ISIJ International, Vol. 43 (2003), No. 8, pp.

11361142

Kinetic Model for the Uniform Conversion of Self Reducing Iron

Oxide and Carbon Briquettes
Jeremy MOON and Veena SAHAJWALLA
School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052 NSW, Australia.
(Received on September 2, 2002; accepted in final form on February 5, 2003 )

A kinetic model has been developed to describe the uniform conversion of a self reducing mixture of iron
oxide and carbon. The model takes into account the reaction kinetics of both the iron oxide reduction and
carbon oxidation. The model is validated with experimental data. Rate constants are compared with those in
the literature.
The combination of existing reaction analysis techniques coupled with the model developed has shown
that for the experimental conditions used here, the Boudouard reaction controls the self reduction kinetics.
KEY WORDS: mathematical modelling; kinetics; uniform conversion model; self-reduction; iron oxide; carbon; reduction; oxidation.

1.

that for practical situations, self reducing mixtures undergo

indirect reduction (solid iron oxidegaseous intermediary
solid carbon). These reactions are outlined in Reaction 1 to
Reaction 4.

Introduction

Extensive research regarding the self-reducing mixture of

iron oxide and carbonaceous materials has been reported.15) Iron oxide fines are generated at every stage of iron
oxide processing, leading to either a loss of the iron resource or the burden of higher utilisation costs. Being able
to utilise, economically, such iron oxide fines has the potential to provide significant benefits to the iron industry. The
self reducing mixture represents a possible solution to fine
iron oxide utilisation. In order to realise and optimise this
potential of the self reducing mixture, it is necessary to understand the fundamental reaction mechanisms. In this
paper, a shortcoming in an existing fundamental kinetic
model is addressed in order to better understand the self reduction reactions.
Common methods used to analyse the carbothermic reduction of iron oxide have either centred around the first
order irreversible unimolecular model (i.e.: ln1Xkt),
variants of the half-life method (e.g.: dX/dttt o ) or using a
rate equation to describe the gasification of carbon (the
Boudouard reaction) by CO2. Interestingly, all three methods require constant gas concentrations (whether describing
iron oxide reduction or carbon gasification). Self reducing
iron oxidecarbon reactions do not display constant gas
concentrations during reactions.6,7)
Additionally, while there is little doubt that the
Boudouard reaction displays a strong influence on the carbothermic reduction of iron oxide, the degree of control it
displays is unclear. This may well be due to the use of inappropriate kinetic models to describe the carbothermic reduction process.
Haque and Ray8) reviewed the topic of solidsolid reaction for the carbothermic reduction of iron oxide, showing
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Reduction
Reaction 1: 3Fe2O3COFe3O4CO2
Reaction 2:

Fe3O4CO3FeOCO2

Reaction 3:

FeOCOFeCO2

Oxidation
Reaction 4:

C(s)CO2(g)2CO(g)

For the iron oxidegas reaction (Reaction 1Reaction 3),

Turkdogan9) examined the carbon monoxide reduction of
iron oxide, and determined an activation energy of
47 kJ/mol. Of reactions which make up the iron oxide reduction process, the wstite to iron step (Reaction 3) has
been shown to be the slowest step.1)
The oxidation of carbon by CO2 is an extremely important reaction in general, and consequently has been widely
studied. However, activation energies for the CO2 oxidation
of graphite vary from 130 kJ/mol (Tiwari et al.10) ) to
370 kJ/mol (Turkdogan and Vinters11) ). While there is a
wide variance in reported activation energies for the CO2
oxidation of graphite, it can be seen that the activation energy for CO2 oxidation of graphite is still considerably higher
than that for iron oxide reduction. Therefore the CO2 oxidation of graphite is a more temperature sensitive reaction
than iron oxide reduction.
There is also a consensus among researchers that the
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ISIJ International, Vol. 43 (2003), No. 8

Boudouard reaction (Reaction 4) displays a highly controlling influence on the overall carbothermic reduction of iron
oxide.15) The degree of control the Boudouard reaction displays, as reported by different researchers, however, is seen
to vary. There is agreement in literature that the overall self
reduction reaction rate is seen to increase with increasing
carbon content; increasing carbon surface area; and in the
presence of Boudouard reaction catalysing agents (including metallic iron). These effects are consistent with the
Boudouard reaction displaying a significant influence on
the overall self reduction reaction.
The overall self reduction reaction rate, however, is seen
to level off at higher carbon contents12,13); higher temperatures14,15); and is seen to be improved by decreasing the iron
ore particle size (with the inference of increased surface
area).14) These effects suggest that there is a limitation to
the control the Boudouard reaction displays, which is not
yet fully understood. Such incomplete understanding (regarding the degree of control the Boudouard reaction displays on the overall self reduction rate) introduces difficulty
in being able to kinetically describe the reaction system.
Adding to the complexity of unclear controlling reactions is the issue of non-isothermal reactions occurring
within a self-reducing pellet or briquette. In the self reducing briquette, the reactants are intimately mixed and the reaction proceeds when a sufficient temperature is achieved
by all or part of the mixture. The very nature of the having
combined, thermally activated reactants raises difficulties
when studying the reaction kinetics.
Work has been conducted, examining the possibility of
briquettes reacting non-homogenously when the temperature is raised. Several researchers have shown the nonisothermal nature of the self-reducing mixture.1619) Work
by Seaton et al.18) showed the temperature profile through
the mixture changed with increasing reaction temperature.
They indicated that the mode of reaction changed to a
shrinking core style with increasing temperature.
Accordingly, the complexity of the physical and chemi-

Fig. 1.

cal system makes the selection of an appropriate reduction

model difficult. The self reduction process is made up of
complimentary oxidation and reduction reactions. However,
investigations have only focussed on the kinetics of either
the oxidation or reduction reactions. The aim of this study
is to provide a method to describe the carbothermic reduction of iron oxide, taking into account both the iron oxide
reduction reactions and the Boudouard reaction. The effect
of the temperature profile on such an approach is also examined.
2.

Theoretical Background

2.1. Determination of Controlling Reaction

Analysing the reaction off-gas provides an effective and
dynamic method to assist in the determination of the reaction controlling the self reduction process. The oxygen potential of the reaction off gas can be calculated in terms of
PCO /PCO2 and can then be compared against equilibrium
PCO /PCO2 of the individual component reactions.1) Figure 1
shows an example of reaction equilibrium PCO2 /PCO values
from a standard phase diagram, for the temperature of
1 000C.
The component reaction which is controlling could then
be determined by a process of elimination. However, as discussed earlier, it is assumed that if the iron oxide reduction
is rate limiting, then the slowest step is the reduction of
wstite.
To determine which of the reactions are controlling, it is
first necessary to identify the reaction at equilibrium. A
given reaction is at equilibrium when the off gas PCO /PCO2
concentration falls on the equilibrium PCO /PCO2 value for
that reaction. Accordingly, the complimentary (reduction of
wstite/oxidation of carbon) reaction is taken to be the controlling reaction. For example, if the off-gas PCO /PCO2 concentrations indicate that the wstiteiron reaction is at equilibrium, then it can be inferred that the complimentary
Boudouard reaction is the controlling reaction.

Illustration of the method used to determine equilibrium (PCO2 /PCO) for a given temperature from the ironoxygen
phase diagram.

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ISIJ International, Vol. 43 (2003), No. 8

CO(g) molecule (Reaction 5). The terms i1 and j1 are the rate
constants for the forward and reverse reactions respectively.
The second stage is the desorption of the C(O) from the
carbon solid to form a gaseous CO molecule (Reaction 6),
the rate constant of which is the term j3.

2.2. Controlling Kinetic Model

The complexity of the reactions involved in the carbothermic reduction of iron oxide has led to difficulty in the
selection of an appropriate model. There are several methods generally used to describe the kinetics of the carbothermic reduction of iron oxide, such as:
The first order unimolecular irreversible uniform conversion of a self reducing briquette (i.e. ln(1X) vs. time,
and its variants), that is1,2);

Rate

ln(lX)k t ..............................(1)

The comparison of dX/dt at a given time (e.g. t0). A

variant on this is the examination of the time required to
attain a given degree of reduction (e.g. t/tX )4,5); and
Given the high degree of control that the Boudouard reaction displays on the overall carbothermic reaction, there
have been attempts to describe iron oxide reduction rates
in terms of carbon gasification rates (Langmuir
Hinshelwood style equation, see Eq. (5).10)
Interestingly, one of the more common methods, using
ln(1X), assumes a reaction mechanism of a single molecule reactant, A(s) , converting to the reaction products, as is
shown in Eq. (2). For the reduction of iron oxide, the reaction involves more than one molecule (e.g. A(s) and B(g) )
and is more like that shown in Eq. (3).

Reaction 6:

eq.
k O A C[O] (CCOCCO
) .......(4)

where the solid removable oxygen concentration in the mixture is represented by C[O]; kO is the rate constant for oxygen removal; A is the reaction area of the controlling reaction; and the gaseous CO driving force is represented by
eq.
(CCOCCO
) For the gaseous reduction of iron oxide, the
eq.
(CCOCCO
) term is constant and therefore independent of
C[O] which allows the use of the first order irreversible unimolecular model (or ln(1X)).
In the self reducing briquette of iron oxide and carbon,
eq.
) is dependent upon the
however, the term (CCOCCO
Boudouard reaction. The CO content of the reaction gas is
renewable and cannot be rewritten in terms of C[O]. The rate
of oxygen removal must, nevertheless, be dependent upon
eq.
the gas reducibility (CCOCCO
), so therefore the term is retained in the development of a rate equation.
In the case of carbothermic reduction, the PCO /PCO2 composition of the reaction gas during the course of reduction
has been shown to vary with degree of reduction.
Accordingly, the rate of the Boudouard reaction cannot be
taken as being constant throughout the reaction process.
It is commonly accepted that the Boudouard reaction follows a LangmuirHinshelwood style equation.2023) The
LangmuirHinshelwood style equation (Eq. (5)) describes a
two stage process. The first stage is the reversible adsorption of an oxygen atom from the gas (i.e. CO2 ) onto a free
reaction site (Cf ), and hence the formation of a gaseous
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j3
CO
C(O)
(g)

The reaction order of Boudouard reaction is seen to vary

between 0 and 1. Zeroth order kinetics occur when the conditions of k 2 PCO1 and k 3 PCO21 are met. First order kinetics occur when the conditions of k 2 PCO1 and
k 3 PCO21 are met.20,24,25) Von Fredersdorff and Elliot25)
state that for all other conditions, the kinetics are first order
with respect to CO2 with hindrance from CO and CO2.
During the carbothermic reduction of iron oxide, the PCO
levels are expected to be high, such that the term k2PCO is
not insignificant. Therefore, an approximation of first order
kinetics for the carbothermic reduction of iron oxide appears justified for the model development.
As mentioned earlier, literature has shown that the
Boudouard reaction is considered a controlling reaction in
the overall iron oxidecarbon system.15) Therefore, any deviation of the reaction gas PCO /PCO2 from the iron oxide
equilibria (and hence the formation of a CO driving force)
is a result of CO production from the Boudouard reaction.
The rate of CO production (using simplified first order kinetics) by the Boudouard reaction can be written in terms
of CO2 consumption, as shown in Eq. (6).

The rate of removal of oxygen for an Eq. (3) style reaction

is of the type:

dt

.................(5)

(1k 2 PCOk 3 PCO2 )

j1

A(s)B(g) products..........................(3)

dC[O]

j1
j1
1 j PCO j PCO2

3
3
i1 PCO2

Reaction 5: C f CO2(g)
j 1 C(O) CO (g)

A(s) products ..............................(2)

Rate[O]

i1 PCO2

1 dCC
1 dCCO2
1 dCCO


AC dt
AC dt
2 AC dt
eq.
.........(6)
k C (CCO2 CCO
)
2

where AC is the area of the carbonaceous material and

eq.
(CCO2C CO
) is the Boudouard Reaction driving force (sim2
plified to make an irreversible first order equation). In the
case where the Boudouard reaction displays a strong controlling influence, any formation of an iron oxide reduction
eq.
driving force, (CCOC CO
), is dependent upon the production of CO from the Boudouard reaction. The CO production in turn is dependent upon the CO2 driving force.
eq.
Accordingly, the term (CCOC CO
) can be replaced by
eq.
2kC (CCO2C CO2), so that Eq. (4) accommodates both the
Boudouard reaction and iron oxide reduction:
dC[O]
C[O]

eq.
2 k O k C A (CCO2 CCO
) dt ..........(7)
2

The A, kO and kC terms are constants and can be grouped,

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ISIJ International, Vol. 43 (2003), No. 8

along with the area constant, into a single overall kinetic

constant k. It is also possible to rewrite the oxygen concentration in terms of fraction converted (X):

Analysis of the briquette recipes is given in Table 2.

Cylindrical briquettes were produced by pressing the prepared material in a 22 mm diameter punch and die apparatus at 38.7 MPa (1.5 ton).
Briquettes prepared for temperature profile analysis were
produced in the above manner prior to drilling an axial
hole, to the centre of the briquette, to house a thermocouple
(K Type).
The briquettes were reduced in a purpose built ThermoGravimetric Analyser (TGA). A schematic of the TGA is
shown in Fig. 2. The furnace was resistance heated using
Super-Kanthal elements, producing a 125 mm hot zone. A
feature of the design is the raisable furnace which encompasses the sample allowing high heating rates. A bellows
system around the sample facilitated gas purging of the
TGA whilst the furnace is in the lowered position. High purity nitrogen was supplied as the inert gas through the bottom of the furnace at a rate of 3 l/min using a mass flow
controller. Sample ports at the top of the reaction tube allowed constant sampling and logging of exit gas composition by an infrared (IR) CO/ CO2 analyser. Weight loss during a reaction was monitored and logged by computer via a
digital balance.

C[O]C[O] (1X)............................(8)
and
dC[O]C
[O] dX ..............................(9)
Where C[O] is the initial solid removable oxygen concentration in the mixture. In doing so, Eq. (7) can be rewritten as:

dX
eq.
k (CCO2 CCO
)
2
(1 X )

dt ..........(10)

Which on solving becomes:



ln(1 X )
eq.
(CCO2 CCO
)

k t ......................(11)

The model developed here is for a uniform conversion of

a self reducing briquette, taking into account both the oxidation and reduction reactions.
3.

Derivation of X
The mass loss of the briquette is a combined mass loss of

Experimental Procedure

Two briquette recipes were used in these experiments.

The first recipe comprised of iron oxide and coke and the
second recipe comprised of iron oxide, coke and kaolin.
Briquettes manufactured from the first recipe displayed sufficient strength for kinetic studies, however such briquettes
disintegrated when thermocouples were inserted into the
briquette. Therefore, the second recipe included kaolin additions for binding strength and were used for temperature
profiling. A molar C/O ratio of 1 was used in these recipes,
being an optimum choice, as a further increase in this ratio
did not have any significant effect on reduction kinetics.
Table 1.

Table 2. Analysis of briquette recipes.

List of rate constants (k).

Fig. 2. Schematic representation of key elements of Thermo-Gravimetric Analyser (TGA) and Infra-red Analyser (IR).

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ISIJ International, Vol. 43 (2003), No. 8

in-solid removable oxygen, carbon and any other removables such as LOI and adsorbed oxygen. A series of assumptions are required to enable the calculation of the degree of reduction, X. These assumptions are:
The LOI component is removed from the briquette first
and does not partake in any reaction;
Adsorbed oxygen is removed from the briquette and reacts with carbon. The adsorbed oxygen accounts for the
oxygen which is present in the briquettes porosities and
that which is adsorbed on the surface of the carbon. The
adsorbed oxygen portion is calculated for the carbonaceous materials. It is determined by producing plain carbon briquettes and exposing them to reaction temperatures in inert atmospheres. The mass loss and oxygen output is analysed to obtain a weight fraction of adsorbed
oxygen of a given carbon type (Table 2); and
Once the weight loss attributable to LOI and to Adsorbed
Oxygen have been accounted for, the rest of the oxygen
removed is attributed to X.
The number of moles of oxygen and carbon are calculated
from a mass balance, facilitating the calculation of the degree of reduction (X). A sample plot of X against time is
given in Fig. 3, where the time lag evident at the beginning
of the plot is accounted portions of LOI and Adsorbed
Oxygen portions.
4.

Fig. 3.

A typical plot of degree of reduction (X) against time, illustrating the time lag at the beginning of the reduction.

Fig. 4.

Recipe 2 briquettes inner and outer temperatures as a

function of time, also plotted is degree of reduction.

Fig. 5.

Plot of X as a function of time for briquettes made from

recipe 1 and recipe 2.

Results and Discussion

A significant difference between a shrinking core style

and a uniform conversion style model is in the temperature
profile through the sample during the course of reaction. An
uniform conversion model, by its definition, is applicable
when there is an uniform temperature profile throughout the
reactants. In the case of a shrinking core model, alternatively, there is a temperature differential between the centre and
the surface of the reacting sample.
To examine the temperature profile in this study, a preliminary experiment was conducted on briquette manufactured from recipe 2, with thermocouples placed inside and
outside the briquette. The result of this experiment is plotted along with the degree of briquette reduction (X) in Fig.
4. The temperature profile shows that the centre of the briquette has reached close to reaction temperature before any
significant degree of reduction has been attained (15%).
This indicates that the briquette reacts essentially homogeneously.
The degree of reduction from experiments conducted on
briquettes made from recipe 1 and recipe 2 are compared in
Fig. 5. There is no significant difference in the shape of the
reduction curve between the two recipes indicating that, in
the case of both the briquettes, the same physical model
(uniform conversion) is applicable, and that the temperature
profile displayed in Fig. 4 is valid for recipe 1 briquettes.
Taking the reaction off-gas as an indication of the reactions which are in equilibrium, and accordingly inferring
those which are controlling, the PCO /PCO2 ratios of the reaction off gas are provided in Fig. 6. The plot shows that the
wstiteiron reaction has reached equilibrium after some
800 s and therefore the Boudouard reaction can be inferred
as being the controlling reaction in the case of both the briquettes (recipe 1 and 2).
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It can be seen from the results shown in Figs. 4 and 6 that

briquettes react homogeneously and that the controlling reaction is the Boudouard reaction. Such a situation suits the
application of the uniform conversion model, as shown in
Eq. (11). The uniform conversion model is applied to the
reaction data, and the results, along with the reaction off
gas PCO /PCO2, are shown Fig. 7. The strong linearity of the
model for both recipes is evident.
It can be seen from Fig. 7 that the linearity of the proposed model does not begin to occur until the stabilisation
of the wstiteiron reaction. Once stabilisation of the
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ISIJ International, Vol. 43 (2003), No. 8

Fig. 6.

Measured and equilibrium ln(PCO /PCO2 ) values for the self reducing briquette at 1 000C.

Fig. 7.

eq.
Dependency of ln(1X)/(CCO2CCO
) and ln(PCO /PCO2 ) on time.
2

Table 3. Equilibrium CO2 concentrations at 1 000C (assuming PCOPCO21).

Fig. 8.

this paper differs from the commonly used first order irreversible unimolecular model (Eq. (1)) in that it includes a
eq.
term for the Boudouard reaction, (CCO2C CO
). To relate
2
the kinetic data (k) extracted from the use of this model
(Eq. (11)) to the kinetic data of the first order irreversible
unimolecular form (k, Eq. (1)), equilibrium CO2 concentrations of the different iron oxide oxidation states and the
equilibrium Boudouard reaction CO2 concentrations can be
used for the CCO2 and C eq.
CO2 terms (Eq. (11)) respectively. At
1 000C, the equilibrium CO2 concentrations are listed in
Table 3.
Through multiplying the k values obtained from Fig. 7 by
the (CCO2C eq.
CO2) values of the various iron oxide reaction
values (Table 3), it is possible to produce a series of series
of k values for Eq. (1). The result is a set of theoretical

Dependency of ln(1X) on time.

wstiteiron reaction is achieved, the analysed gas composition is indicative of the controlling reaction being the
Boudouard reaction.
The common analysis method of a self reducing sample
is to plot ln(1X) vs. time, and such a plot is shown in Fig.
8. The non-linearity of Fig. 8 contrasts with the linearity of
Fig. 7. Using the model proposed in this paper, the non-linearity can easily be explained by the changing PCO /PCO2,
and hence the gaseous driving force, in the reaction gas.
Using Eq. (11), it is possible to extract values for the rate
constant (k) from Fig. 7. The rate constants (k) for the two
recipes used are given in Table 1. The model proposed in
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ISIJ International, Vol. 43 (2003), No. 8

while the Boudouard reaction was controlling, its rate was

heavily influenced by the PCO /PCO2 levels within the briquette during the course of conversion.
The influence of the PCO /PCO2 levels on the reaction kinetics of the self reduction reaction has been missing from
previous models.
REFERENCES
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Fig. 9.

Dependence of ln(1X) on time with reaction rates calculated from Fig. 7 recalculated for different oxide equilibrium partial pressures.

5)
6)

slopes for the first order irreversible unimolecular model relating to the different iron oxide reactions. The slopes are
plotted against the experimentally obtained plots in Fig. 9
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ln(1X)time plot. This is to be expected as the PCO /PCO2
ratio increases with the lowering iron oxide oxidation state,
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unimolecular model, despite its common usage to describe
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5.

7)
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Summary

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A rate equation was developed for the description of the

uniform carbothermic reduction of iron oxide, which included terms for both the iron oxide reduction and the carbon oxidation. The rate equation was tested at 1 000C,
where it was shown that the rate equation fitted the experimental data well.
The use of existing experimental techniques (namely reaction off gas measurements, analysis of the gas in context
of thermodynamic equilibria and thermogravimetric analysis), coupled with the model developed here, has allowed
for a greater appreciation of the role of the constituent reactions within a self reducing briquette.
The reaction model used in this paper illustrated that

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