimated to more than 50 millions tones CO2. A significant potential
exists to further reduce the GHG emissions in the Romanian economy by several abatement
options, such as fuel switch and efficiency improvements in the power sector and in the end-use
sectors, as well as an increased share of renewable electricity production.
Given the amount of hot air, it is very unlikely that emissions will increase above the level of the
Kyoto Protocol’s target before the end of 2012, even in a high economic growth scenario
(Romanian Ministry of Environment, 2005a). But after this period, economic growth could cause an
increase in GHG emissions in 2020 compared to 2002 of up to 40% (Romanian Ministry of
Environment, 2005b). Thus, increased insight in the development of emissions is necessary to
allow Romania to manage CO2 emissions on the long term. In this perspective, both Kyoto
Protocol and European Trade Scheme represent only the first step in the Romanian climate
strategy. Further actions need to be taken at national level aiming in particular investment
measures in CO2 intensive sectors such as energy and transport. The reduction in the energy
demand is required, as well as an increase in energy efficiency and a modification of the energy
sources used. This objective involves therefore all households and sectors and can be achieved by
stimulating technological development and by changes in the consumption behaviour.
But low per capita emissions, as the case of Romania is, are usually related to a relatively low
economic development level and to high emissions per unit of energy and per unit of GDP
(European Commission, 1992). Consequently, the abatement of CO2 emissions could have an
important positive effect, but strongly depends on the capacity and the flexibility of the economy to
absorb the adjustment costs. These costs are usually disproportionately high in relation with the
economic situation, that despite of high growth rate (5% of the GDP) presents low GDP per capita
level (one third of the EU average).
This research analyses policies and measures that limit the economic costs of CO2 emissions
reduction and show that the adjustment costs require weak contributions from the state budget and
from households as well. These effects are put on the account of high energy intensity in Romania
5 The accession of Romania to the EU is scheduled for the 1st January 2007.
6 The decrease was mainly due to a strong decline in industrial production and the restructuring of the economy in
transition to a market economy. The commissioning of the first reactor at the nuclear power plant in 1996 had a
significant impact on GHG emissions.
368
and to current and future structural and technological changes. This study builds the framework of
sustainable development of the Romanian economy by implementing economic instruments and
explores this approach by using a dynamic general equilibrium model. Two scenarios are analysed
under different assumptions set on the assessment of the quotas allocation rules and the emission
targets, related to the above discussed agreements. The market instrument that simulations are
based on is the CO2 tradable permit, equivalent to one emitted tonne of carbon dioxide.
The paper is elaborated as follows: section 2 summarizes the main features of our model; then we
present in section 3 some analytical and empirical considerations on permits allocation rules and
section 4 discusses the model simulations with focus on the main economic, environmental and
social implications. Final section concludes.
Theoretical specifications of the model

The rich literature on the general equilibrium provides the starting point for building the structure of
the model. They are mainly models applied on the energy topic that are build within the neo-
classical framework: GREEN (Lee et al., 1994), GTAP (Burniaux et al., 2002), MEGAPESTES
(Beaumais, 1995), GEMINI-E3 (AEA, 1995), etc. They contribute on setting the main assumptions
at the origin of our model, namely the choice of functional specifications and the disaggregation of
the economy.
The model assumes a small open economy, which faces exogenous goods world-market prices
normalized to 1. Substituability between domestic and imported goods is imperfect and the degree
of substitutability is defined by Armington elasticities (1969). A constant returns-to-scale neo-
classical production function describes the domestic production. The separation of different types
of energy and non-energy inputs in intermediate block is in line with the general KLEM7 approach
that is most commonly adopted in the energy CGE literature.
The database used for the Social Accounting Matrix is provided by Romanian National Accounts
(NIS, 2004) and the reference year we consider is 2001 as it is the last year when the input-output
table was available. The matrix describes the income and the consumption structure for further four
institutions: households, enterprises, the State and the rest of the world. Enterprises are
disaggregated into 12 production sectors (see Appendix 1), including four energy sectors, four
energy-intensive sectors and four non energy-intensive ones. Each sector uses two production
factors, labor and capital, and 12 inputs provided by the considered sectors; all inputs are assumed
to be fully mobile across sectors. All the prices in the model are in relative terms, while the price of
capital is set the numeraire of the model.
The nested structure follows the same principle in all productive sectors (j), yet with varying
elasticities and technical parameters. At the highest nest, the production ( Y j ) is assumed as a
fixed composition of intermediate materials M j and KLE j aggregate:
Y j = f ( K j , L j , E j , M j ) = min(M j , KLE j ) .
At the next level, the capital-energy composite ( KE j ) can be traded off with labor. A constant
elasticity of substitution (CES) function describes the technological substitution possibilities:
1
⎡ σ KLEj ⎤ 1−
1 1
1− 1− 1
σ KLEj
KLE j = A1 j ⎢α 1 j KE j + (1 − α 1 j ) L j ⎥ σ KLEj
⎣⎢ ⎥⎦
7 capital-labor-energy-materials
369
At the next lower nest, the model sets the assumption that capital and energy are substitute. This
is based on the fact that technological choices are not finished yet in Romania and investments
could further reduce the intermediate energy consumption. The producer determines the optimal
choice of capital and energy demand following CES function properties:
1
⎡ 1−
1
σ KEj
1−
1
σ KEj
⎤ 1− 1
KE j = A2 j ⎢α 2 j K j + (1 − α 2 j ) E j ⎥ σ KEj
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
Furthermore, the energy demand bundle is a CES aggregation of energy inputs ( CI ij ) such as
electricity, coal, gas and oil:
1
⎛ 1−
1
⎞ 1− 1
E j = A3 j ⎜ ∑ α 3 j CI ij Ej ⎟ σ Ej
σ
⎜ i ⎟
⎝ ⎠
The source of carbon dioxide emissions is the use of primary inputs coming from the energy
sectors (electricity8, coal, gas and oil). It is assumed that emissions are proportional to the amount
of primary energy used in each sector and that they are generated by the technological process,
independently of the production volume. The permit price is applied also to imports of fossil fuels,
since their combustion takes place domestically, but not to imports of manufactured goods since it
is the production rather than consumption that is polluting. The formalization of the permit market
sets a number of initial assumptions. First of all, the model builds the tradable permits market
within a perfect competition framework, which could be rather the case in the context of thousands
of installations participating to the trade. On the other side, most of installations belong to the
electric sector that could exert a dominant position on the carbon market. Secondly, we do not
taken into account the transaction costs that implicitly are assumed to be null. Thirdly, the carbon
market operates following the rule of zero-sum game, meaning that more a sector emits CO2 more
efforts are required to other sectors to decrease their emissions:
∑∑ (CO2
j i
i, j − CO 2i , j ) = 0
where CO 2 i , j represents the number of permit granted to the sector j that employs a production
technology using the energy input i. If we note with Ppen the price of emission permit, then the
product Ppen ∑ CO 2 i , j represents the scarcity rent (Beaumais, 1995), that the producer decides
i
whether or not he integers into its final profits and if the rent changes the energy input price. We
assume that the producer modifies the input price with the allowances of the grandfathering
scheme subject to the condition that at equilibrium the firm’s profit is null:
MinPEj E j = ∑ CI ij pCIij + ppen(CO 2 i , j − CO 2 i , j )

i
s/c
1
⎡ 1−
1
σ Ej
⎤ 1− 1
E j = A3 j ⎢α Eij CI ij ⎥ σ Ej
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
8 The electricity sector includes parts of gas distribution network and thus we associate a quantity of CO2 emissions
with the use of the output of this sector.
370
The expression Ppen ∑ (CO 2 i , j − CO 2 i , j ) represents the net balance of the permit trade of sector j,
i
which might be either positive or negative. If sectoral current emissions are superior to the amount
of permits initially granted, the relation is positive and the sector becomes net buyer of permits on
the carbon market. If the level of emissions is below the initial allocation, the sector becomes net
seller of permits.
The optimal demand of energy inputs is as follows:
σ
1−σ Ej ⎡ α Ei , j ( p Ej E j + ppen∑ CO 2 i , j ) ⎤
⎛ Ej ⎞ ⎢ ⎥
CI i , j = ⎜ ⎟
⎢
i
⎥
⎜A ⎟ pcii , j + coef i , j
⎝ 4j ⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
At the lowest nest, the energy inputs are a CES- Armington aggregation between domestic and
imported inputs:
1
⎡ 1−
1
σi
1−
1
σi
⎤ 1− 1
CI ij = A4 i ⎢α 3i DOM ij + (1 − α 3i ) IMPij ⎥ σ i ,
⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
under the budget constraint as follows: pCIij CI ij = pYij DOM ij + tc ⋅ pmond ⋅ IMPij .
It must be noticed that the model assumes that both domestic and imported energy inputs have the
same emission coefficients and the same energy content parameters. Thus, the same carbon tax
is applied to domestic and to imported inputs, avoiding in this way the substitution with imported
inputs for the only reason to evade the tax. Applying the same tax rate at this level of the structure
does not change the trade off between domestic and imported inputs.
Walras’ law does not change with the permits allocation rule, but the macro equilibrium is affected
by changes in the equilibriums at the micro (sectoral) level.
In this model, State is not an optimizer agent and its activity is assessed against the expenditure
and revenue accounts of the base year. In the balance of the rest of the world, the external debt is
exogenous and the equilibrating variable is the exchange rate.
For the analysis of an equitable policy of incomes redistribution between several categories of
households it may prove useful to disaggregate households according to several poverty lines9.
The theoretical and empirical literature on this subject (Mihailescu and al, 2003; Kiuila and
Sleszynski, 2003; World Bank, 2002b, 2003) leads us to consider four types of households:
absolutely poor (AP)10, relatively poor (RP)11, households just above the relative poverty line
(SP, 20%) and rich households (R). Four consumers are representative for all households. They
receive a fixed share of the dividends from the productive sectors, the wages paid by the producer
9 The definition of poverty refers here to those resources (material, cultural and social) necessary for a decent modern
life; so it goes beyond the traditional or biological needs which are more frequently used to define extreme poverty.
Let us recall that extreme poverty in Romania is less than 1% (Mihailescu et al, 2003).
10 We consider as “absolutely poor” those persons who cannot satisfy some basic needs (food, clothing, housing,
health, etc). Adopting this criterion— the considered threshold is the equivalent of 2 USD/day in national currency
(World Bank) — makes it possible to draw comparisons between countries. Romania’s poverty rate is then 20.5% of all
households.
11 We consider as “relatively poor” those households which are in constant deficit (ICCV, 2003). If we ignore the
absolutely poor households as defined earlier, remaining households represent another 30%.
371
and by the external account as well as transfers from the State and firms. Household makes the
trade-off between leisure and consumption following the principle of a CES function. The analysis
does not include the pollution stock in the utility function for better examining the interaction
between environmental, goods/ capital/ labor-markets’ distortions in a second-best framework,
meaning the welfare variation net of environmental gains. We implicitly assume that households
ignore the adverse effect of their demand for polluting goods on the quality of the environment:
1
⎡ 1− ⎤ 1− 1
1 1
1−
u (C , L) = ⎢(1 − β ) ⋅ C σ
+ β ⋅ ( Ln − L ) ⎥ σ
σ
⎣ ⎦
The consumption basket is disaggregated into twelve goods and utilities under the assumption of
the linear expenditure system (LES). This specification allows for the assessment of the minimal
quantity for each good and sets constant budgetary coefficients beyond expenditures for basic
needs. The consumer minimizes the consumption expenditures subject to the consumption
function, as follows:
MinPchCh = ∑ pcbh , j Cbh , j

j
s/c
Ch − Ch = ∑ β h , j (Cbh , j − Cbh , j )
j
The optimal demand of household h for the good j becomes:
Pc h C h − ∑ pcbh ,i Cbh ,i
Cbh , j = Cbh , j + β h , j i
pcbh , j
where β h, j represent fixed budgetary coefficients ( β h , j > 0 and ∑β

j
h, j = 1 ) and Cbh , j
incompressible quantities corresponding to basic needs.
Dynamic specifications. The model assumes an infinitely lived representative household of each
income class that maximizes his lifetime utility subject to the dynamic budget constraint:
t 1
⎛ 1 ⎞
1 1−
Max U =
C t ,l t
∑ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ u (C t , lt ) σ
1 t ⎝1+ ρ ⎠
1−
θ
p k K t + wt lt + TRSrt pc C + ept + TRSet
s / c∑ =∑ t t
t ∏ (1 + rs )
s =1,t
t ∏ (1 + rs ) s =1,t
The dynamics of the consumption is determined by the Euler equation as follows:
σ2
σ −1
⎡ ⎛ β pct +1 ⎞ ⎤ (σ +θ )(1−σ )
σθ ⎢1 − β + β ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎛ 1 + rt +1 pct ⎞
C t +1 = C t ⎜⎜ ⋅ ⎟⎟
σ +θ
⎢ ⎝ β − 1 wt +1 ⎠ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎝ 1 + ρ pct +1 ⎠
σ −1
⎢ − β + β ⎛⎜ β pct ⎞⎟ ⎥
⎢ ⎜ β −1 w ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ t ⎠ ⎦
372
At the producer level, the capital accumulation equation implies also forward looking specifications,
given the capital depreciation rate and the initial capital stock:
K t +1 = I t + (1 − δ ) K t
The efficiency parameters of the technology as well as the share parameters are calibrated using
the 2001 input-output table for Romania (NIS, 2004), by means of GAMS software (Brooke and al.,
1998).
Analysis of quotas allocating rules

This section builds the model simulations on the basis on the main components of the two
agreements that are the participant sectors, the binding emissions target and the quotas allocation
rules. We analyse the two scenarios under these criteria with focus on the main pollutant, the
carbon dioxide.
The National Allocation Plans integers the results of two kinds of analysis, one conducted at
installation level (bottom-up) and other at sectoral/ national level (top-down). As the lack of data at
installation level cannot conduct to a bottom-up analyse, this study examines the producer at the
aggregate level in a particular direction: first of all the allocation at national and sectoral levels
against three reference points (HA, FA, LCA); secondly, the analysis examines trends of main
economic aggregates as carbon dioxide emissions, the structure of the GDP, the exposure to
international competition and general welfare impacts.
In the case of the Protocol of Kyoto (PK), all sectors are participating to the trade and they are all
benefiting from the grandfathering scheme proportionally to their historical emissions from the base
year 1989. As already shown, the GHG emissions dropped during the economic recession by
about 50% comparing to 1989 levels, so the Romania commitment to reduce its emissions level by
8% is already achieved. The difference between the emission level in 2008 and the level in 1989 is
usually called the hot air, and its existence in Romania case makes the country to become a net
seller of permits.
The Kyoto Protocol states that the emission trading should be supplemental to domestic actions to
reduce GHG. Thus we ignore in this research the amount of hot air and their recycling effects on
the rest of the economy for several reasons.
Firstly, no legislative framework exists for the distribution of the income generated by the hot air;
other models use the hot air to cover the public deficit or distribute the revenues in a lump-sum
fashion to households. The debate around the use of revenues from the hot air opposes two
options: sectors that reduced their emissions benefit from income following the pro rata principle,
even if it might happen that some activities are no more existing; or else, the income beneficiate to
Founds of investment for clean technologies as research and development expenditures.
Secondly, uncertainties about the carbon price in the international market make difficult the
estimation of this amount.
Thirdly, the savings of CO2 emissions are due to the transitional recession and to the consequent
general economic contraction on the supply-side. They do not stream from real environmental
improvements and the fact that most of reductions have never been occurred could undermine the
Kyoto Protocol structure (Pesic, 2003). For these reasons, some governments of the EU have
opposed to the use of the hot-air for achieving the Kyoto targets, while other propositions are made
for restricting the sale of hot-air to around 40% (Klepper and Peterson, 2004).
373
Our research sets the subsidiarity principle with the European Trade Scheme that implies that
Romania assumes the commitment to reduce its CO2 emissions as member of the European
Union. We have to recall that the European Union commitment to reduce the emissions level by
8% is applied to all current EU states, whether they were member to the EU to the ratifying date or
not. Once joining the EU, Romania will implicitly assume the collective objective that is to reduce
the Community level of GHG emissions. Thus a new objective will be committed by Romania in its
National Allocation Plan. Let us set the overall reduction objective for the period 2008-2012 to
about 10% compared to the emission level of 2001 (the reference year), meaning about 9 millions
CO2 tons.
The European directive mentions those sectors that are parts to the trade, precisely the energy
sector and the energy-intensive installations. The ETS covers only CO2 emissions from large
emitters in the power and heat generation industry and only selected energy-intensive industrial
sectors: combustion plants, oil refineries, coke ovens, iron and steel plants and factories of
cement, glass, lime, bricks, ceramics, pulp and paper. A size threshold based on production
capacity or output determines whether plants in these sectors are included in the ETS. More than
11,400 installations are included, accounting for about 45% of the CO2 emissions in the EU, or
about 30% of its overall GHG emissions.
As related by analysis of national allocation plans submitted to the Commission by the member
states (Kolshus and Torvanger, 2005), difficulties occur when countries do not use a common
definition when grouping sectors. The use of mineral oil refineries, iron and steel, cement, glass,
lime, ceramics, pulp and paper is relative consistent across countries. Still, a wide range of terms
are used to cover other energy activities (electricity, district heating, energy, combined heat power,
power, heat, cogeneration and steam). Moreover, countries use sectors that are not mentioned by
the Directive, examples are sugar, textile, chemicals, food, wood and services etc., as provided
within the national registers of Austria, Czech Republic, Poland or United Kingdom. Our analysis
will consider as parts to the European Scheme Trade the following sectors: electricity, oil
production, metallurgy, the paper production and the chemistry.
The European directive specifies that in the first period (2005-2007) only a small percentage of
allowances may be auctioned, and at least 95 % of allowances should be allocated for free. In the
second period (2008-2012) the amount to be given away for free has to be at least 90%. Still,
considerable freedom is left to the individual Member States to decide the magnitude of allowances
to be allocated and how allowances should be distributed among participants in the trading
scheme. For the period 2005-2007, all countries have chose to freely distribute all allowances to
participating sectors, so no auction was provided.
The European directive provides a reserve for new entrants12, generally adopted by the member
states following the first come, first served principle. Some national plans divide this reserve into
two parts, one for the new entrants (or for new installations), and the other part for the case of
unpredictable and speed growth. Main arguments in favour of this reserve are the maintaining of
national attractivity of investments and the competitivity between existent and new installations,
even this could be treated as a subsidizing form from the public budget to encourage investments
(Godard, 2005). Since no historical data exists for their needs, special rules of allocation must be
envisaged.
The European directive stating the ETS is compatible with the Kyoto Protocol. It provides the three
flexible mechanisms, joint implementation projects, the clean development mechanisms and the
quotas trade. In this model we do not treat the joint implementation projects, neither the clean
development mechanisms, since as discussed above, Romania will not use this option during the
period 2008-2012 (Romanian Ministry of Environment, 2005a). However, the country will
participate to joint implementation projects in a fixed proportion of the number of allowances the
sectors receive for free from the government. This assumption is in line with the EU position that
12 They are considered as new entrants the installations that are introduced during or after the process of the finalisation
of the NAP.
374
limits on the maximum the use of these mechanisms. The cap on the JI/CDM credits per
installation should be set sufficiently low to guarantee that their use is only supplementary to
domestic action in the respective Member State and the EU as a whole (CAP, 2005).
The Commission of the EU suggests three modes of allocating targets, based on historical
emissions, on forecast emissions, and on a least cost allocation (European Commission, 2003):
1) The historical emissions approach. Under this approach the total number of allowances
allocated is determined by the share of that Member State’s emissions from installations carrying
out activities included in the trading scheme emitted in a particular year, multiplied by total
allowable emissions for the economy.
2) The forecasting approach. In the forecasting approach allowances are allocated according to the
business-as-usual shares expected at some future point in time, for example the end of the first
commitment period to the Kyoto-Protocol in 2012. This system would in some way reflect the
expected needs of faster and slower growing sectors in the economy. Our estimations are based
on trends of sectoral carbon emissions as provided by the EC previsions (2003).
3) The least-cost approach. The least cost approach is based on the fact that the CO2-abatement
costs are substantially different across sectors. For taking these differences into account, a uniform
CO2 tax is applied as if all emission sources were to participate to the trading scheme. The
resulting emissions are used to determine the allocation of permits to sectors, meaning that more
allowances are granted to sectors with more expensive abatement possibilities that to those with
lower abatement costs. The objective of emissions reduction is exogenously set to 10%, while the
tax level is optimally determined by the model.
Simulation of the implementation of the ETS at the national level is based on the historical
approach that considers as reference period the year 2001. The initial allocation of permits is done
by the grandfathering scheme to the trade participants that are the electricity, the oil sector, the
metallurgy, the paper production and the chemistry. The environmental objective is calibrated to
10% at the national level subject to the constraint of reduced emissions by 6.4% to the level of
participating sectors. The reduction is gradually applied to the period 2008-2012.
Alternative scenarios are presented in the Appendix 3 under the hypothetical assumptions that
allowances are distributed by auctioning (AUC), under the least cost approach (LCA) or following
the forecasting approach (FA).
Simulations and discussion

The model implementation and simulations were operated by means of GAMS/ MCP software
(Brooke and al., 1998), using the PATH solver, as the most appropriate tool to deal with large scale
models. The model employs 1430 variables and 1150 parameters and simulations are done for
20013 periods in order to ensure the model stationarity. The applied chocks are from the year
2008, which corresponds in our model to the 8th period and have therefore an announced
character related to the agents’ anticipations. The policy becomes effective in a relatively short lag
time from the reference year. Households have therefore only few periods to adjust their
behaviour; on the basis of forward looking specifications, the model allows households to
anticipate the consequences of the new policy and to adapt their consumption and saving
behaviour to the new price system. The analysis is based on results on the long run while the
transition effects are briefly discussed.
According to the analytical framework, our research analyses the tradable market at the national
level, meaning that only national sectors are trading permits, subject to the environmental objective
to reduce their CO2 emissions by 10% compared to 2001 level. The purpose of this simulation is to
estimate the national marginal abatement cost of one tone of CO2 and the macroeconomic effects
13 One period corresponds to one year.

375
on the general welfare, on the GDP and international competition, as well as the sectoral impacts
in terms of output, employment, investment and energy consumption.
Two cases are analysed according to different allocation rules: the Kyoto Protocol scenario (PK)
assumes that all sectors are part to the trade and does not take into account the hot air trade; the
European Trade Scheme case (ETS) simulates the permits market between only energy-intensive
sectors.
The Kyoto Protocol case

The macroeconomic costs are expressed in terms of real GDP variation, marginal cost of abating
one ton of carbon and changes in the state balance, saving-investment and the rest of the world.
The cost estimates may appear low compared to the size of the emission cuts (-10%), since the
GDP increases by only 0.04%. The price of the permit amounts to 2.375 euros, reflecting the
potential of emission reduction with low cost investments.
At the State level, the policy involves a decrease in the public deficit (-2.51%) and a slight increase
in the income (0.1%), on the account of increased social contributions (0.08), taxes on wages (0.1)
and indirect taxes on consumption (0.1%).
Table 1. Macro-economic impacts of the Kyoto Protocol implementation

(percent variation relative to the reference case)
Real GDP 0.04
Households deflated consumption 0.09
Investment deflated value 0.18
Exports deflated value -0.14
Permit price (euro/ tCO2) 2.375
STATE BALANCE
Public deficit -2.51
Income 0.10
Employers’ social contributions 0.08
Employees’ social contributions 0.10
Taxes on wages 0.10
VAT, Duties and Excises 0.10
THE REST OF THE WORLD
External debt 0
Imports 0.03
Exports -0.15
Exchange rate -0.11
SAVING-INVESTMENT
Interest rate 0.00
Saving (total) 0.18
Households saving 0.63
Investment 0.18
Investment price 0.00
As for the current account, changes are in terms of exports (-0.15%), imports (0.03%) and
exchange rate (-0.11%). The external debt is fixed at the initial level. The shock has a negative
impact if we consider the depreciation of the national currency and the loss of competitiveness in
all sectors. However, the policy has positive effects regarding the energy imports structure: the
electricity increases by 5.4%, while coal, oil and gas decrease by respectively 9.8%, 0.34% and
0.68%. Consequently, the Romanian energy dependency falls by 2.48%, which is an
underestimated result by the initial assumption that sets the international price exogenously to 1.
An increase of this value is expected if we consider the emission constraints at the regional,
European and international levels.
376
The macroeconomic shock has an overall positive impact on savings-investment balance in terms
of variation and sectoral distribution. Substitutions of energy inputs are done in favor to capital,
whose demand increases in all sectors except for the coal, oil and gas production, due an output
contraction effect. Investment thus increases by 0.18%, which is in line with the purpose of the
energy topic, to improve the energy efficiency by additional capital and cleaner technologies.
At the household level, we notice a positive effect for all classes in term of social welfare,
measured as compensating variation of the consumption income (see Table 2). This is a demand-
effect, but also a revenue-effect: despite of increased price levels (above 0.07%), the consumption
increases for all households, due to additional revenues from dividends (0.18%) and wages
(0.1%). Still, two negative effects are to be noticed: the inflationary effect that the policy implies
(the consumer price index –CIP- increases by 0.09%) and the increased social disparity among the
four classes (the Gini coefficient increases by 0.02%).
Table 2. Impacts of the Kyoto Protocol case on the households’ income and expenditure
HOUSEHOLDS
Ctot Price K L Saving Income VC Energy
AP 0.12 0.11 0.18 -0.32 -0.17 0.09 0.03 0.07
RP 0.11 0.11 0.18 0.02 -0.16 0.10 0.04 0.04
SP 0.09 0.09 0.18 -0.02 -0.64 0.08 0.03 0.01
RI 0.07 0.07 0.18 0.01 0.38 0.12 0.04 0.02
CIP 0.09
Gini 0.02
In contrast to modest macro results, sectoral effects show important variations for all producers,
with a significant output reduction in the coal sector (-10%) and a consequent increased demand
for the electricity facilities (4.4%). The production costs increase slightly in all sectors, as a result of
increased labor and energy prices on the one hand and to permits trade losses of the other hand.
Sectors that become net sellers of permits are the coal sector, constructions and ‘other activities’,
that mostly reduce their emissions (-10%, -28.6% and respectively by -28.3%), presenting thus the
lowest abatement opportunities. The remaining sectors are net buyers.
Table 3. Sectoral results from the Kyoto Protocol implementation

The Producer14
Output Labor Invest Energy NonEn Export Import PrCost Expend15 CO2
SEL 4.41 4.70 4.86 4.28 4.41 -0.36 5.40 0.26 1975.45 -8.10
SCA -10.00 -10.02 -9.88 -9.99 -10.00 -0.17 -9.83 0.07 -8.33 -10.46
SPE -0.41 -0.48 -0.34 -0.39 -0.41 -0.15 -0.34 0.05 710.17 -0.42
SGZ -0.83 -0.62 -0.37 -1.65 -0.83 -0.31 -0.68 0.20 435.36 -2.52
SMS -0.14 0.11 0.27 -0.38 -0.14 -0.21 0.18 0.10 1214.96 -1.13
SPA -0.07 -0.11 0.11 -0.83 -0.07 -0.14 0.10 0.03 77.62 -0.92
SCH -0.13 0.12 0.37 -0.73 -0.13 -0.21 0.06 0.10 1155.68 -3.06
STR -0.10 -0.08 0.16 -0.81 -0.10 -0.17 0.25 0.07 738.07 -7.33
SAG 0.04 -0.07 0.07 -0.29 0.04 -0.12 0.33 0.01 129.71 -0.58
SCO 0.16 0.06 0.26 0.20 0.16 -0.13 0.49 0.02 -326.45 -28.58
SCS 0.05 -0.03 0.18 -0.64 0.05 -0.14 0.40 0.03 347.49 -1.02
14 Employed mnemonics represents : SEL electricity, SCA coal, SPE oil and oil products, SGZ gas, SMS metallurgy,
SPA pulp and paper products, SCH chemistry, STR transports, SAG agriculture, SCO construction, SCS services, SAU
other sectors.
15 Sectoral loss/ gains from the permits’ trade (euros).
377
SAU -0.03 -0.13 0.06 0.01 -0.03 -0.12 0.23 0.02 -6449.73 -28.31
The employment improves in two energy intensive sectors, metallurgy and chemistry (due to a
substitution-effect) and also in electricity and construction (due to an output-effect). The overall
effect on labor is null, but the marginal productivity improves (0.1%). Despite of increased energy
production costs, the energy demand grows by 1.12%.
Related to the overall results, we can conclude that the policy presents the double dividend
assertion, in its strong form, since the environmental quality improves with negative social costs.
We have to recall that no compensatory measure was adopted, which indicates the great potential
Romania has for improving the energy efficiency at low cost. Even if Romania commitment by
Kyoto Protocol to reduce its CO2 emissions is attained already, rapidly increasing of energy needs
below 2012 will be a challenging task for the sustainable development and requires the
implementation of environmental regulation by the means of economic instruments or hybrid
policies.
The simulation of the European Trade Scheme

Similarly to the precedent case, the results from the simulation of the European Trade Scheme are
not very significative. Still, some particularities are to be noticed. First of all, the permit price is
lower in this scenario, 2.05 euros while it is 2.375 in the Kyoto trade. This justifies the EC Directive
to select those participants to the trade that present the lowest abatement costs in economy.
Secondly, sectoral effects show changes in the productive structure, especially in the energy
output and consumption. Variation of the intermediate energy consumption is negative in the ETS
case (-0.9) while positive in the PK simulation (1.08). This reflects that the energy policy is based
more on energy efficiency savings, on the account of increased capital goods (0.33) and labor
(0.05) demand, ensuring thus a better resources allocation.
The macro economic results (see Table 4) show a negative, but not significative impact on the
GDP (-0.01%) and on the national currency (-0.23%), which encourages imports (0.06) to the
detriment of exports (-0.35).
Table 4. Macro-economic impacts of the European Trade Scheme implementation

Real GDP -0.01

Households deflated consumption 0.02
Investment deflated value 0.33
Exports deflated value -0.30
Permit price (euro/ tCO2) 2.05
STATE BALANCE
Public deficit -2.54
Income -0.11
Employers’ social contributions 0.00
Employees’ social contributions 0.07
Taxes on wages 0.07
VAT, Duties and Excises 0.01
THE REST OF THE WORLD
External debt 0
Imports 0.06
Exports -0.35
Exchange rate -0.23
SAVING-INVESTMENT
Interest rate 0.00
Saving (total) 0.33
378
Households saving 4.76

Investment 0.33
Investment price 0.00
The effects are negative on the households’ welfare, but still not significative. As result of
increased dividends (0.33%), labor (0.05) and wages (0.02), income grow for all classes so that
social disparities are slightly reduced (-0.05). The inflationary effect is smaller than in the Kyoto
Protocol case, as the consumer index varies by only 0.01% (it was 0.09 previously). Saving are
increasing in response to higher capital demand, which stimulates investment but enhances
reductions in the income for consumption and thus in the final welfare.
Tableau 5. Impacts of the European Trade Scheme case on the households’ income and
expenditure (percent variation relative to the reference case)
HOUSEHOLDS
Cons Price K L Saving Income VC Energy
AP 0.01 0.01 0.33 1.25 0.61 0.28 -0.01 0.15
RP 0.01 0.01 0.33 0.11 2.80 0.17 0.00 0.19
SP 0.00 0.01 0.33 0.05 6.18 0.12 -0.01 0.25
RI -0.01 0.02 0.33 0.00 0.80 0.12 -0.01 0.22
IPC 0.01
Gini -0.05
Sectoral impacts are in line with our expectations from the Directive implementation: results are
more significant for sectors that participate to the trade and for remaining energy sectors. The
electricity sector becomes net seller of permits, while oil, metallurgy, paper and chemistry are net
buyers. In this scenario, the electricity presents the lowest abatement costs; the gains occurred
from the permits trade that the producer includes in the price frontier, make the production cost to
decrease by 0.56%. This reduction is also due to the decrease in prices of oil and gas inputs (-0.09
and -8.83%). Consequently the demand increases and the output too (2.91%). Significant impacts
are recorded in the gas production (10.25%) that substitutes to coal (-11.7%) and oil (-1.8%), due
obviously to a price-effect (-8.8%) and to its low carbon content.
Table 6. Sectoral results from the European Trade Scheme implementation

The Producer16
Output Labor Invest Energy NonEn Export Import PrCost
Expend17
SEL 2.91 1.91 1.94 3.26 2.91 0.33 2.14 -0.56 -1544.43
SCA -11.71 -10.50 -10.96 -12.86 -11.71 -0.80 -10.87 0.58 0.00
SPE -1.83 -2.02 -1.95 -1.75 -1.83 -0.14 -2.13 -0.09 294.61
SGZ 10.25 -6.38 -11.28 59.53 10.25 9.43 3.60 -8.83 0.00
SMS -0.21 -0.28 -0.24 -0.16 -0.21 -0.20 -0.02 -0.04 606.86
SPA -0.24 -0.33 -0.33 0.56 -0.24 -0.17 -0.04 -0.06 49.95
SCH -0.20 -0.42 -0.42 0.18 -0.20 -0.13 -0.12 -0.10 593.01
STR -0.81 1.45 2.49 -14.18 -0.81 -1.02 1.10 0.80 0.00
16 Employed notations represent: SEL electricity, SCA coal, SPE oil and oil products, SGZ gas, SMS metallurgy, SPA
pulp and paper products, SCH chemistry, STR transports, SAG agriculture, SCO construction, SCS services, SAU other
sectors.
17 Sectoral loss/ gain from the permits’ trade (euros).
379
SAG -0.08 -0.07 -0.01 -1.27 -0.08 -0.23 0.51 0.00 0.00
SCO 0.23 0.28 0.35 -0.45 0.23 -0.25 0.88 0.01 0.00
SCS -0.08 0.10 0.24 -5.45 -0.08 -0.30 0.67 0.07 0.00
SAU -0.22 0.08 0.33 -4.88 -0.22 -0.31 0.38 0.08 0.00
Positive results that PK case records for the GDP variation and the social welfare are
overestimated by the initial hypothesis that assume all sectors as participants to the trade while the
transaction costs are maintained null. In practice, it becomes difficult to control emissions from
small enterprises (see for instance the sector ‘other activities’ that is responsible for more than
15% of the total emissions) or mobile emitters (the transport sector emits almost 13%). From this
point of view, the ETS case appears more realistic since it limits the participants to only great
sources of pollution.
This study presented the effects of applied hypothetical environmental shock of reduced emissions
by 10% related to the 2001 level, using the permits allocation rules that follow the so-called
‘historical approach’. We can extend our analysis to other emission limitation objectives and to
other permits allocation approaches, for which cases we content to only present macro costs and
long term results. A comparison between PK and ETS cases18 is done by means of the figure
here below, which shows a lower cost of carbon abatement in the ETS scenario.
Figure1. Marginal abatement cost curves
140
120
euro/ tonne CO2
100
80 ETS
60 PK
40
20
0
5 10 15 20 25 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
Objective%
Transitory effects present also a great interest for the analysis, as most of political concerns fear
that social and economic costs will be high in the short and medium run. The following graphs
present the path of the real GDP variation and the trajectory of the private consumption. In both
cases (PK and ETS), the GDP variation is positive in the medium run, while the private
consumption slightly decreases since the model assumes that households adopt perfect
anticipations about the new policy price system; consequently the consumer anticipates the
increasing in his income after the policy shock and makes intertemporal trade off between present
and future consumption in the favour of the last one.
18 Simulations are done by using a static version of the model.

380
Real GDP % variation in the PK simulation

0.04
GDP
0.035
0.03
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Real GDP % variation in the ETS simulation

0.12
GDP
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
-0.02
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Variation % of households consumption in the PK case

0.12
pa
pr
0.1 ps
ri
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
-0.02
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
381
Variation % of households consumption in the ETS case

0.02
pa
pr
0.01 ps
ri
0
-0.01
-0.02
-0.03
-0.04
-0.05
-0.06
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
The absorption of the shock at the aggregate level can partly be explained by the initial structural
conditions set on the perfect mobility of labor and capital; this assumption together with substitution
possibilities of factors with energy inputs and between energy facilities lead to a great flexibility of
the economy to absorb the adjustment costs. These conditions are related to the database that is
the social accounting matrix build for the reference year 2001 that implies a transition period with
deep structural changes in terms of economic structure, of technological choices and institutional
transformations. However, simulations done with GREEN model (Pesic, 2003) applied to Eastern
European countries show that even if we account for rigidities on the real wages, aggregate cost
estimations remain modest. We have done similar simulations for both cases PK and ETS,
assuming that real wage is fixed at initial level and results confirm expectations (see Appendix 3).
Other allocation rules are also simulated, whether permits are grandfathered or auctioned (AUC)
and if the permits allocation follows the forecasting (FA) or the least cost approach (LCA, see
Appendix 3). We assume that all sectors are participating to the trade. The number of granted
permits is set as follows: zero for the case when permits are auctioned; 90% from the total in the
least cost approach and 83% in the forecasting approach. If the emissions limitation is by 10%
from the 2001 level in the two first simulations, it becomes 17% in the last one because the
constraint of 10% reduction is applied to the forecasted level of the year 2008 (EC, 2003) that
represents 93% from the 2001 level. This reduction is put on the account on the technological
progress that allows for energy efficiency savings.
The abatement cost is function on the permits demand, which is lower in the auction case as the
energy intermediate consumption decreases by almost 4%. This enhances the decrease in the real
GDP as a result of the output contraction, still with positive impacts on the social welfare that
increases by more than 0.09%. The last effect is the consequence of the increased leisure in the
utility function as labor decreases by 0.26. This case meets the theoretical expectations that
conclude to higher social and economic costs when permits are auctioned compared to the case
when they are freely allocated to the trading sectors. The scenarios LCA and FA show indeed
positive effects in terms of GDP, welfare, employment and investment; even if both cases record
an increase in the energy demand, substitutions favour the electricity facilities, reflecting thus
changes in the consumption behaviour towards low carbon contents utilities. The carbon
abatement is lower in the least cost approach (2.37 euros) and the highest in the forecasting case
(5.2 euros), the last one being the result of harder environmental constraint (-17%) and of a lower
permits supply as well. These results lead to the conclusion that a higher environmental objective
of emissions limitation implies the deeper structural transformations that benefit to employment and
investment, to factors productivity, to real GDP and to social welfare.
382
Conclusion
This paper has explored the impacts of an environmental policy on the Romanian economy in a
general-equilibrium framework. Two scenarios are analysed under different assumptions set on the
assessment of the quotas allocation rules; the market instrument is the CO2 tradable permit,
equivalent to one emitted tonne of carbon dioxide. This research analyses policies and measures
that limit the economic costs of CO2 emissions reduction and show that the adjustment costs
require weak contributions from the state budget and from households as well. These effects are
put on the account of high energy intensity in Romania with low cost investment possibilities and to
current and future structural and technological changes. Two important assumptions allow the
model to limit the costs of the environmental policy: the capital and labor perfect mobility across
sectors and the disaggregation of energy inputs and substitutions possibilities among them
function on their carbon content.
The main contributions of this work are on both analytical and topical sizes. The methodology
employs intertemporal dynamic general equilibrium model build within the neoclassical framework.
The formalization of the tradable permits market presents some particularities related to the
research framework of second-best options: the producer integrates gains/ losses of trade into the
price frontier and the rules of permits’ allocation affect the equilibrium at the lowest level of the
technological structure.
The analysis deals with present and future environmental issues, whose features present a high
degree of uncertainty related to the trade terms: participants to the trade, permits allocation rules,
environmental objective, permit price and transaction costs. Consequently, several scenarios are
presented aiming to design the general structure of the new policy with focus on the
interdependencies between energy, economy and environment.
Several outcomes from the scenarios’ analysis are to be noticed. First of all, the permit price is
lower in the ETS scenario than in the Kyoto trade. This justifies the EC Directive to select those
participants to the trade that present the lowest abatement costs in economy. Secondly, sectoral
effects show differences between the two scenarios in terms of productive structure, especially in
the energy output and consumption. This reflects that the ETS policy is based more on energy
efficiency savings, on the account on increased capital goods and labor demand, ensuring thus a
better resources allocation. The ETS policy is recommended also with regard to transaction costs,
since the monitoring of great sources of pollution requires less financial and institutional resources
than the PK trade scheme.
We can conclude that both trading schemes will not have significative effects on welfare nor the
competitivity of the Romanian economy. Results could be furthermore reduced because our
simulations consider the national permit market isolated from the European and international trade
schemes that should lower more the costs that our analysis estimates. Other flexible mechanisms
will be in place, as the joint implementation projects and technological transfers in the context of
the Romania membership to the EU.
We have to notice that the model does not take into account the emissions generated by the
household energy consumption. They are indeed an important source of pollution issued from the
consumption of coal and gas and from individual vehicles. Their emissions amount to 5.38 Mt CO2
(2001) and they may increase in the future due to increased personal cars demand.
Two general remarks, consistent with our numerical results, should be made: 1) the environmental
policy of carbon emission limitation does not disturb the economic system but rather corrects the
resources allocation; 2) the strong double dividend in form of improved environmental quality with
negative social costs indicates the great potential Romania has for improving the energy efficiency.
Even if Romania commitment by Kyoto Protocol to reduce its CO2 emissions is already attained,
rapidly increasing of energy needs below 2012 will be a challenging task for the sustainable
development and the implementation of environmental regulation. Both Kyoto Protocol and
383
European Trade Scheme represent only the first step in the Romanian climate strategy. Further
actions need to be taken at national level aiming the implementation of green regulation by means
of economic instruments as taxes or hybrid policies. The reduction in the energy demand is
required, as well as an increase in energy efficiency and a modification of the energy sources
used. This objective involves therefore all households and sectors and can be achieved by
stimulating technological development and by changes in the consumption behaviour. The
potential of Romania to reduce the carbon intensity with low cost measures must be quantified and
exploited consequently, for benefiting in a sustainable way to economic and social development.
References
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Université de Paris I Panthéon – Sorbonne, Thèse de doctorat.
3. Burniaux, J.M. and Troung, T. P. (2002). ‘GTAP-E: An energy-environmental version of the GTAP
model’, GTAP Technical Paper No. 16.
4. European Commission, 2003, “The EU Emissions Trading Scheme: How to develop a National
Allocation Plan. Non-Paper 2nd meeting of Working Group 3”, Monitoring Mechanism Committee,
Directorate General Environment, 1st April, 2003.
5. European Commission, 1992, “A Community Strategy to limit Carbon Dioxide Emissions and to
improve Energy Efficiency”, Bruxelles.
6. European Union, 2003, Directive 2003/87/EC of the European Parliament and the Council of 13
October 2003 establishing a scheme for greenhouse gas emission allowance trading within the
Community and amending Council Directive 96/61EC.
7. Godard O., 2005, “Evaluation approfondie du plan français d’affectation de quotas de CO2 aux
entreprises”, Cahier n° 2005-013, Chaire Développement Durable, EDF- Ecole Polytechnique.
8. Kiuila O. and Sleszynski, J. (2003). “Expected effects of the ecological tax reform for the Polish
economy”, Ecological Economics, 46, pp. 103-120.
9. Klepper G. and Peterson S., 2004, “The EU Emissions Trading Scheme: Allowance Prices, Trade
Flows, Competitiveness Effects”, European Environment 14.
10. Kolshus, H.H. and Torvanger A., 2005. “Analysis of EU member states’ national allocation plans”,
Working Paper, CICERO.
11. Lee, H., Oliveira-Martins, J., and van der Mensbrugghe, D. (1994). ‘The OECD GREEN model: an
updated overview’, Working Paper No. 97, OECD Development Centre.
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costurilor utilitatilor publice asupra consumului populatiei’, Academia Romana, ICCV (Institute for
Quality of Life, Romania).
13. National Institut of Statistics (2004)a. Conturi Nationale, 2000-2001, Bucarest.
14. National Institut of Statistics (2004)b. Coordiantes of living standard in Romania. Population income
and cosumption in 2003, Bucarest.
15. Romanian Ministry of Environment and Water Management, 2005a, “National Strategy on Climate
Change of Romania 2005-2007”, Bucharest.
16. Romanian Ministry of Environment and Water Management, 2005b, “Romania’s third national
communication on climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change”, Bucharest.
17. Pesic, Radmilo, 2003, “Flexible mechanisms under the Kyoto Protocol in Central and Eastern
Europe”, International Fellowship Project, available to http://www.policy.hu/pesic/.
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efficiency and equity’, Report N° 24756-RO.
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20. World Bank (2003). ‘The Romanian Poor in Inter-Household and Community Networks’ in Romania
Poverty Assessment’, Report N° 26169-RO.
384
Appendix 1. The productive sectors
1 Electric sector 7 Chemistry

2 Coal 8 Transports
3 Oil, oil products 9 Agriculture
4 Gas 10 Construction
5 Metallurgy 11 Services
6 Pulp and paper products 12 Other sectors
Appendix 2. Million tons of CO2 by sector
Emissions Quotas Allocation (million)

Sectors HA FA LCA HA FA LCA ETS PK
Electricity 43.86 38.1 40.05 39.47 34.01 40.05 41.05 39.47
Oil 3.12 3.09 3.05 2.81 2.75 3.05 2.92 2.81
Metallurgy 5.77 5.87 5.64 5.19 5.24 5.64 5.4 5.19
Pulp, paper 0.36 0.37 0.34 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.34 0.32
Chemistry 7.01 7.17 6.61 6.31 6.39 6.61 6.56 6.31
Coal 0.76 0.4 0.69 0.67 0.35 0.69 0 0.67
Gas 2.45 2.41 2.17 2.21 2.15 2.17 0 2.21
Transports 11.66 11.48 10.66 10.49 10.24 10.66 0 10.49
Agriculture 0.58 0.58 0.57 0.52 0.51 0.57 0 0.52
Construction 0.74 0.68 0.53 0.67 0.6 0.53 0 0.67
Services 1.63 1.63 1.54 1.47 1.45 1.54 0 1.47
Other sectors 14.83 14.58 11.65 13.35 13.01 11.65 0 13.35
385
Appendix 3. Results from alternative rules of permits allocation

Variable Rigid real wage AUC LCA FA

PK ETS
Real GDP 0.01 -0.01 -0.04 0.04 0.05
Households real consumption 0.00 0.01 0.17 0.09 0.16
Investment deflated value 0.12 0.32 0.22 0.18 0.36
Exports deflated value -0.05 -0.28 -0.65 -0.14 -0.35
Permit price (euro/ tCO2) 2.35 2.05 1.19 2.37 5.20
Compensating Variation
AP 0.00 -0.02 0.10 0.03 0.05
RP 0.00 -0.01 0.11 0.04 0.06
SP 0.00 -0.01 0.09 0.03 0.05
RI 0.00 -0.01 0.10 0.04 0.07
IPC 0.01 0.00 0.18 0.09 0.17
Gini 0.01 -0.05 0.17 0.02 0.03
Employment 0.12 0.07 -0.26 0.00 0.01
Wage 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.09 0.19
Energy intermediate consumption 1.00 -0.91 -3.98 1.04 1.39
Total Energy Demand 1.05 0.11 -3.17 1.10 1.73
Public deficit -0.61 2.84 -13.25 -2.35 -4.21
Public Income 0.03 -0.12 0.56 0.10 0.18
Employers’ social contributions 0.10 0.00 -0.19 0.07 0.17
Employees’ social contributions -0.03 0.05 -0.15 0.09 0.20
Taxes on wages -0.03 0.05 -0.15 0.09 0.20
VAT, Duties and Excises 0.01 0.00 0.22 0.09 0.19
External debt 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Imports -0.11 0.03 0.11 0.03 0.06
Exports -0.05 -0.33 -0.66 -0.14 -0.35
Exchange rate -0.02 -0.22 -0.46 -0.11 -0.26
Interest rate 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Saving (total) 0.12 0.32 0.22 0.18 0.36
Households saving 0.94 4.80 -4.35 0.73 1.67
Investment 0.12 0.32 0.22 0.18 0.36
Investment price 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
386
Management of obsolete pesticide cleanup in Romania

Neel Strobaek1, Stela Dezsy2
1. Ramboll A/S, Teknikerbyen 31, DK-2830 Virum, Denmark
2. Ramboll Romania SRL, Bucharest, 10- Sfantul Constantin Street, Sector1, Romania, phone:+ 40 314
056028; tel/fax: +40 21 314 3175; e-mail: sld@ramboll.com
Abstract
Romania does not have sufficient capacity to destruct and/or neutralize obsolete pesticides, but with the
funding from the EU Phare program, and co-funding from the Romanian Government, it was possible to
clean up a large number of sites and transport the obsolete pesticides to Germany for destruction.
The Pesticide Disposal Program – phase I - in Romania operated over the period December 2004 –
December 2005 and involved 1,735 tones of obsolete pesticides spread over 114 locations in Romania. A
phase II was agreed in November 2005, and is currently under implementation where a supplementary
amount of 747 tons will be collected from 127 sites.
The Romanian Pesticides Disposal Program is one of the largest cleanup projects of its kind in Europe to
date, based on a professional FIDIC Contract Framework and high-quality implementation routines. A new
strategy for obsolete pesticides prevention through agreements with the Industry is also in preparation.
Introduction
Obsolete pesticides constitute a highly specialized field of environmental management. In certain

cases the pesticides that are manufactured to be used for agricultural and /or health purposes,
cannot be used anymore for their intended purpose and they are defined as co-called “obsolete
pesticides”.
Obsolete pesticides are defined as stocked pesticides that can no longer be used for their original
purpose or any other purpose and therefore require disposal. Common causes of this situation
include the following [www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPP/Pesticid/Disposal/index_en.htm]:
- the product has been withdrawn for health or environmental reasons (e.g. through
banning; withdrawal of registration; policy decision by the Ministry of Agriculture);
- the product has been deteriorated as a result of improper or prolonged storage and
can no longer be used according to its label specifications and use instructions, nor can it easily be
reformulated to become usable again;
- the product is not suitable for its original use and cannot be used for another
purpose, nor can it easily be modified to become usable.
Reasons that products can become obsolete can be that these products are banned, physically
unsuitable to be used due to age or otherwise, they can be deteriorated, or the concentration of
active ingredient has become less compared to the manufacturers’ specifications. In spite of the
recognized worldwide problems related to obsolete pesticides, a very marginal part of the
pesticides has been eliminated at present. Even countries with detailed inventories of stocks and
prepared plans for elimination have mostly been unsuccessful because of the large amount of
money needed. Already prepared and agreed projects have been pending for years. Therefore,
project implementation experience is extremely limited – also in a worldwide perspective
[Commission for European Communities].
Most pesticides are chemicals that are used to kill pests. Among these are insecticides, fungicides,
herbicides, nematicides, rodenticides, acaricides and molluscicides. However, it is also well known
that pesticides may have more or less pronounced negative impact on other, non-target organisms.
The effects can be direct (toxicity) as well as indirect (influence on habitat or feeding possibilities,
387
etc.).These pesticides pose high risks for public health and the environment due to the following
physical,chemical and ecotoxicological features:
- High fat affinity of compounds, allowing their accumulation in the fatty tissues and
transfer up the food chains;
- Stability to photochemical and microbiological oxidation which accounts for their

high persistence in natural environment and long life in ecosystems;
- Delayed toxic effects (on the immune status, on the reproductive system,
carcinogenic and mutagenic effects).
The stockpiled obsolete pesticides (some of which belongs to the POP2 group), are extremely
hazardous for the following major reasons:
- Due to storage under poor conditions chemical reactions may have occurred, as
such the components could have got unknown characteristics. They also provide volatile
substances causing degradation of the global environment;
- Access of unauthorized persons to the stocks may result in irresponsible use and
thus uncontrolled spreading in the environment, poisoning accidents and even death of innocent
people;
- Storage sites (buildings, soil, water resources) are often heavily contaminated and
could be used for other purposes only after special remediation/clean-up;
If no action is taken, many of the stockpiled obsolete pesticides sooner or later may all end up in
the environment, and the environmental impact of concentrated pesticides leaked from deteriorated
or corroded containers (drums, boxes, bags, etc.) is far worse that the impact of the original
intended use of those products. The World Health Organization estimated (WHO, 1986) that 1
million people are affected by insecticide poisoning every year and that 20 000 die as a result of
being unaware of the risks involved in handling insecticides.
During recent years in Eastern and Central Europe, as a result of several transfers of ownership
rights for the obsolete stocks as well as limited new deliveries, there were cases of application of
old and even banned pesticides. In a number of cases the temporary permissions for that were
issued by the local Plant Protection departments. Thus the risks may increase due to economic
constraints, lack of public awareness and general weakness of the control system.
Some Western European Countries have managed their obsolete pesticides problems through
contaminated land policies and clean-up programs. This is e.g. the case for the Netherlands, where
the first and probably the largest obsolete pesticide action took place in Hengelo during the years
of 1986 to 2002 [Annemarieke Grinwis, 1994]. Obsolete pesticides stocks in hot spots areas and a
large amount of contaminated soil – approx. 200.000 tons - was removed and disposed of safely.
Romania accessed the Basel Convention on 27 February 1991[Law 6/1991]. The Convention has
been in force since 5 May 1992 and regulates the transportation of hazardous waste in a
transboundary context.
On 23 May 2001 Romania signed the Stockholm Convention [Law 261/2004]. The preparation of
the Stockholm Convention has created the first international and also legal breakthrough for the
possible solution to obsolete pesticides. This Convention holds the key to future solutions and by
means of such an International Convention countries are more or less forced to take action. The
Convention has been in force since 17 May 2004 and is a main instrument for elimination of
persistent organic pollutants (POPs) including nine different pesticides. At present Global
Environmental Fund (GEF) assists – through United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)
Chemicals, United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and United Nations Industrial
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Development Organization (UNIDO) – various Estearn Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia
(EECCA) countries in the elaboration of National Implementation Plans (NIPs) for the Convention.
NIDO assists Romania for the implementation of its NIP, which is under execution at the present
stage [www.gefweb.org].
In Romania a joint action of the local Phyto-sanitary Authorities and the local Environmental
Protection Agencies, respectively, has developed a nationwide inventory of obsolete pesticides
[www.r-o-p.dk, www.ihpa.info]. A number of 133 storage facilities have been identified all over
Romania, where an amount of more than 2000 tons of different pesticides and chemicals were
stored.
Experimental
Romania received a grant from the EU to implement a project aimed to “Independent supervision of
disposal of pesticides works and technical assistance for prevention of further stock accumulation
of obsolete pesticides”. The project comprised two distinct components: supervision of obsolete
pesticides clean-up action, and technical assistance to the Ministry in policy and strategy
development in order to prevent new stocks to develop.
The project is linked to the elimination of pesticides stockpiles and wastes - which is identified as
Key Objective 1 in the Romanian National Implemenation Plan developed in accordance with the
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants.
The project was awarded for implementation to a team comprising Ramboll Denmark
[www.ramboll.com] in consortium with Tauw Netherland [www.tauw.com] and UBA Austria
[www.umweltbundesamt.at]. The Team Leader has an outstanding reputation within the Obsolete
Pesticide world in Europe and even outside Europe being able to bridge from professional contract
management and supervision to policy advice and fundraising.
Supervision management
The supervision was divided into 5 groups of activities: Planning of supervision, Review and
confirmation of Contractors work planning, Site clean-up (133 sites), Temporary storage, Export
and Treatment. The Contractor (SAVA Germany) [www.sava-brunsbuettel.com] was responsible in
terms of cleaning up the storages and that the waste bulk is limited to ‘loose’ parts at the storage
facilities. From the Consultants experience in similar projects the residuals in building materials,
soil and water may be harmful the human health and the environment and as such may create
restrictions of present or future use. Therefore, the Consultant performed a screening and
assessment of the risks at the individual site in connection to the hand-over procedure.
As international experience shows, inventories are very often underestimating the size of stocks -
or other chemicals than recorded are present at the site, therefore taking also into account that
the existing information was relatively old (from 2001-02), a re-assessment was performed prior the
Contractor started on the individual site in question (See picture 1). This reassessment provided
up-dated information for the Contractor’s take-over of the site (logistics, contents), a strong
management instrument to ‘the Engineer’ and the Contracting Authority, facilitated a smooth works
operation and prevented larger disagreements on types and amounts between ‘The Engineer’ and
Works Contractor. It was found out that the quantities initially inventoried were underestimated and
new locations (storage points) have been identified. A clear picture of the status of the obsolete
pesticides as well as of the types of their packaging was defined as a necessary input for the future
re-packaging and transport. The consolidated inventory was stored in a database – the Waste
Information Management system (WIM)- based on MS Access. This system is specifically designed
according to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) guideline for inventories of obsolete
pesticides [www.fao.org/ag/].
Three temporary storage centers have been established in Suceava, Giurgiu and Oradea where all
the re-packaged obsolete pesticides collected have been stored before being transported in
389
Germany. Waste collected included obsolete products, packages as well as soil and pavement
collected after cleaning the storages.
The project ensured:
- that the pesticide waste were repackaged in UN approved packaging materials, under strict
occupational health and safety measures ( see picture 2).
- an on-site laboratory for identification of waste composition
- transport according to ADR rules in Romania and internationally
- disposal/destruction at licensed incineration facility (SAVA in Brunsbüttel, Germany)
The overall aims of SAVA Company are in accordance with the Land of Schleswig-Holstein:
- to destroy organic substances that present environmental hazards and, hence, to avoid the
necessity for the future remediation of contaminated sites
- to substitute fuels by converting the energy liberated into steam and electric power
- to utilize recyclable products such as slag and gypsum
- to reduce the volume of the waste
Picture1: Examples from Obsolete Pesticides Storages (Step 1: Re-assessment)
Picture2: Impressions from repackaging before transport
390

The project was implemented in 2 steps, between 2004 and 2006. The main actors and
stakeholders involved were:
- Ministry of Agriculture, Forest and Rural Development, Phytosanitary Direction and local branch
offices
- Ministry of Finance
- EC Delegation to Romania
- Contractor: SAVA Brunsbüttel (BRD)
- Supervisor: Ramboll (DK) in consortium with Tauw (NL) and Umweltbundesamt Austria, (A) with
IHPA as Sub-consultant
- Ministries of Environment and Water Management, Ministry of Transport, local authorities.
During the phase I re-assessment of the contents in the registered sites, an amount of 747 tons
were additionally identified. A project extension was approved to repackage the remaining amounts
found at the storage facilities in the Oradea and Suceava areas, temporary store them in Romania,
and send them to Germany to treat them (neutralization, incineration, disposal). Hence, part of
further amounts found by the Phytosanitary Directions during Phase I is included in the Phase II
Clean up program.
The reassessment showed not only a significant difference in amounts of obsolete pesticides (the
pesticides waste in itself), but also considerably magnitudes of ‘empty packaging materials’.
Already in the first stage of the project the re-assessment brought forward the large deviations of
the contract amounts per site in relation to the situation in the field. Therefore, the re-assessment
work proved to be a vital tool for the management of the field works, and for the support of
decisions to be taken. It contributed largely to the planning and logistics of the Contractor as
extensive photo materials and detailed information on amounts on site was available. The
contractor was able to optimize the supply of packaging materials and other materials for each site
– and was thereby able to work more effectively.
The works contract exclusively related to obsolete pesticides waste. Buildings and debris which
most often also may be contaminated were not included in the works operations. In spite of the fact
that all buildings has been cleaned with absorbents and vacuum cleaning it must be stated that this
clean-up is superficial only, and that buildings still are contaminated and impose a danger to
humans and the environment. This situation at the cleaned-up sites should encourage a special
action program to the implemented, as e.g. demolishing of contaminated storage buildings,
investigations of surrounding soils in order to find and remediate remaining contaminations.
Hereafter the sites may be released for other use.
Immediately after project commencement, a website was established displaying information of the
project with regular updates [4].
The second component of the project was a technical assistance provided to the Ministry of
Agriculture, Forests and Rural Development in order to avoid the development of new stocks of
obsolete pesticides. In this respect a draft strategy was prepared structured in 5 steps and an draft
Implementation plan was proposed:
1. Further development of the Legal framework in terms of Government’s Role in sustainable

use of pesticides; and in hazardous waste management
391
2. Establishment of a national stakeholders platform and ensure maximum participation for

common goals
3. Campaigns in relation to awareness raising and training of farmers
4. Establishment and put into function of container (packaging) management system
5. Follow-up activities for good agriculture practices among Romanian farmers
These documents have been disseminated to all stakeholders and were subject of a debate. They
will be incorporate into the national level strategy which will be elaborated by the end of the year by
the Ministry of Environment and Water Management.
Conclusions
From the project implementation, the following lessons learnt can be mentioned:
Inventories should be re-assessed to have control of the project execution;
For the success of the operation it is necessary to have local authority commitment (as was
the Romanian case) and participation in facilitating works execution;
Sufficient administrative backup is necessary (contractor and supervisor);
Quality-oriented Works Contractor is a must;
No Project Management without field visits and hands-on experience;
Flexibility and sensitivity towards work planning and external factors (e.g. weather,
accessibility).
In Romania the problems created by obsolete pesticides and waste of pesticide packaging is not
solved yet. It shall be assured that present initiatives such as EU Phare Obsolete Pesticides
Project shall be continued.
In other EU countries, it has proven very difficult to finance the obsolete pesticides problem by
industry alone, and a continuation of the Phare clean-up program will eliminate an important barrier
in Romania for the implementation of container management system by the industry. It is expected
that at least 2 years of works will be needed in order to actualize the necessary inventories and the
subsequently clean-up actions.
It is also important to look at financing of awareness campaigns and it is expected after start up
help by means of eventual subsidies by the government or by means of EU or GEF programs that
industry will finance these activities themselves.
References
1. Annemarieke Grinwis and Gabe de Jong, “ Ten Years of Soil Clean up in the HCH Project in Twente,
the Netherlands”, International HCH and halogenated pesticides Forum (compilation of 1st and 2nd
HCH Forum), 1994
2. Commission for European Communities, “Towards a Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable Use of
Pesticides”, Brussels, 1.07.2002
3. http://www.sava-brunsbuettel.com/
4. http://www.gefweb.org
5. http://www.ihpa.info
6. http://www.fao.org/ag/
7. http://www.pesticides.ramboll.dk
8. http://www.r-o-p.dk
392
9. http://www.ramboll.com
10. http://www.tauw.com
11. http://www. umweltbundesamt.at
12. Law 261/2004 for the ratification of the Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, adopted at
Stockholm on the 22nd of May 2001
13. Law 6/1991 for the adhesion of Romania at the Basel Convention
14. “Overview of Definitions and clarifications used in FAO documents”,
15. Vijgen, John, “Obsolete pesticides: how to solve a worldwide society problem?”, 2005, London, UK
393
Modalities to approach the environmental protection in organizations

Virgil Criste, Ana Anghel, Mădălina Aramă, Adrian Zîmbran, Cristian Şerbănescu
National Research and Development Institute for Industrial Ecology – INCD ECOIND, Bucharest,
90-92 Panduri Street, sector 5, postal code: 050663, phone: 04/021/410.67.16; 410.03.77; fax:
021/410.05.75; 412.00.42; email: ecoind@incdecoind.ro
Abstract
The paper presents the main three modalities to approach the environmental protection:
a) - by implementation and certification of the environmental management system in conformity with SR EN
ISO 14001:2005.
There are concise presented:
- the necessity to implement the environmental management system;
- the INCD ECOIND’s method for system designing and implementation;
- results and benefits obtained by system implementation;
- application examples in different organizations.
b) - by voluntary participation at the eco-management and audit scheme in conformity with EMAS II.
There are concise presented:
- the requirements of EMAS II;
- existing legislation and institutional structure in Romania.
c) - by monitoring the environmental performance through establishing and monitoring performance

indicators: environmental management’s performance indicators and operational performance indicators.
394
The role of the protected natural areas in the preservation of

biodiversity within the flood plain of the Danube – the sector Drobeta
Turnu-Severin – Corabia
Tomescu Viorica, Vlăduţ Alina, Boengiu Sandu, Marinescu Emil
University of Craiova, Romania
Abstract
Protected natural areas represent an efficient way meant to save different wild species, especially the ones
belonging to avifauna, and the habitats located within the flood plain of the Danube. According to the
protected elements, these natural areas can be grouped as it follows: ornithological areas, botanical areas,
forest areas, mixed areas, and wet areas with their specific ecosystems where there are included some islets
of the Danube. The protected natural areas of local interest, even if they cover small surfaces, they can
become a viable safety network meant to keep the fragile balance of certain sandy areas where
deforestation and extension of the agricultural habitats led to the reactivation of the sands. The protected
natural areas contribute to the biodiversity development, offer numerous landscape resources, and reduce
the impact of certain human activities. Thus, they should influence the strategy of sustainable development of
the flood plain of the Danube.
Delimitation of the flood plain of the Danube and brief presentation of its
landscape
The flood plain of the Danube, along the sector Drobeta Turnu-Severin – Corabia, is more clearly
shaped between the settlements of Hinova and Corabia. It develops along a distance of 330 km
from West to East and covers a surface of more than 100,000 ha.
The Northern limit displays a more sinuous aspect, emphasized by the difference of level between
the flood plain and the neighbouring terrace, but most of it is quite clearly rendered by the
settlements located along this contact line or in its immediate proximity, as it follows: Drobeta
Turnu-Severin, Hinova, Batoţi, Ţigănaşi, Gruia, Pristol, Gârla Mare, Vrata, Cetate, Maglavit,
Calafat, ciuperceni, Rast, Bistreţ, Dunăreni, Măceşu de Jos, Nedia, Gighera, Zăvalu, Bechet,
Călăraşi, Dăbuleni, Ianca, Potelu, Grojdibodu, Orlea, Corabia.
Between these limits, the flood plain of the Danube presents a succession of loops with variable
breadths, created by the action of the river, which suffered frequent changes of its flow imposed by
the neotectonic movements of the neighbouring plateaus: Mehedinţi, Getic, and Pre-Balkan (1969).
Within this sector, the flood plain is fragmented by numerous pools, such as: Pristol, Gârla Mare,
Vrata, Fântâna Banului, Maglavit.
Downstream Calafat, due to the slow flow slope, it takes place a massive accumulation of alluvia,
which led to the formation of meanders and islets. The flood plain is large (12-14 km wide) and
presents numerous depressions covered by pools and lakes: Manginiţa, Jdegla, Arcear, Balta Lată,
Balta Cărămizarilor etc. and the lakes Nedeia, Bistreţ, Rast, Potelu eastwards. There can be also
added the network of drainage and irrigation channels (Fig. 1 a, b, c, d).
The relief of the flood plain is the direct result of the complex morphogenetic processes: fluviatil
processes, which generated and modified the flood plain, Aeolian processes with high occurrence
within this sector, and, of course, the anthropic factor with high interference during the last
decades. The relief units are as it follows:
• larger depressions which frequently appear at the extremity of the flood plain, below the
terrace; they represent the deepest places within the easily flooded area and are generally
covered by large permanent pools and lakes;
395
Fig. 1 a The flood plain of the Danube – the sector Drobeta Turnu-Severin -
Corabia
396
Fig. 1 b The flood plain of the Danube –

the sector Drobeta Turnu-Severin -
Corabia
Fig. 1 c The flood plain of the Danube – the sector Drobeta Turnu-Severin -
Corabia
Fig. 1 d The flood plain of the

Danube – the sector Drobeta
Turnu-Severin - Corabia
397
• shallow depressions that usually ran dry during summer droughts, which were covered by
temporary pools and swamps that formed wet areas;
• higher terrains, which used to be covered by water only during floods; after the withdrawal
of the water, they were usually covered by herbaceous vegetation;
• sand banks, which are covered by water only during extreme floods; they are made up of
clayish and sandy silts, sand, and, rarely, of small gravel in different combinations;
altogether, they can be found in dunes and inter-dunes;
• islets and gravels are accumulation forms that appeared within the bed of the river; they
display different shapes and dimensions, covering surfaces between more than 3,000 ha
(Ostrovul Mare) and 20 ha. Between Drobeta Turnu-Severin and Corabia, there are
located about 50 islets, 22 of which belonging to the Romanian territory.
Human intervention, meaning the complex hydrological land management works (damming,
drainage, deforestation, terrains levelling, fish breeding etc.), modified the natural landscape of the
flood plain. Certain sectors of different dimensions, such as the sector Ghidici – Rast – Bistreţ – the
Jiu river and, East of this sector, the sector Bechet – Dăbuleni – Potelu – Corabia, were deeply
transformed in order to become fitted for a safe agriculture.
From the climatic point of view, the flood plain of the Danube located in the South-Western
sector of the country, displays its own climatic characteristics due to the Mediterranean influences.
The mean annual temperature is quite high as compared to the rest of the country and oscillates
between 11.7°C at Drobeta Turnu-Severin and 11.6°C at Corabia.
From the biogeographical point of view, the area in question presents several types of
ecosystems:
• riverside coppice with different species of trees (Photo 1);
• meadow ecosystems with associations of graminaceae and other species;
• ecosystems of aquatic and paludous plants (Photo 2);
• ecosystems of sand plants;
• meadow ecosystem with halophile vegetation located South, South-East of the settlement
of Gighera on highly salty terrains;
• faunistic ecosystems developed according to the environment conditions, mainly related to

the aquatic environment and wet areas, among which we mention: ichthyofauna, amphibians,
avifauna – a representative component of the flood plain landscape, mammals – with a small
number of species.
Elements rendering the anthropic pressure.

Within the geographic space of the analysed sector of the flood plain, the presence of the anthropic
activities is relevant:
• human settlements on Ostrovul Corbului and Ostrovul Mare;
• economic objectives of major importance – the hydroelectric power plant Iron Gates II
located on Ostrovul Mare;
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• pumping stations and channels for the irrigation systems, located along the bank of the
Danube near the following settlements: Ţigănaşi, Cetate, Golenţi, Rast, Mălăeni – Bistreţ, Nedeia,
Dăbuleni, Vâlcovia-Grojdibod, Celeiu-Orlea;
Photo 1 Riverside coppice Photo 2 Aquatic and paludous

plants (Balta Lată)
• supply – discharge channels for the fish breeding farms located at Salcia, Cetate, Hunia,
Golenţi, Bistreţ;
• draining channels;
• the longitudinal dyke along the bank of the river and other partition dykes located inside the
dyked areas;
• access roads towards the flood plain, which are important for agriculture, fish breeding
farms, pumping stations, and, of course, for the permanent or temporary settlements
located on the islets;
• sites with cultural and historical character – on Ostrovul Şimian, there is the medieval
fortress that could be previously found on another islet, Ada-Kaleh (flooded by the water of
the basin Iron Gates I); the port of Cetate; the dendrological park and Barbu Drugă Castle
located near the port of Cetate; the monastery and church „Sfinţii Apostoli” from Maglavit
with specific fittings out for „Locul Sfânt” – The Holy Place, the port of Bechet.
Protected natural areas within the flood plain of the Danube and their
biodiversity.
The geographical space of the flood plain of the Danube offers a natural environment where
human activities can be harmonized with nature equilibrium if the functionality of this environment
is respected. Everything can start from the biodiversity protection, which can be accomplished
through the preservation and protection of a larger number of natural areas.
Biodiversity is considered by many researchers to be a superior chance of ecosystems stability.

The increased interest in the protection and preservation of the biological diversity materialized,
during the last decades, through the endorsement of certain fundamental conventions at an
international level. Romania adhered to some of them: Convention on the preservation of the
biological diversity (biodiversity), signed in 1992 at Rio de Janeiro with the occasion of the World
Conference on Environment and Development; Convention of the protection and preservation of
wetlands habitats (aquatic, lagoon, delta, and shore habitats), signed at Ramsar. In our country,
there can be also mentioned Law 462/July 2001 with regard to the regime of the protected natural
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areas, which stipulates the preservation and sustainable utilization of the natural patrimony as a
fundamental component for the national strategy of sustainable development, as well as the
extension of the national network of protected areas together with the settlement of their regime.
The main criteria that confer the status of “protected” to these areas show that the elements with
natural patrimony value must be authentic, unique, and representative.
Within the analysed sector of the flood plain of the Danube, the protected natural areas belong the
category protected area of preservation of the ecological, genetic, and landscape fond and they
were delimited and approved for the following purpose:
• protection of fauna, flora, and habitats elements;
• protection of the wild birds species.
- The ornithological reserve Ciuperceni – Desa is approved through the County Council
Decision no 26/1994 regarding natural areas and protected nature monuments within Dolj County.
It covers a surface of 231 ha and it is located within the liable to inundation flood plain, south of the
settlements of Ciupercenii Noi and Desa. It is a part of the flood plain, undyked, with a chaotic relief
of dunes and interdunes and large permanent pools: Manginiţa, Jdegla, Arcear, Balta Lungă, Balta
Lată, Brăniştlari, Balta Bulbocu, Balta Cărămizilor, Balta Duvalmu, Balta Ţarova, Balta Neagră
north of Desa and other smaller ones within the interdunes space.
The favourable climatic conditions with Mediterranean influences, the wetlands, and the permanent
presence of water led to the development of certain rich and diversified floristic and faunistic
ecosystems which create the image of a miniature delta landscape. There are riverside coppice
and alluvial meadow ecosystems, while the originality of this area is determined by the presence
aquatic and paludous plants ecosystems, which developed along the shore of the pools, in the
swamps or in the depressions located between dunes (the aquifer can be found at a depth of 0.2
m). The characteristic species are Typha augustifolia, Nymphaea alba, Nuphar luteum, Carex
colchica, Scirpoides holoschoemius, Iris pseudocorus, Lemna minor, Spirogyra sp., Trapa natans
etc.
The avifauna attracted by these wet environment conditions counts a lot of species, some of them
having a status of protected birds and the others of rare species. We mention: the squacco heron
(Ardeola ralloides), white stork (Ciconia ciconia), mute swan (Cygnus olor), great white egret
(Egretta alba), little egret (Egretta garzetta), black stork (Ciconia nigra), black-winged stilt
(Himantopus himantopus), spoonbill (Platalea leucorodia) etc.
The protected species of plants are: water plantain (Alisma lanceolatum), yellow iris (Iris
pseudacorus), water caltrop (Trapa natans), Sagitaria sagittifolia etc.
- The halophile meadow Gighera is located south of the settlement of Gighera on salty fields that
cover a surface of 550 ha. Due to certain species of plants and animals adapted to these harsh
environment conditions, there have been delimited a surface of 4 ha meant to protect them.
According to the Govern Decision no 236/2000, it became a protected area known under the name
of The halophile meadow Gighera. The phreatic water oscillates between 0.2 and 1.0 m depth and
displays a high content of carbonates, sulphates, chlorides, bromides and sodium. Most of the
year, they present a wetland regime. The main plants associations are: Hordeum hystrix,
Salicornia herbacea, Lemna minor, Lemna gibbo, Spirodela palyrhiza, Chara fragilis, Ranunculus
sceleratus, Aster tripolium, Hordeum hystris etc. In the proximity of this salting, it is located a
meadow where there were identified 11 species of trefoil, two of them being quite different:
Trifolium subterraneum which makes its fruit in the ground (which is unique in our country) and
Trifolium orithopodioides which is a rare species. The species of rare plants and animals protected
by law are: steppe skylark (Calandrella cinerea), Lacerta agilis, European green toad (Bufo viridis),
and the two species of trefoil mentioned above.
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- “Ciurumela” Acacia Forest (Tunari – Piscu Vechi) is located south of the previously mentioned
settlements and covers a surface of 80 ha. It represents the most typical example of acacia
plantation on sands. Its role is quite complex – protection, fastening of the sand dunes,
capitalization of the sandy soils. At the same time, there can be also added the landscape value of
this forest and its importance as melliferous source and as habitat for different species of hatching,
migratory or sedentary birds (Photo 3).
Photo 3 Ciurumela Forest
- The forest house from Potelu Forest. This forest is located within the flood plain of the Danube,
south of the settlement of Potelu, at an altitude of 27 m. It covers a small surface, only 1.5 ha due
to intense forest exploitation. This is why is received the status of protected area (Law 5/2000).
There are three oak trees (Quercus robus) of more than 400 years old which were declared nature
monuments. These oak trees stand proof of a former forest located within the flood plain that used
to cover a surface of 2,500 ha, starting from the settlement of Orlea up to Ianca. Besides the
species of Quercus, there can be also found new species of Robinia pseudoacacia and Euro-
American poplars, sub-shrubs elements, herbaceous vegetation, all these forming a proper habitat,
a real ornithological refuge, which ensures optimum conditions for resting and hatching both during
the warm and cold seasons.
- Oak and ash tree forest from Zăval. It represents a protected natural area located within the
flood plain, between Zăval and the Jiu river. According to the County Council Decision no 26/1994
and to the Urgent Decree no 236/2000, it protects and preserves the biodiversity of the natural
landscape within Dolj County. It is made up of numerous tree species, such as Quercus
pedunculiflora, Fraxinus excelsior, Ulmus foliacea, the elm tree from the Laevis class, Acer
tataricum, Tilia argentea, as well as a well-developed sub-shrub represented by Cornus mas,
Cornus sanguinea, Crategus monogyna etc.
On the wetlands located in the immediate proximity of the river, where there are registered great
fluctuations of the aquifer, there appear associations of Salix and Populus, Alnus incana, as well as
specific herbaceous vegetation (Phragmites communis, Carex species, Ranunculus acvaticus,
Typha, associations of Cynodon dactylon). This complex natural area contributes to the
maintenance of the ecological balance in the area between the flood plain and the neighbouring
terrace. It also represents a tourist attraction spot, as it is located in the proximity of a modernized
road – the Danubian road, which is highly circulated.
Thus, we sustain the idea of proposing new areas to enter under the regime of biodiversity
protection and preservation within the “Danube Green Corridor”, which refers to terrestrial and
aquatic units, as well as to wetlands according to the Urgent Decree no 236/2000. These proposed
areas are:
• Cetate meadow within the flood plain of the Danube. It is located south of the
settlements of Cetate, Basarabi, Maglavit and includes terrestrial parts, pools, and small
agriculturally-used surfaces. The list of protected species includes a complex variety of floristic
species (Centaurium umbelatum, Ranunculus ophioglassifolius, Heleocharis carniolica, Luddvigia
palustris, Centaurea arenaria).
401
• Psamophile plants reserve on sands from Dăbuleni is located south of the settlements
of Călăraşi and Dăbuleni and covers a surface of 8 ha. The plants species characteristic to sandy
areas are: Poligonum arenarium, Chenopodium botrzs, Amaranthus albus, Partulaca aleracea,
Potentilla reptans, Solanum nigreum, Verbascum phlomoides, Viola tricolor, Cuscuta europaea etc.
• The wet area of the branch Dunărea Mică (Little Danube), branch that used to delimit
Ostrovul Corbului. As the Danube was dyked and directed only along its main course, the islet
became part of the flood plain, but the phreatic level maintains a permanently wet area along the
former branch of the Danube, which is delimited by thick riverside coppices with Salix and Populus
representing an optimum habitat for birds hatching.
• The small islets within the flood plain of the Danube (Şimian, Ostrovul Mic, Gârla
Mare, Florentin, Chichinetele, Calafatul Mare, Acalia, Pietrişul, Novia, Ostrovul Vană, Ostrovul
Gâtanului, Ostrovul Mălăieni, Copăniţa, Carabulea, Păpădia, Prundul Gol, Dragaveiul, Băloi etc.)
can remain covered by natural vegetation, characteristic to the flood plain, as they represent the
best refuge for certain colonies of rare birds species during the hatching period. These species are
important from both the scientific and hunting points of view. At the same time, they belong to the
ecological space known as the “Danube Green Corridor”.
In April 2006, the abundant rains and the sudden thawing of the snow in the mountainous area of
the Danube hydrographical basin determined the increase of the river’s discharge (more than
14,000 cubic meters/s), which, in its turn, brought to severe floods within the flood plain, inclusively
within dyked areas. Thus, many settlements were affected – Rast, Bistreţ, Cârna, Măceşu de Jos.
The former pools of the Danube (Rast – Coldova – Bistreţ – Cârna – Nasta – Sclavogul – Nedeia –
Potelu etc.), which had been drained in the ‘70s, were filled with water and the flood plain came
back to its previous aspect functioning under a natural regime. There appeared complex colonies
of birds the presence of which is closely linked to the aquatic environment (species of Ciconia,
Pelecanus, Anas platyrhyncas, Larus ridibundus, Anser anser etc.).
After the occurrence of these phenomena, it is necessary to adopt a program of ecological and
economic reconstruction of the flood plain of the Danube along this sector, which must comprise
the following measures:
• new defense lines, referring to the construction or reconstruction of the dykes, able to
protect all the settlements in the area against floods;
• reintegration of the former drained lakes and pools in the natural hydrological circuit and
restoration of its balance in the area;
• renaturation of the former lakes and wetlands;
• settling a regime of controlled flooding in order to hold the water in excess during
maximum discharge on the Danube;
• restoration of the natural balance and functions characteristic to wetlands;
• delimitation of the most suitable perimeters for the creation of wet areas and delimitation
of some polders within the flood plain on the basis of which the traditional fishing, shepherding, and
ecotourism activities can develop.
As a conclusion, a complex program, meant to reconsider the functionality of the Danube flood
plain, can bring harmony between the economic and social interests, on the one hand, and, on the
other, it can lead to the achievement of the objectives of preservation and protection of the
biological diversity along this sector of the “Danube Green Corridor”.
References
Badea, L. (1967), Modificări morfologice în albia Dunării între Turnu Severin şi Turnu Măgurele, Revista
Natura, nr. 2, Seria Geografie – Geologie, Bucureşti;
Bălteanu, D., Şerban, Mihaela (2005), Modificări globale ale mediului, Edit. C.N.I. Coresi S.A., Bucureşti;
Bobârnac, B., Popescu, M., (1984), Rezervaţii şi monumente ale naturii din Oltenia, Edit. Sport turism,
Bucureşti;
Ionaşcu, S., Gh. (2002), Rolul amenajării teritoriului în protecţia mediului natural, vol. Amenajarea
teritoriului, Edit. Fundaţiei „România de mâine”, Bucureşti;
Lazăr, V., Năstase, A., Nicoli, V. (2001), Ocrotirea naturii în judeţul Dolj, Edit. Genessa, Craiova;
Pleniceanu, V. (1999), Apele din Câmpia Olteniei, Edit. Universitaria, Craiova;
Popescu, B. (1970), Inundaţiile catastrofale din mai-iunie 1970 şi problemele pe care le ridică gospodărirea
raţională a apelor, Revista Hidrotehnica, vol. 15, decembrie, Bucureşti;
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Raicea, Crina (2006), Lunca Dunării – între agricultură şi turism, ziarul Gazeta de Sud, 11 septembrie 2006;
Tomescu, Viorica (1998), Lunca Dunării. Sectorul oltean, Edit. Sitech, Craiova;
*** (1969), Geografia Văii Dunării româneşti, Edit. Academiei, Bucureşti;
*** Legea 462/2001 pentru aprobarea Ordonanţei de urgenţă a Guvernului nr. 236/2000 privind regimul
ariilor naturale protejate, conservarea habitatelor naturale, a florei şi faunei sălbatice
403
The vulnerability of geographic landscapes to the flood risks within the

alluvial plain of the Danube – Calafat – Bechet sector
Pleniceanu Vasile, Marinescu Ioan, Golea Cornel, Curcan Gheorghe
University of Craiova, Romania
Abstract
Danube alluvial plain in the Calafat – Bechet sector represent a human and economic active area of the 7th
Pan-European Corridor of the Danube. The latest flooding, affected not only the man-made ecosystems but also
the geographic landscapes and wet areas. The natural flow of the Danube has been modified and restricted for
ecconomic reasons. The so called „flood protected areas” revealed their lack of efficiency when flooding
occured, and affected the entire system of local settlements and geographic landsccapes. For that reason, the
study aims at pointing out the hydrological vulnerable areas, analysing human and economic costs due to poor
management of dykes and water precincts, as well as the measures to be taken for such events not to happen in
the future.
The Danube – European River

The Danube is considered the second greatest river in Europe (concerning both its length and its
basinal surface). It originates in the Black Forest Mountains and flows for a distance of 2,860 km
before emptying into the Black Sea. It crosses the territories of the following countries: Germany,
Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, Croatia, Yugoslavia, Romania, Bulgaria, Moldova and Ukraine, but its
drainage basin includes the territory of other states as well: Switzerland, Italy, Slovenia, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Greece, Poland and the Czech Republic.
The Danube flows into the Black Sea via a digitate delta that has a surface of more than 5,000 km², on
which the “Danube Delta” Biosphere Reserve has been constituted. On the Romanian territory, the
Danube forms the common border line with Serbia and Bulgaria from Baziaş to Ostrov and the
common border with Ukraine from the Prut river mouth to the Black Sea, via the Chilia Branch. From
Ostrov to Galaţi, the Danube crosses the territory bordered by Bărăgan and Dobruja and forms the so-
called “Danube Ponds”.
Being characterized by a complex feeding, determined by the orographic and the climatic conditions
that succeeded one another from the Central Europe to the Pontic-Caspian region, the Danube has an
average flow of 5,560 m³/s (when it enters Romania) and of 6,655 m³/s (at the river mouth).
Therefore, the average water contribution of the Romanian rivers is of about 1,000 m³/s, which is a
rather low value given the extent of the afferent Romanian drainage surface (i.e. a little more than
twenty percent of the total surface, which is 813,000 km). Its most important tributaries are: the Inn,
the Morava, the Sava, the Drava, the Tisa rivers; on the Romanian territory, the Danube receives: the
Timiş, the Jiu, the Olt, the Argeş, the Siret and the Prut rivers.
The narrowing of the valley in the Cazane – Porţile de Fier/Iron Gates sector is of great importance in
the evolution of the Danube flow; here, the hydrodynamic and the morphodynamic processes are
accelerated by the flow slope, far over the Pannonian basin, exceeding 3.5℅. Starting from Drobeta
Turnu-Severin, the valley becomes broader, given the conditions of a modest declivity, the speed of
the flow being reduced as compared to the speed registered in the narrow sector of the valley.
Knowing the exceptional levels and flows is very important because a high number of localities (both
urban and rural) have been build on the Danube river side and they can be threatened at any time by
404
the hydrologic phenomena of maximum risk. Some of these localities are big, their demographic and
economic potential being comparable to that of other towns and cities in the country (Drobeta Turnu-
Severin, Turnu-Măgurele, Giurgiu, Olteniţa, Călăraşi, Cernavodă, Brăila, Galaţi, Tulcea).
Table no. 1 The historic evolution of the exceptional freshets on the Danube river
The „0” The maximal The maximal level (Hmax) and the Absolute
No Hydrologi level of the level (Hmax) maximal flow (Qmax) registered in levels
. c station surveyor’s before 2006 2006
pole cm Year cm m³/s Day Hour m
(at the
Black Sea)
1 Gruia 29,146 +792 1940 899 15.775 16.IV 04.00 38.136
2 Cetate 27,786 +767 1940
3 Calafat 26,683 +735 1897 861 15.495 22.IV 10.00 35.293
4 Rast 23,900 792 14.IV 13.00 31.820
5 Bistreţ 23,875 +695 1940
6 Bechet 22,083 +689 1940 845 15.825 23.IV 07.00 30.530
7 Corabia 20,123 +722 1940
+796 1954
The evolution proper of the freshet on the Danube (March-May, 2006)

Owing to the abundant precipitation fallen in the upper basin of the Danube as well as to the melting of
the snow, the levels of the great river reached and surpassed the historic values registered in 1895,
triggering flows that caused the inundation of agrarian fields, houses and households of the
population, requiring the evacuation of an important number of people, animals and goods (fig. 1).
On the morning of March 14th, 2006, the levels of the Danube surpassed the attention levels:
- Gruia 14.03.2006 ora 10,00 – 635 cm (CAZ=610)
-Calafat 14.03.2006 ora 10,00 – 588 cm (CAZ=550)
-Bechet 14.03.2006 ora 12,00 – 585 cm (CAZ=550)
continuing the increase and surpassing the inundation levels:
-Gruia 15.03.2006 ora 15,00 – 700 cm (CIZ=700)
-Calafat 14.03.2006 ora 16,00 – 624 cm (CIZ=600)
-Bechet 15.03.2006 ora 06,00 – 629 cm (CIZ=600)
It followed a period of slow decrease, after which the increase continued, the danger levels being also
surpassed at the beginning of April:
-Gruia 10.04.2006 ora 19,00 – 800 cm (CPZ=610)
-Calafat 07.04.2006 ora 19,00 – 680 cm (CPZ=680)
-Bechet 08.04.2006 ora 07,00 – 704 cm (CPZ=700)
and reaching the following maximal values:

405
-Gruia 22.03.2006 ora 07,00 – 899 cm (CPZ+99 cm)
-Calafat 20.03.2006 ora 16,00 – 861 cm (CPZ+181 cm)
-Bechet 23.03.2006 ora 07,00 – 845 cm (CPZ+141 cm)
Fig. 1 Flooding areas within Calafat Bechet sector during the 14th of April 2006
(after ANM)
The maximal flow reached at Baziaş, where the Danube enters Romania, was registered on April 16th,
2006 – 15,800 m³/s (fig. 2).
In the exceptional situation of the flows and of the levels on the Danube intervened a number of
events that led to the inundation of the dammed precincts at the Danube and of certain communes,
such as Rast, Negoi, Catane, Bistreţ, Cârna, Măceşu-de-Jos, Gighera, Ostroveni, Bechet, Călăraşi,
Dăbuleni.
406
Fig. 2 - The evolution of the levels on the Danube at the Gruia, Calafat, Rast
and Bechet stations between the 1st and the 30th of April 2006
1000
800
sh Gruia
600 sh Calafat
H (cm)
sh Rast
400
sh Bechet
200
0
1
13
17
21
25
29
.0
IV
Fig. 3 – Flooding effects in Carna village
Fig. 4 – Flooding effects in Bechet harbour

407
On April 14th, 2006, at 12.30 p.m., within the Ghidici-Rast-Bistreţ dammed precinct, the river created a
breach in the dam built along the Danube, in the area of the Catane locality, near the Ianoş Drainage
Station.
On April 24th, 2006, at 07.15 a.m., the Danube created another breach in the defense dam located in
the Bechet-Dăbuleni dammed precinct, near Dăbuleni, at the kilometer 670.
On the same day, at 07.50 a.m., the partitioning dam located between the dammed precincts Ghidici-
Rast-Bistreţ and Bistreţ-Nedeia-Jiu also broke, flooding the Bistreţ-Nedeia-Jiu precinct as well.
On the following days, the water level began to decrease in the Ghidici-Rast-Bistreţ precinct. Given
the flooding of the Bistreţ-Nedeia-Jiu precinct, the water got closer to the Bistreţ polder, leading to the
collapse of some of its precinct dams. Because the water level in the precinct was growing and was
threatening the nearby localities, it was necessary to realize a controlled break trough which the water
in the Bistreţ-Nedeia-Jiu precinct would be discharged in the Danube. The break was realized in the
area of the Nedeia locality, downstream of the SPR Nedeia Pumping station, by detonation with
explosive and it was successfully finished in the interval May 2nd- May 5th, 2006. The water level in the
Bistreţ-Nedeia-Jiu precinct began to slowly decrease for a few days and then remained stationary. The
cause was represented by the fact that the water to be discharged from the precinct into the Danube
encountered a CA1 draining canal, perpendicular on the Danube dam, which was realized in
embankment and worked as an obstacle. There were two solutions: to realize a new breach in the
dam along the Danube, upstream the Pumping Station, or to realize a breach in the CA1 draining
canal. The latter solution was adopted and the water level began to decrease again, but very slowly
(about 4 cm/24 hours). Moreover, the water advanced within the Bechet-Dăbuleni precinct,
threatening the Bechet and the Călăraşi localities.
The dam located between the Dolj and the Olt counties, perpendicular on the Danube dam (the
Silvestru point) gave up, the water entering the Potelu-Corabia precinct through about three breaks;
thus, the increase within the Bechet-Dăbuleni precinct stops and the water level begins to lower.
At the same time with the decrease of the Danube levels and flows, the water slowly retracts from the
precincts, but the complete withdrawal would be a long process, owing to the important water volume
and to the topometry of the terrain (there are a number of low places, formerly belonging to some
ponds that were drained after the building of the dams, which the water would quit very slowly).
Preliminary natural conditions for the starting of the freshet

In the conditions of our country, the April-May period is characteristic for the accumulation of high
waters in any collector with a corresponding basinal surface.
Thus, all the big and medium basins doubled or tripled their flow as compared to the normal annual
flow and they were able to accumulate important precipitation quantities within short time,
simultaneously with the water resulted from the melting of the snow. The great river flows from the
west to the east is in rather different climatic conditions; in consequence, the levels of these high
waters would be characterized by time differences of days and even weeks. Although announced on
time, the freshet that occurred this year surprised only through its total duration at high levels.
The abundant precipitation fallen in the central and western Europe (especially the precipitation
registered in Switzerland, Germany and Austria) led to important water accumulations, which traveled
from Germany towards the Pannonian Plain. The form of the watering section, the opening of the
slopes and the flow slope contributed to a hydromorphologic widening, so that the CA and the CI
levels were surpassed.
408
The accumulation of the water resulted from the melting of the snow, as a consequence of an
atmospheric heating that was unusual for that period (7-10 tropical days were registered) led to a nival
feeding unprecedented in more than 100 years of systematic hydrologic observations on the Danube.
The propagation of the nebulosity and of the wet atmospheric front towards the Eastern Europe led to
further volumes of water that were added to the previous accumulations and represented the premise
to largely exceed the danger levels. A freshet wave was formed and it traveled on about 2000 km with
levels and flows that were identical and sometimes superior to those registered at the maximal freshet
of 1985. This freshet overlapped on the high waters characteristic to the months February and March,
when the flows reached the value of 12,000 m³/s (at the entrance to our country) and starting with
middle March they exceeded the inundation levels.
The freshet on the Danube in the succession of its moments on the sector under
study
In the morning of March 14th, 2006 there were exceeded the attention levels at all the hydrologic
stations on the Oltenian territory, starting with Drobeta Turnu-Severin and all the way to Corabia (the
freshet span was of 14-16 hours). It followed a slow increase of the levels and of the flows from this
date until March 17th and then, in three weeks, all the flood and danger levels were exceeded (April
7th-April 10th, 2006). Moreover, the flows began to become catastrophic, reaching the historic value of
15,800 m³/s both at Gruia and at Calafat. In consequence, the freshet reached the maximal risk level
so that the hydrologic events succeeded relatively fast, although most of the local and regional
administrations had been alerted and they were permanently monitoring the Danube.
On April 14th, 2006, at 12.30 p.m., at a flow of 14,800 m³/s, a breach of about 20 meters was made in
the dam situated near Catane, along the Danube river side, downstream of Ianoşi Draining Station;
the breach evolved, reaching 1 kilometer. The huge volume of water got in every precincts that had
been previously drained and that had been part of the floodable alluvial plain of the Danube; in the
initial phase there were estimated accumulations of more than 200 millions m³. This water volume
exerted a very powerful and long hydrostatic pressure on the separation dams and on the defense
dams. The growth of the Danube flow until April 20th - April 22nd, 2006, with another 1,000 m³/s, led to
an imminent flood risk. Thus, in the course of a week, the entire alluvial plain of the Danube comprised
in the Gruia-Cetate, Calafat-Ciuperceni-Desa, Rast-Bistreţ-Nedeia and Potelu-Celei sector was
covered by a volume of more than 400 millions m³ of water. After April 26th - April 27th, 2006, the
Danube flows began to decrease constantly, stopping with a certain relativity the feeding of the breaks
in the floodable sector. After May 2nd - May 3rd, 2006, the levels and the flows reached the values
corresponding to the middle March, 2006.
As a consequence of the flooding of the Ghidici-Rast-Bistreţ precinct, there were totally affected the
Rast, Catane and Negoiu communes as well as 11,000 ha of agrarian land (see table no. 2).
Table no. 2 - The damage caused by the inundations in the Rast, Negoiu and Catane
communes
The Cultivated Pastures Flooded Social- Flooded Affected Damaged Destroyed
commune arable and hay households economic bridges roads houses houses
land fields -number- objectives and -km- -number- -number-
-ha- -ha- -number- footbridges
-number-
Rast 4500 600 800 7 - - 140
Negoiu 2800 - 288 4 - 14,4 131 58
Catane 740 300 16 0,5
TOTAL 8040 900 1088 11 16 15 131 198
409
Although there were executed works for the elevation of the cornice and for the reinforcement of the
Bistreţ-Danube partition dam, on April 24th, 2006 at 7.50 a.m., the partition dam situated between
Ghidici-Rast-Bistreţ and Bistreţ-Nedeia-Jiu precincts broke, flooding the Plosca, Cârna and Măceşu-
de-Jos localities. The inundations had the following effects (see table 3):
Table no. 3 -The damage caused by the inundations in the Plosca, Măceşu-de Jos and Cârna
localities:
The Cultivated Pastures Flooded Social- Flooded Affected Damaged Destroyed
commune arable and hay households economic bridges roads houses houses
land fields -number- objectives and -km- -number- -number-
-ha- -ha- -number- footbridges
-number-
Plosca 2485 1115 - 19 25 - - 180
Cârna 2600 500 550 11 2 2 320 230
Maceşu- 3285 599 312 - - - 201 34
de-Jos
TOTAL 8375 2214 862 30 27 2 521 444
The water began to withdraw from the Ghidici-Rast-Bistreţ precinct, but its level raised simultaneously
within the Bistreţ.Nedeia-Jiu precinct. Following the possible evolution on the Bistreţ and Nedeia
localities, it has been decided to realize a controlled breach, 200 meters long, through which the water
would be discharged into the Danube from the Bistreţ-Nedeia-Jiu precinct, between May 2nd and May
5th, 2006, leading thus to the lowering of the level within this precinct.
On April 24th, 2006, at 7.15 a.m., a new break was realized in the defense dam, near the Dăbuleni
locality (kilometer 670), flooding the Bechet-Dăbuleni precinct, with a surface of more than 7,800 ha.
In consequence, the Bechetu-de-Jos locality was flooded, important damages being registered (215
households were affected, 119 houses were damaged and 40 were destroyed, 4 bridges and
footbridges were destroyed, 1140 ha of agricultural and were flooded, 354 wells were put out of use,
280 ha of hay fields were flooded as well as 6 economic agents, while the port Bechet - Bechet road
was affected on 3 kilometers). The custom-house and port activity was interrupted and within the
Potelu-Corabia precinct the waters were discharged through 3 breaks (2 of them being natural). The
C0 Canal of the Sadova Irrigation System was affected by backwater and by the direct discharge over
the Potelu dam.
After April 26th, 2006, the water levels within the precincts located in the Olt-Jiu sector began to slowly
decrease.
The effect of the cascade flooding through the former “ponds” and depressions was seen in the way in
which the water penetrated, surrounding the localities and isolating them and then completely flooding
them. As a result, in the period under study, within the floodable alluvial plain of the Danube, there
have been affected 11 localities with the following effects:
- 1249 houses were damaged,
- 1355 houses were destroyed,
- 3885 households were affected,
- 1021 persons were evicted,
- 4 bridges and 116 footbridges were damaged or destroyed,

410
- more than 2450 wells were affected,
- more than 28000 ha of cultivated arable land were flooded,
- more than 6000 ha hay fields were flooded.
The material damages can be evaluated only after a careful analysis and taking into account the fact
that 37 economic agents ceased their activity. Therefore, besides the direct material damages caused
by the flood, biological asphyxiation of the plants, drowning of the animals, infiltrations in the
infrastructure of the households and of the masonry, the economic damages amounted to over 230
milliards lei.
References
1. Antipa, Gr., (1970), Regiunea inundabilă a Dunării, starea ei actuală şi mijloacele de a o pune în
valoare, Inst. Arte grafice, Carol Göhl, Bucureşti, 1970 (reedit.)
2. Athanasiu, S. (1930), Câteva obaservaţii relative la deplasarea spre sud a cursului Dunării, D.d.S. ale
Şed . IGR, vol XIV, Bucureşti.
3. Badea, L. (1967), Modificări morfologice în albia Dunării între Turnu Severin şi Turnu Măgurele, Revista
Natura, nr. 2, Seria Geografie – Geologie, Bucureşti;
4. Blidaru, V., şi colab. (1962), Hidroamelioraţiile în Republica Populară Română. Monografie, Editura
Agrosilvică, Bucureşti.
5. Bălteanu, D., Şerban, Mihaela (2005), Modificări globale ale mediului, Edit. C.N.I. Coresi S.A.,
Bucureşti;
6. Coteţ, P., (1957), Câmpia Olteniei, Editura Ştiinţifică, Bucureşti;
7. Pleniceanu, V. (1999), Apele din Câmpia Olteniei, Edit. Universitaria, Craiova;
8. Pleniceanu, V. (2005), Hidrologia continentală, Edit. Universitaria, Craiova.
9. Popescu, B. (1970), Inundaţiile catastrofale din mai-iunie 1970 şi problemele pe care le ridică
gospodărirea raţională a apelor, Revista Hidrotehnica, vol. 15, decembrie;
10. *** (1969), Geografia Văii Dunării româneşti, Edit. Academiei, Bucureşti;
411

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Bucharest

Heavy metals contents in some food from

Mapping the snow albedo on the territory of

Heavy metals contents in some food from Romania

Material and method

Fig. 2 – The mean levels of lead from vegetables in Romania, mg/kg

Fig. 3 – The mean levels of cadmium from vegetables in Romania, mg/kg

Determinations of these chemical contaminants in food are important in environmental monitoring

review” J. Environ. Quality 26 (3), 590-602

Food Safety Programme

4. Trace Elements in Human Health World Health Organization, Geneva, 1996.

2002, 138p. (ISBN 973- 8188-01-6)

Iaşi, 2002, 323 p .(ISBN 973 – 8188 -19 -9)

Iaşi, 2003, 267 p. (ISBN 973 – 8188-90-3)

Iaşi, 2004, 235 p. (ISBN 973 – 667 – 079 - 1)

Iaşi, 2005, 164 p.(ISBN 973 – 667 - 142-9)

Iaşi, 2006, in press.

Iaşi, 2006, (ISBN 973-667-194-1).

Bioluminescent monitoring of remediation processes

Microorganisms, luminous bacteria included, are currently preferable in ecological monitoring as

Fig.1. Bioluminescent kinetics. I0 – bioluminescent intensity in the absence of toxic sample,

Materials and methods

Detoxification efficiency of quinone solutions was characterized by detoxification coefficient K =

Results and discussion

First group is a series of homologous organic oxidizers - quinones.

Fig.6 presents detoxification of radioactive solutions by humates. Solution of americium is taken as

Chemical modification of mesoporous silica for heavy metal ions

M. Mureşeanua, A. Reissa, V. Pârvulescub , I. Ştefănescuc, E. Davidc, V. Hulead

By means of elemental analysis, small-angle powder XRD, nitrogen adsorption-desorption, Fourier

Results and Discussion

The textural parameters of materials are presented in Table 1.

Fig.1 Powder X-ray diffraction patterns of calcined mesoporous silica materials

Fig.2. Changes of N2 adsorption isotherms for :

Table 1. Textural properties of calcined and modified MCM-41 and SBA-15

Fig.3.FTIR spectra of the mesoporous silica materials

mg/g mmol/g mg/g mmol/g mg/g mmol/g mg/g mmol/g

Table 3. Competitive adsorption of Cu(II), Co(II), Ni(II) and Zn(II) ions

5. E.Soliman, M.Mahmoud, S.Ahmed, Talanta, 54, (2001), 243.

particularly acute and essential.

in water purification by utilization of a sorbent - diatomite.

water is cleared from toxic metals.

ecologically clean agricultural products.

increases up to 97%, while that from Pb - 98,5%.

1. Changes related to an impact of environmental conditions on metal behavior.

2. Changes related to an impact of metals on the state of environment.

Problem Statement and Methodology

9 Methods for removal of fine-dyspersated and colloid particles – coagulation, flocculation,

9 Methods for elimination of hazardous substances – thermal decomposition.

The above-mentioned methods have both positive and negative features.

A construction chart of the mentioned equipment is presented on Fig.1.

prepared. Results of the fulfilled experiments are presented on Fig.2.

between 6-12 mm.

An absorption layer in all experiments made up 30 cm.

Fig.1. Water Cleaning Equipment Chart

1 – Reservoir with water to be cleaned;

3 – Stage I with irrigation system;

5 – Stage II with diatomite absorbent;

7 – Cleaned water receiver.

Pb 30.10-3 41.10-3 10,25.10-3 0,615.10-3

The experiments gave the following results:

9 Organoleptic indices were improved;

9 Alcohol content did not change during the experiment;

2. Water cleaning is fulfilled by means of a sorbent diatomite. A modifying agent, in particular,

ΔL* = Lsample – Lreference

Δa* = asample – areference

Δb* = bsample – breference