DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

The Language of
Argument
inthelanguageofthestandards

ForEGHSTeachersandStudents

AcompilationofinformationalignedtotheCommonCoretohelpspuradiscussion
ontheteachingofreadingandwritingarguments

Works Consulted
Coleman, David. "Common Core R.CCR.8 Explained." Teaching the Core. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 June 2013.
"English Language Arts Standards Reading: Informational Text Grade 11-12."Common Core State Standards Initiative. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 May 2013.
Harvey, Gordon. Counterargument. Harvard University, 1999. Web. 01 June 2013.
"Fallacies." The Writing Center. University of North Carolina, n.d. Web. 09 May 2013.
Ramage, John D., John C. Bean, and June Johnson. Writing Arguments: A Rhetoric with Readings. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2001. Print.
Sinott-Armstrong, Walter, and Robert Fogelin. Understanding Arguments: An Introduction to Informal Logic. 8th ed. Australia: Wadsworth, 2010. Print.
"A Workbook for Arguments: A Complete Course in Critical Thinking [Paperback]." A Workbook for Arguments: A Complete Course in Critical Thinking: David
Morrow, Anthony Weston: 9781603845496: Amazon.com: Books. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 May 2013.
"Writer's Web: Toulmin Model Exercise." Writer's Web: Toulmin Model Exercise. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 May 2013.
Written and compiled by Greg DeCubellis

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

UnpackingtheLanguageoftheStandards

Tryingtomakesenseofargumentativewritingterminologycanbeachallenge.Itturnsoutthatthereare
about20importantterms,but,becauseargumentationisapartofsomanydisciplines,many(about
threefourths)ofthesetermshavedifferentnames.Fortunately,severalaresynonymouswiththosewe
alreadyusetoteachpersuasivewriting.Others,however,willprobablybenewtoyou.

Inthetablebelow,youwillfindargumentwritingtermsusedintheCommonCorestandardsandotherterms
thatarecloseinmeaning.Knowingthesetermsisimperativetounderstandingthishandout.Also,itis
highlylikelythatthetermsintheleftcolumnwillbeusedonupcomingCommonCoreassessments,soitis
importantforstudentstoknowandunderstandthemaswell.

L.O.T.S

ISORRESEMBLES...

MEANING..

argument

athesiswithaprojectedorganization

Theassertionofaclaimbasedonlogicalreasons.

argumentative
writing

logos,positionpaper

Asdistinctfrompersuasivewriting,argumentative
writingreliesmostlyonsharp,ethicalreasoningover
pathos,dissembling,andtrickery.

bias

slant,spin

Afavorableorunfavorablepreferenceforonething
overanother.

claim

thesis,conclusion,logicalconclusion,
centralclaim,criticalstance,mainidea,
opinion,assertion,inference,judgment,
effect

Astatementassertedastruebyaspeakerorwriter.

counterclaim

counterargument,opposingviewpoint

Anopiniondirectlyoppositethewritersincludedto
setuparebuttalofthatopposingopinion.

delineate

standardform

Listingthepremisesinlogicalorderabovethe
conclusionwithahorizontallinedrawnbetweenthem.

evidence

oneormorereasonswhichsupporta
claim

Reason(s)thatprovetheclaim(butNOTthe
examplesusedforillustratingthereasons).

example

detail

Afactwhichillustratestheargumentssupporting
reasonorevidence.

fallacy

logicalfallacy,illogicalreasoning,
invalidreason

Anerrorinanargumentinwhichtheclaimdoesnot
logicallyfollowfromthethereasons.

persuasion

manipulativespeech,writing,or
imagery

Initsmostextremeform,itsgoalistoconvincean
audiencebyanymeansnecessary,includinginvalid
reasoninganduntruereasons.

premise

reason,proposition,majorpremise,
minorpremise,axiom,postulate,cause

Areasonusedtoassertaclaim.

reason

premise,proof,proposition,major
premise,minorpremise,cause,fact,
statistic

Seepremise

reasoning

logic

Theprocessofdrawingorformingaconclusionfrom
statedorimpliedpremises.

DRAFT

comeback,refutation,objectiontoan
objection

Ananswertoacounterclaimwhichpointsoutthe
opposingviewpointsflaws.Itisusedtodisarma
skepticalaudience.

rhetoric

literarylanguage,engagingwording,
diction,syntax

Thistermhasmanymeanings,butisusedinthe
standardstomeanthewaysinwhichthewritercrafts
wordsandphrasesartisticallytohelpmakethe
argumentinterestingandengaging.

structure

organization,organizationalstrategy,
sequenceofideas

Howthewriterordershisreasons,claim,examples,
subclaims,counterclaims,etc.

subclaims

grounds,statedassumption,
suppressedpremise,warrant,
enthymeme,clincher

Thewaysinwhichtheillustrativeexamplesconnect
totheargument.

syntax

wordorder,sentencestructure

Thewordorderwithinasentenceorclause.

logicalreasoning

Anargumentisvalidifitislogical.Inotherwords,an
argumentisvalidifthereisnopossiblewayitsclaim
canbefalsewhenitsreasonsaretrue.Illogical
argumentsareNOTvalid.

rebuttal

validity

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

TheLanguageofArgumentPARTI

Reading an Argument

CONTENTS

1)

ReadinganArgument

Delineateandevaluatethereasoningin...texts,including...the
premises,purposes,andarguments

910

2)

ArgumentandPersuasion

Determineanauthorspointofvieworpurposeinatext...analyzing
howstyleandcontentcontributetothepower,persuasiveness...
ofthetext.

1112

3)

ThePartsofanArgument

Analyzeindetailhowanauthorsideasorclaimsaredeveloped
andrefinedbyparticularsentences....

910

4)

StandardFormDelineation

Delineate...theargument.

5)

AnnotatingthePartsofAnArgument

Analyzeindetailhowanauthorsideasorclaimsaredeveloped
andrefinedbyparticularsentences....

910

6)

EvaluatingaClaimsStrength&
Effectiveness

Analyzeindetailhowanauthorsideasorclaimsaredeveloped
andrefinedbyparticularsentences....

910

7)

EvaluatingEvidenceinExamples

Delineateandevaluatetheargument...assessingwhetherthe...
theevidenceisrelevantandsufficient.

910

8)

AnnotatinganArgumentsStrength&
Effectiveness

Delineateandevaluatethereasoningin...texts,including...the
premises,purposes,andarguments.

Determineanauthorspointofvieworpurposeinatextinwhich
therhetoricisparticularlyeffective,analyzinghowstyleand
contentcontributetothepower,persuasivenessorbeautyofthe
text.

Determineanauthorspointofvieworpurposeinatextand
analyzehowanauthorusesrhetorictoadvancethatpointofview
orpurpose.

1112

9)

EvaluatinganArgumentsReasonableness

Delineateandevaluatetheargumentandspecificclaimsinatext,
assessingwhetherthereasoningisvalidandtheevidenceis
relevantandsufficient

910

10)

FallaciesinReasoning

[I]dentifyfalsestatementsandfallaciousreasoning...

910

11)

SomeRhetoricalDevicesandtheirEffects

[A]nalyzehowanauthorusesrhetoric...
[A]nalyzehowstyleandcontentcontributetothepower,
persuasiveness...ofthetext.

12)

UsefulQuestionsforClose,Careful
ArgumentEvaluation

Analyzeindetailhowanauthorsideasorclaimsaredeveloped
andrefinedbyparticularsentences,paragraphs,orlargerportions
ofatext.

Analyzeandevaluatetheeffectivenessofthestructureanauthor
usesinhisorherexpositionorargument,includingwhetherthe
structuremakespointsclear,convincing,andengaging.

910

13)

PuttingitallTogether

[Allstandardsrelatedtoargumentreadingareaddressed]

912

14)

BestPracticesforTeaching

BluetextindicatesINNEEDOFCOMPLETION

912

ALIGNMENTTOCCSS

Gr.

"English Language Arts Standards Reading: Informational Text Grade 11-12."Common Core State Standards Initiative. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 May 2013.

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

TheLanguageofArgumentPARTII

Writing an Argument

CONTENTS

1)

WritingShortArguments

Usewords,phrases,andclausesaswellasvariedsyntaxtolinkthe
majorsectionsofthetext,createcohesion,andclarifythe
relationshipsbetweenclaimsandreasons....

2)

UsefulTipsforFindingFallaciesinyour
ownWriting

Usewords,phrases,andclausesaswellasvariedsyntaxtolinkthe
majorsectionsofthetext,createcohesion,andclarifythe
relationshipsbetweenclaimsandreasons,betweenreasonsand
evidence,andbetweenclaimsandcounterclaims.

3)

StructuringanExtendedArgument

Developclaimsandcounterclaimsfairlyandthoroughly,supplyingthe
mostrelevantevidenceforeachwhilepointingoutthestrengthsand
limitationsofbothinamannerthatanticipatestheaudiences
knowledgelevel,concerns,values,andpossiblebiases.

4)

TwoArgumentStrategiesCompared

[Sameasabove]

5)

ExploringBothSides

Introduceprecise,knowledgeableclaims,establishthesignificance
oftheclaim,distinguishtheclaimfromalternateorcounterclaims...

6)

IllustratingyourReasons&Statingyour
Assumptions

Developclaimsandcounterclaimsfairlyandthoroughly,supplyingthe
mostrelevantevidenceforeachwhilepointingoutthestrengthsand
limitationsofbothinamannerthatanticipatestheaudiences
knowledgelevel,concerns,values,andpossiblebiases.

7)

ClassicalGraphicOrganizer

[C]reateanorganizationthatlogicallysequencesclaims,
counterclaims,reasons,andevidence.

8)

RogerianGraphicOrganizer

[C]reateanorganizationthatlogicallysequencesclaims,
counterclaims,reasons,andevidence.

9)

BestPracticesforTeachingArgument
Writing

Usewords,phrases,andclausesaswellasvariedsyntaxtolinkthe
majorsectionsofthetext,createcohesion,andclarifythe
relationshipsbetweenclaimsandreasons,betweenreasonsand
evidence,andbetweenclaimsandcounterclaims.

ALIGNMENTTOCCSS

Gr.
*

*Underlinedtextindicates1112standard.

"English Language Arts Standards Reading: Informational Text Grade 11-12."Common Core State Standards Initiative. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 May 2013.

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

TheLanguageofArgument

Reading an Argument

AnARGUMENTisaclaimaccompaniedbysupportingreasons.

Whenyoumakeaclaim,youaresaying,Iclaimthistobetrue.Inargumentwriting,youwantyourreader
toacceptyourclaimastruetoo.Youropinionusuallywillnotbeacceptedwithoutgoodreasonthough.So,
agoodargumentwriterclaimssomethingtobetrueandthensupportsitwithreasons(areasonisalso
calledapremise).Inagoodargument,thewritermakesacasetoconvinceanaudiencebasedonthe
meritandreasonablenessoftheclaims,reasons,andevidence.Inthisway,anargumentcanchangethe
readerspointofview,bringaboutanaction,oraskthereadertoacceptthewritersexplanationor
evaluationofaproblem.(CCSSELAAppendixA).

Anextendedargumentativeessayisalsoknownasapositionpaperbecausethewritertakesapositionon
atopicandusesclearreasoningtoattempttogetthereadertounderstandandagreewithhisorher
position.Noticethewordattemptintheprevioussentence.Whenyouwriteanargumentativeessay,you
mightnotentirelyconvincethereaderofyourposition.Youmayonlystrengthentheopinionofthosewho
alreadyagreewithyouorweakentheresolveofthosewhoopposeyouropinion.Theimportantthingisthat
youpresentyourargumentclearly,honestly,andlogically.

Note:Whenthewordargumentisusedinthiscontext,itdoesnotmeanadisagreement.Anargument
simplyisastatementthatattemptstoconnectsfactsorstatistics(evidence)insupportofaclaim.So...

anargumentisNOTameredisagreement.

1.ThisisNOTanargument:

Bob:
Steve:
Bob:

Willieisawhale.
No,hesagoat.
NO!Hesawhale!

2.ThisISanargument:

Willieisawhale.Allwhalesaremammals.Therefore,Willieisamammal.

DISCUSS:Here,thewriterdrawsaconclusionforusthatWillieisamammal.Hegivestwo
relatedfactualreasonstosupporthisconclusion.Whatarethey?Assumingyouagreewith
thefacts,doyouagreewithhisopinionthatWillieisamammal?Whyorwhynot?

DISCUSS:WhyisexampleoneaboveNOTanargument?Issimplycontradictingsomeone
thesameasmakinganargument?Whyisexampletwoaboveagoodargument?Hint:See
thedefinitionofargumentabovebeforeresponding.

FreeWillymotionpictureproducedbyWarnerBrothersFamilyEntertainment

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

Persuasion

Advertisersoftenappeartoclaimthingstobetrueabouttheirproduct.

Whatisclaimedtobetruehere?

Usingourshampootwiceadaywillhelpkeepyoufromlosingyourhair.

a.Ourshampooreducesbaldness
b.Withoutusingourshampoo,youwillprobablygobald.
c.Ourshampoohasaspecialingredientthatwillhelpkeepyou
fromlosingyourhair.
d.Alloftheabove
e.Noneoftheabove

Whatdoweassumeistrueaboutthisproduct?Perhapsitcontainssomespecialanitbaldingingredients?

Inyourownwords,whatisthecompanyclaimingtobetrue?

Ifyousaidthatthecompanyisclaimingthattheirproduct

Usingourshampoocorrectlyrequiresmassagingitintothescalp.
Massagingthescalpincreasesbloodflowtothearea.
Increasedbloodflowtothescalpslowshairlossovertime.

Therefore,massagingthescalpslowshairlossovertime.
Therefore,ourusingshampoocorrectlyslowshairlossovertime.

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

ArgumentandPersuasion

Argumentspurposeinitspurestformistousereasoningtoseekthetruth.Thepurposeofpersuasioninits
mostextremeformistousewhateverstrategiesnecessary,includingdeception,togetanaudienceto
believewhatyouwantittobelieve(evenifyoudontbelieveinwhatyouaresayingyourself).Anargument
essayfallssomewhereonthelineintheshadedareabelow:

Argument

>

Persuasion

Exploratory
writing
examiningall
sidesofan
issue

Argumentas
inquiry,
askingthe
audienceto
thinkoutthe
issuewiththe
writer

Dialectic
argument,
seeking
common
groundwitha
resistant
audience

Classical
argument,
aimedata
neutralor
skeptical
audience

Onesided
argument,
aimedata
friendly
audience

Aggressive
onesided
arguments

Outright
propaganda

Literarytexts

Sermons

Ceremonial
speeches

Parliamentary
debate

Rogerian
argument

Legalreasoning

Classroom
lectures

Lettertoeditor

Fundraising

Callstoaction

Talkradio

Cablenews
commentary

Advertising

ThePartsofAnArgument

Tounderstandanargument,itishelpfultoidentifyitsparts.Anysimpleargumenthastwoparts:aclaim
andreasons.Youmustknowhowtodistinguishbetweenaclaim(alsoknownasanopinionora
conclusion)andreasons(alsoknownasprooforpremises).Thefollowingshouldhelpyouseethesein
action.

DISCUSS:Whichsentencemakesmoresense?

1.Youareshiveringbecauseitiscold.
a.b.

2.Itiscoldbecauseyouareshivering.
a.
a.

Argumentnumberoneusescauseandeffectlogically.Nowlookcloserattheargument.Isthea.
sectionthecauseortheeffect?Theb.section?Whichoneistheclaim?Whichisthereason?
Howdoyouknow?Whyisargumentnumbertwoinvalid?

DISCUSS:Compareandcontrastthestatementsbelowwiththoseabove.Isthea.sectiontheclaimor
thereasonintheexamplebelow?Whatisthedifferenceinmeaningbetweentheconnectingwords
thereforeandbecause?Howaretheybothuseddifferentlytoconnectthesameclaimandreason?
Comparethemeaningofthetwosentencesbelowwiththetwoabove.

1.Youareshiveringtherefore,itiscold.
a.b.

2.Itiscoldtherefore,youareshivering.

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

b.a.

StandardFormDelineation

Whatsthebottomline?Howwillyouknowifanargumentaddsup?Thebestwayistodelineatethe
argumentusingstandardform.Theworddelineatecontainsthewordline.Inthisway,itishelpfultolist
thereasonsanddrawhorizontallinetoseparatethemfromtheclaim.Doingsowillalsohelpyoudetermine
thebestordertopresentyourreasonsandwhetheryourreasonsaregoodones.Itwillalsohelpyouto
evaluatewhetherawriterhasgoodreasonsforsupportingherclaimandorderedthemlogically

Towriteanargumentinstandardform,youfirstmustidentifytheclaimandthenfindthesupportingreasons.
Considerthisargument:Imshiveringbecauseitswetandcoldouthereandthesameargumentstatedin
adifferentorder:Itswetandcoldoutheretherefore,Imshivering.

REASONSSTATED
AFTERTHECLAIM:

CLAIM

CONNECTOR

REASON
1

REASON
2

REASON
3

BECAUSE

itis
wet,

itis
cold,

and
Imoutside.

Argument>

Iam
shivering

REASONSSTATED
BEFORETHECLAIM:

REASON
1

REASON
2

SameArgumentbut
DifferentOrder>

Itis
cold,

REASON
3

CONNECTOR

CLAIM

itis
wet,

and
Im
outside

Iam
THEREFORE shivering
.

Agoodthinkerknowshowtowriteanyargumentinstandardformregardlessoftheorderinwhichthewriter
presentshisreasonsandclaims.

Howtowriteanyargumentinstandardform:

1.Alwaysstatetheclaimfirst.

2.Drawalineabovetheclaim.

2.Listeachreasonabovetheline.

Anargumentinstandardform:

Reason

Reason

Reason

DRAFT

_______
Claim

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

EXAMPLE:

Stepone:Statetheclaim.Intheexample,thespeakermakesaclaimthatheisshivering.Note
howthereaderwritestheclaimatthebottom,underneathahorizontallineleavingspaceabove.
_______________
_______________
Claim
>
Iamshivering

Steptwo:Identifythereasons.Notehowthereaderwriteseachreasonabovethehorizontalline.

Reason
>
Itiswetoutside
Reason
>
Itiscoldoutside
Reason
>
Iamoutside

_______________
_______________

Together,theentireargument,claimandreasons,willlooklikethisinstandardform:

Reason
Reason
Reason
_______________
Claim

>
>
>
>

Itiswetoutside
Itiscoldoutside
Iamoutside

_______________
Iamshivering

Althoughinargumentwriting,theargumentmaybestatedwiththereasonsbeforetheclaimorviceversa,
whenyoudelineateanargument,youmustalwayslistthereasonsabovetheclaim.Boilingdownand
orderinganargumentinthiswayhelpsyouevaluatetheargumentslogicandallowsyoutocomparethe
argumentwithotherargumentswritteninstandardform.

Standardformlookssimilartoanadditionprobleminmath.Writteninthisway,itseasytoseeifthe
argumentaddsupornot.

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

AnnotatingthePartsofanArgument

Thetypicalwordsandphrasesusedtomakeargumentsarecalledargumentmarkers.Inatext,theymay
appearbeforeorafteraclaimorreason.Recognizingandlabelingthesemarkersisthefirststepinbeing
abletoconductacloseandcarefulanalysisofargumentsandtoreconstructtheargumentinstandardform.
Onceyouareabletorecognizeargumentmarkers,youwillbeabletousethemyourselfconnectyourown
claimsandreasonstomakevalidarguments.Whenannotatingargumentativewriting,youcanusethe
abbreviationCtomarkwordsthatsignalanargumentsclaimandPtomarkitsreasons(i.e.,proof,
premises).

TERM&
ABBREVIATION

CLAIM

C
REASON
(proof)

MEANING

EXAMPLES

COMMONARGUMENT
CONNECTORS
(markers)

Aclaimisanopinion.It WecannowconcludethatMr. thereforehencethus

isalogicalconclusion Flumpisanidiot.
furthermoreso
drawnfromthereasons
consequently
orevidence.
then(withoutif)
Itiscoldtherefore,youare

shivering.
thisshowsthat...

Areasonisafactthat
attemptstoprovea
claim.Itanswersthe
question,Why?Itis
alsoknownasa
premise.

Becauseitiscold,youare
shivering.

Note:Aconditionalcan
bephrasedasan
ifthenstatement.A
conditionalisnotan
argumentbyitself
becausenoreasonsare
givenandnoclaimsare
made.Itonlyexpresses
whatmightorcouldbe
true.Itdoesnotclaim
whatistrue.

Ifyouworkhard,thenyouwill

getfarinlife.

SinceBrianspeaksup,he
getswhatheneeds.

becausesinceforas

giventhat...

dueto..

onthegroundsthat...

thisfollowsfrom...

Iwillgoshoppingifyouloan
methecar.

"A Workbook for Arguments: A Complete Course in Critical Thinking [Paperback]." A Workbook for Arguments: A Complete Course in Critical Thinking: David Morrow, Anthony Weston:
9781603845496: Amazon.com: Books. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 May 2013.
Sinott-Armstrong, Walter, and Robert Fogelin. Understanding Arguments: An Introduction to Informal Logic. 8th ed. Australia: Wadsworth, 2010. Print.

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

EvaluatingaClaimsStrengthandEffectiveness

Onceyoulearntorecognizeanargumentsclaim,youshouldbeabletodeterminehowmuchorlittlethe
writerisclaiming.Aclaimcanbebroadornarrow,orsomewhereinbetween.Pleasenote,abroadclaimis
notnecessarilyagoodclaim,norisanarrowclaimnecessarilyabadone.Broadclaimsaremoreboldbut
arealsogeneralandthereforetypicallydifficulttoprove.Forexample,Teachersalwaysassignhomework
isasweepinggeneralizationandsoundslikeastrongclaim.However,itisdifficulttodefend.Why?One
needonlyfindasingleexampleofateacherwhoassignsnohomeworktodisprovetheclaimthatteachers
alwaysassignhomework.

Ontheotherhand,Teachersoftenassignhomeworkiseasiertodefendbecauseitclaimsless.Thewords
alwaysandusuallymakeallthedifferencehere.Alwaysmakestheclaimappearstronger.Usually
makestheclaimappearlessstrongandthereforeeasiertodefend.Goodwritersguardtheirclaimsby
beingcarefulnottogeneralizeormakeoverstatementsthatcanbeeasilydisproven.Goodwritersarealso
carefulnottomaketheirclaimstoonarrowforfearofnotsayinganythingsignificant.Strongclaimsare
usuallysobroadthattheycannotbedefended.Weakclaimsareusuallynotdebatableandthereforedonot
inviteadefense.

Inanycase,thebestclaimisanaccurateclaim.

Astrongandweakclaimcompared

CLAIMTOOSTRONG:

Alldogsaremean

CLAIMTOOWEAK:

Somedogsaremeansometimes.

IstooBroad

IstooNarrow

ClaimstooMuch

ClaimstooLittle

ImpossibletoDefend

NotWorthDebating

EasytoDefend

NotWorthDebating

PRACTICE:KnowYourStrength!Fillintheblankstomakeanaccurateandmeaningfulclaim.Be
suretousewordsthatguardagainstclaimingtoomuch:

__Few__teachersatEGHSassign__difficult__homework.

___________teachersatEGHSassign__easy__homework.

____________dogsare____________mean.

____________politicians___________lie.

___________babiesdonotsleepthroughthenight.

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

EvaluatingEvidenceinExamples

Withoutexamplessuchasfactsandfigurestoillustrateyourreasons,anargumenthaslittlecredibility.Oftenitisimportant
toexplainoutrighthowtheexampleshelpillustrateyourreasonsandthussupportyourclaim.Itisbestnottoassumeyour
readerwillmakethisconnectiononhisorherown.Youmayalreadybefamiliarwiththisconceptofstatingassumptionsas
aclincher.Itisalsoknownasgrounds,warrant,orsuppressedpremise,orsubclaim.

PRACTICE:Provideexamplesforeachoftheclaimsyoumadeabove.Ifyoucannotthinkofanyexamples,adjustthe
claimsstrengthuntilitisaccurateandyoucan.Reviewthetablebelow.

CLAIM

REASON

Someteachersassign ...becausetheyforget
toomuchhomework... thatstudentshavealife
outsideofschool.

EXAMPLE

STATEDASSUMPTIONS

Forexample,Mr.
Hammerheadrequires
studentstokeepawritten
logofeverymomentwe
recycleinandoutof
school.

Mostpeoplewouldagreethatteens
havearighttosociallifeoutsideof
school.Mostteenswouldalsofindit
embarrassingtocarryarounda
notebooktosocialevents.Since
teenswillnormallyoptforsocial
acceptanceoverembarrassment,it
isnotrealisticorrightforateacherto
expectstudentstodothiskindof
aroundtheclockhomework.

PRACTICE:Readtheclaim,reason,andexamplebelow.Intheblankbox,explainhowtheexampleindeedillustratesthe
reasonandprovestheclaim.Seeaboveforanexample.

CLAIM

REASON

EXAMPLE

STATEDASSUMPTIONS

Allwomenshouldbe
preventedfromjoining
combatunits

...becausewomen
typicallydonothavethe
strengthorendurance
forcombat.

Forexample,women
generallyhaveweaker
upperbodystrength,a
crucialrequirementfor
carryingawoundedsoldier
offofthebattlefield.

PRACTICE:Makeaclaimofyourown,andprovideagoodreasonsupportingitwithanexamplewhichillustratesyour
reason.Explaintheassumptionthatconnectsyourexampletoyourreasonandclaim.

CLAIM

Statesomethingyou
believeinstrongly.

REASON

Provideagood
reasonsupporting
yourclaim.

EXAMPLE

Stateanexamplewhich
illustratesthereason.

STATEDASSUMPTIONS

Explaintheassumptionthat
connectsyourexampletoyour
reasonandclaim.

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

AnnotatinganArgumentsStrengthandEffectiveness

Youcanusetheabbreviationsbelowtoindicatesignalwordsfordetermininganargumentsstrengthandeffectiveness.You
mightusetheacronymGRADESXtohelpyouremembertheassociatedterms.Note:Wordsmeaningsdependontheir
context.Thecommonindicatorwordslistedintherightcolumnabovearenotguaranteedsignals,sowhenindoubtusethe
contexttodecideonhowthewordworksinthewriting.

TERM&
ABBREVIATION

MEANING

GUARDING

Toguardistoprotecta
claimfrombeing
rejected.

EXAMPLES

Mostfreshmengradesimproveby
midyear.

Note:Guardedclaimsusuallyrequireless
evidencethanunguardedclaims.

somemanyfew
mightmaypossibly
likelyunlikelyalmost
nearlymay
couldbethereisa
goodchance...,etc.

irony,sarcasm,
hyperbole,andother
literarylanguage

Note:Thesemayserve
anypurposeandmay
havepositiveor
negativeconnotations.

Goingtothedentististheworstthingin
theworld!(hyperboleandE)

[varies]

Toassureisto
guaranteeaclaimis
truewithoutprovidinga
reason.

Everyoneknowsthatseniorsslackoff.

TrustmewhenItellyouthatyouare
wrong.

doctorsagree...recent
studieshaveshown
Iknowforafactthat...
itscommonsense...
theysaythat...
takeitfromme...

Todiscountistoreject
orrefuteafactor
opinion.

Hisclassringlooksnice,
butitisexpensive.

Hisclassringisexpensive
thoughitlooksnice.

althoughevenifbut
nevertheless
thoughwhile
howevernonetheless
eventhough...whereas
yetstilletc.

Toevaluateistojudge
afactoropinion
positivelyornegatively.
+or

Celiaistoosilly.E
Yourequationisidiotic.E
Coolidea!E+

beautifuldangerous
wastefulsneakysinful
sloppycutesmart,etc.

Toexplainhowthethe
examplesindeedillustrate
thereasonsandsupport
theclaim.

Toexemplifyisto
provideanexampleto
illustratethereasons.

Celiaistoosilly.Forexample,shelaughs
atfunerals.

Yourexplanationisidiotic:Clearly,two
plustwoequalsdonutisnotsoundmath!

forexample...

Sheprobablyquitherjob.

RHETORICAL
DEVICE

R+/
ASSURING

A
DISCOUNTING

D
EVALUATING

E+/
STATING
ASSUMPTIONS

S
EXEMPLIFYING

COMMONINDICATOR
WORDS

HerfaceusuallylooksprettyasSnow
Whites.(simile,allusion,andE+)

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

EvaluatinganArgumentsReasonableness

Aclaimissupportedwelliftherelationshipbetweenthereasonsmakessense.Inotherwords,thereasons
supportingyourclaimmustbelogicallyrelatedtoeachotherthereasonsmustaddup.Themorethe
readeracceptsthewritersargumentasfactuallyaccurateandvalid,thegreaterchancethereaderwillbe
convinced.

AvalidargumentcontainsNOillogicalreasoning.Inotherwords,ifyouconnectyourreasonstoyourclaim
inawaythattrulymakessense,youhavemadealogicalargument.AnargumentisvalidONLYifthereis
nowaythattheclaimcanbefalsewhenthesupportingreasonsaretrue.Nonetheless,areadermightfind
someargumentstobemorereasonablethanothersbasedonthenumber,type,specificity,andaccuracy
ofevidenceusedtosupporttheopinion.

ConsiderWillieagainforamoment:

Willieisawhale.Allwhalesaremammals.Therefore,Willieisamammal.

DISCUSS:Explainhowthesefactsarerelatedtoeachother:WillieisawhaleandAllwhalesare
mammals.HowarethesefactsrelatedtotheclaimthatWillieisamammal?Isthereanywaythat
WilliecouldNOTbeamammalifitstruethatheisindeedawhaleandthatallwhalesare
mammals?DoestheWillieargumentcontainanyillogicalreasoning?Isitavalidargument?

DISCUSS:Explainhowthesefactsarerelatedtoeachother:Penguinsareblackandwhiteand
SomeoldTVshowsareblackandwhite.IsthereanywaythatsomepenguinscanNOTbeoldTV
showsevenifitstruethatpenguinsareblackandwhiteandthatsomeoldTVshowsareblackand
white?WhatisthedifferenceinreasoningbetweentheWillieargumentandthepenguinargument?
Doesthepenguinargumentcontainanyillogicalreasoning?Isitavalidargument?

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

BreakinganArgument:FallaciesinReasoning

Remember,inavalidargument,thereasonsandtheclaimaddup.Afallacyinreasoningoccurswhenthe
writerhasconnectedtheclaimandreasonsinawaythatappearstomakesensebutreallydoesnotaddup.
AnargumentthatreliesonafallacyisNOTvalid.Keepinmind,however,ifthereaderdoesnotrecognize
theinvalidargument,heorshemaystillbepersuadedbytheargument.Beingabletorecognizethese
fallaciescanhelpyoutoprotectyourselfagainstbeingconvincedofsomethingforthewrongreasons.

BasicFallaciesfalsecause?overlookingalternatives?Appealtomotivewhereapremiseisdismissedby
callingintoquestionthemotivesofitsproposer

Someerrorsinlogicaeasytospotwithalittletraining.

FALLACY

ALSO
KNOWNAS

WHATITMEANS
orDOES

EXAMPLE

HOWTOFIXIT

ridiculingthe
claim

appealtoridicule

Makingfunoftheclaim
itselfratherthanofferinga
reasonfordisagreeingwith
it.

ThatisthestupidestideaIveever
heard!

(Thatmaybe,butthespeakerstill
needstosaywhy.)

Thespeakershouldgiveagood
reasonwhytheideaisbad.

attackingthe
person

adhominem

Criticizingtheperson
makingtheargument
insteadoftheargument
itself.

Thatkidskateboards,and
skateboardersaretroublemakers,
whichiswhyIdontbelieve
anythinghejustsaid.

Thespeakershouldrestatethe
boysclaimandreasonsandthen
explainwhytheboysreasons
makenosense.

bandwagon

adpopulem

Offeringthereasonthat
everyoneisdoing
somethinginplaceofa
logicalreasonfordoingit.

Everyoneisjumpingoffthebridge.
Thatsagoodenoughreasonfor
metojumpofftoo!

(Justbecauseothersaredoing
somethingisntagoodreasonfor
doingit.)

Thespeakermighthavesaid,
becausethebridgeisonfire,Iwill
jumpofftosavemylife.Thisis
clearlyagoodreason.

composition

Assumingthatwhatistrue
ofthepartofsomething
mustbetrueforitasa
whole.

loaded
language

Playingonwords
connotationsandemotions
insteadofactuallymaking
anargument.

thebulls
horns

falsedilemma

bifurcation

blackorwhite

Reducingallpossible
optionstojusttwo
opposingones.

Eitheryouarewiththeus,oryou
arewiththeterrorists.GeorgeW.
Bush,2001

Dontallowthespeakerto
oversimplifyyouroptions.Just
becausesomeonesaysthereare
onlytwooptionsdoesnt
necessarilymakeitso.For
example,Switzerland,aneutral
country,couldbeneitherfor
terrorismnorfortheU.S.

slipperyslope

thecamelsnose

Suggestingthatonestep
inadirectionwillinevitably
leadtoachainofevents
resultinginanundesirable
outcome.

appealtopity

admisericordiam

Usingpityreasonfor
specialtreatment

Theteachershouldgivemea
passinggradebecausemydog
diedlastnight.

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

IntermediateFallacies

loaded
question

complexquestion

Phrasingaquestiontotrap
thepersonintoagreeingto
aclaim.

Broseph,areyoustillbeing
meantopuppies?

(Answeringnowillstillimply
thatBrosephhasbeenmeanto
puppies,evenifhehasnt.)

Brosephshouldnotanswerthe
questiondirectly.Instead,heshould
calloutthespeakeranddismissher
questionbysaying,Youknowvery
wellthatIamneithermean,norhaveI
hurtpuppies.Stoptryingtomakeme
lookbad.Focusyourdisagreementon
myideasinstead.

appealto
ignorance

adignorantiam

Arguingaclaimistruejust
becauseithasnotbeen
showntobefalse

appealto
history

adantiquitam

Offeringthefactthat
somethinghasbeendone
inthepastasareasonfor
continuingtodoit.

Wedriveontherightsideof
theroadbecauseitsalways
beendonethatway.

Justbecausesomethinghasbeen
doneforalongtimeisnotagood
reasonfordoingit.Theremayvery
wellbelogicalreasonsfordrivingon
therightsideoftheroad,sothe
speakershouldstatethem.Shirley
JacksonsshortstoryTheLottery
exposesthisfallacy.

talkingin
circles

beggingthe
question

circularargument

Usingaclaimasareason.

HowdoIknowmymomis
usuallyright?Becauseshetells
meso!

Howdoesthespeakerreallyknowif
hismomisusuallyrightifherelies
onlyonheropinionasproof?Whatif
heropinioniswrong?Thenher
reasonmustalsobewrongtoo.He
shouldprovidemanyexamplesof
whenhismomwasrightasproof
instead.

slipperyword

equivocation

hedging

Changingmeaningsofan
importantwordinthe
middleoftheargument.

Womenandmenarephysically
andemotionallydifferent.SInce
wearenotreallyequal,thelaw
shouldnottreatthemequally.

Contrasttheslipperywordwiththe
wordofsimilarbutdifferentmeaning
whichwasleftoutoftheoriginal
argument.Heretheslipperywordis
equallywhichthespeakerwantsus
tobelievemeansexactlythesame
asopposedtoitslegalmeaning,
fairly.Rephrasedproperly,Since
wearenotreallyequal,thelawshould
nottreatusfairlysoundssuitably
ridiculous.Vonnegutssatiricalshort
storyHarrisonBergeronexposes
thisfallacy.

MoreDifficultFallacies

FALLACY

ALSOKNOWNAS WHATITMEANS

EXAMPLE

HOWTOFIXIT

qthereforep

affirmingtheconsequent

Ifmyphoneisdropped,
itsscreencracks.Its
screeniscracked,so
someonemusthave
droppedit!

Thespeakershouldhave
realizedthereweremany
otherwayshisscreen
couldhavecracked.
Maybesomeonesatonit.

notpthereforenotq

denyingtheantecedent

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

redherring

Introducingaseemingly
relatedissuetotakefocus
awayfromtherealissue.

falsecause

posthocergopropterhoc
(afterthisthereforethat),
orsimply,posthoc,
correlationvs.causation

Toquicklyassuming
somethingcaused
somethingelse.

falsecause

StrawManArguments:Whenyouputafalseargumentintothemouthofyouropponentandthenproceedto
knockitdown,youhaveonlycreateda"strawman"argument,
overlookingalternatives

FALLACIESTBD...

ALSOTBD...
Relevant,short,kidfriendlyargumentsforpracticeannotation.Seeworkbookexamples.Alsofor
belowseeorangebookshadedsheetforguidesheetforpeerrevision
SEETHEFALLACYDETECTIVECOMICS

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

SomeCommonRhetoricalDevicesandtheirEffects

Mostgoodwriterscanlearntomakelogicalarguments.Thebestwriters,though,enhancetheirargumentbybeing
thoughtfulaboutthewordsandsyntax(wordorder)theyuse.

Whatitis

Whatitdoes

Allusion

Areferenceoutsidethetexttoaspecificevent,person,place,
orobjectcommonlyknowntothereader.

Drawsonthereaderspriorknowledge
toillustrateanidea.

Createsasenseofconnectednessand
understandingwiththereader.

Fourscoreandsevenyearsagoourfathersbroughtforthon
thiscontinentanewnation...dedicatedtotheproposition
thatallmenarecreatedequal.Here,Lincolnalludestothe
DeclarationofIndependence.

Analogy

Afourwaycomparison:e.g.teachersthisschoolarelike
guardsinprisons.

Euphemism Usingalessthandirectwordorphrase.

Wehavecometodedicateaportionofthatfieldasafinal
restingplaceforthosewhoheregavetheirlives....

Helpsmakeabstractideasmorevivid
andunderstandablebyconnectinga
newconcepttosomethingthereader
alreadyknows.
Softensanotionorimageareader
mightfinddistractingortoodisturbing.

Clearly,themoredirectword,graveyard,wouldaddasense
ofmorbidityinconsistentwithLincolnssolemntone.

Hyperbole

Exaggerationoroverstatement

Theworld...canneverforgetwhattheydidhere.

Emphasizesapoint.Becareful:
hyperbolecaneasilybackfireasa
sweepinggeneralization.

Irony

Whenawritermeanstheoppositeofwhatshesays.

Establishestone.Mayengagethe
readerthroughhumor.

Parallelism

Usingthesamegrammaticalstructureincloseproximity.

Drawsthereadersattentiontothe
relationshipbetweentheitemsin
parallel.

...thatgovernmentofthepeople,bythepeople,forthe
people,shallnotperishfromtheearth.Heretherearethree
prepositionalphrasesusedtoshowtherelationshipamong
thepeoplesrelationshiptothegovernment:

Sensory
Imagery

Descriptionwhichappealstothewriterssenseofoftaste,
touch,sound,sight,smell,balance,heat/cold.

Vivifiesthemeaningbystimulatingthe
brainssensorycortex.

Simile&
Metaphor

Asimileisanindirectcomparisonusinglikeoras.A
metaphorisadirectcomparisonusingalinkingverb(suchas
is)orof(asinchainsofoppression).Example:
...thisnation,underGod,shallhaveanewbirthof
freedom.

Helpsmakeabstractideasmorevivid
andunderstandablebyconnectingthe
writersnewconcepttosomethingthe
readeralreadyknows.

Tone

Thewritersattitudeormoraloutlooktowardthesubjector
readers,e.g.,cynical,empathetic,critical,idealistic,ironic,
optimistic,realistic,suspicious,comic,sarcastic,supportive

Contributestothewritersmeaningby
complementinghismeaning.

Repetition

Canoccurwithletters(alliteration,assonance),words(epistrophe,
chiasmus,epizeuxis),andphrases(anaphora).

...thatgovernmentofthepeople,bythepeople,forthepeople,
shallnotperishfromtheearth.

Emphasizesanimportantpointor
detail.Createsahypnoticeffect
openingthereadersunconsciousmind
tosuggestion.

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

UsefulQuestionsforClose,CarefulAnalysisofArgumentWriting

Afterannotatingaworkofargumentativewriting,answeringthesequestionswillhelpyouevaluatehowwell
thewriterarguedhisorherpoint.Thesequestionswillalsodevelopyourownabilitytoargueeffectively.

I.IDENTIFYTHEARGUMENT

1.Whatclaimdoesthewritermake?

(C)

2.Whatarethereasons(premises)supportingtheclaim?

(P)

3.[Now,writetheargumentinstandardform:listthereasonsabovetheclaim.]

4.Whataretheexamplesusedtoillustratethereasons?

(X)

5.Wheredoesthewriterstatehisorherassumptionsabouthowtheexamples
supportthereasonsandtheclaim?

(S)

6.Wheredoestheauthoraddresstheopposingview(counterclaim)?

(CC)

II.EVALUATETHEARGUMENT

1.Istheclaimclear?Noticeanyguardingwords.Howstrongorweakistheclaim?

(G)

2.Arethereasonstrue?Arethereenoughreasons(premises)tosupporttheclaim? (P)

3.Whatreasonshavebeenleftout?Assumptionsmade?Why?

(A)

4.Arethereasonsgoodonesoristhewriterstretching?Aretheyvalid(logical)?

(P)

5.Whathasbeenjudgedordiscountedtohelpsupporttheclaim?Wasthisdonefairly?(DE)

6.Arethereasonsandfactsconnectedlogicallyordoestheargumentrelyonafallacy?

(F)

7.Dotheexamplesreallyillustratereasonsandclaim?Aretheyfactuallyaccurate? (X)(S)

8.Howeffectivelyarerhetoricaldevicesorliterarylanguageusedtoenhancethearguments
effectiveness?Howeffectiveisitindoingso?
(R)

9.Howfairlyandrespectfullydidthewriteraddresstheopposingview?Whatwasthewriterstonein
thecounterargument?
(E+)(E)(CC)

10.Howconvincingwasthewritersrebuttaloftheopposingview?Didthewriterconcede,orgivein
toanyopposingviews?
(E+)(E)(CC)

11.Whathasbeenoverlookedthatwouldhavehelpedmakeamoreconvincingargument?

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

PuttingitAllTogether
DIRECTIONS:ThepassagebelowisashortpiecearguinginsupportofaUS"junkfoodtax."Readthroughthepieceand
lookforthedifferentpartsofthewritersargument.ANNOTATEthearticlecarefullyinthemargins.Afterwards,answerthe
followingquestionsonyourown.Next,shareyourresponseswithasmallgroupandcomparewhatyouhearwithyour
responses.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Whichsentence(s)containtheauthorsclaim?
Herreasons?
Doestheauthoruseanyguardingwordstolimittheclaim?
Whatevidencedoessheprovidetosupportherreasons?Istheevidencetrue?Isitstrong?
Whatassumptionsconnecttheclaimtothereasons?
Doestheauthorpresentanycounterclaims?
Howwouldyoujudgethequalityoftheargumentoverall?Isthereasoningvalid?Arethereasonsordered
effectively?Whatisthemostbeautifullywrittensentenceinyouropinion?

Why We Should Tax Junk Food

With the alarming rise in obesity rates among Americans in the past few decades, numerous debates have
arisen over how (or if) public policy should be changed to help improve this trend. One promising strategy, already
adopted by seven states, has been to try and deter consumers from purchasing unhealthy foods through a tax on
soda or sugary drinks and junk food (Lohman). These taxes address the issue that Americans today are consuming
almost 20 percent more calories than they did in the early 1980s, and those calories are coming from increasingly
less-healthy sources, mainly high-fat and high-sugar processed foods (USDA). Furthermore, processed foods and
drinks are increasingly more affordable than the fruits, vegetables, and whole grains needed to sustain a healthy diet
(Marsh). Assuming that cost is a more relevant factor of food choice than personal taste, increasing the price of soda
and junk food through taxes, while using that revenue to subsidize unprocessed fruits and vegetables would
encourage consumers to choose healthier products as they become more affordable than their unhealthy
counterparts.
In fact, there is evidence to suggest that cost, more so than preference, influences purchasing choices. A year
after New York increased cigarette taxes from $1.25 to $2.75, smoking rates dropped by 12 percent to a historic low
(Harutyunyan). Although some might argue that smoking is more of a lifestyle choice than eating, it is rather the
choice of what foods to eat which will hopefully be affected in the long run. Additionally, this tax might hurt those in
areas with little access to fresh produce and whole grains, such as in low-income urban areas; therefore the junk
food tax would only work if healthy food choices are made not only affordable but easily available to low-income
consumers through the use of subsidies (Marsh). However, if precautions are taken to ensure equal access to healthy
food among all citizens, then using the carrot of subsidized healthy food and nutrition education along with the
stick of a food tax, the typical American diet can-- and should-- be changed for the better.

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

ANSWERS
1.Whatistheauthorsclaim?

Theclaimisstatedintwoplacesatthebeginningofthepiece,whentheauthorstatesthatthetaxisapromising
strategyagainstobesity.Theclaimisrestatedattheend,whentheauthorwritesusingthecarrotofsubsidized
healthyfoodandnutritioneducationalongwiththestickofafoodtax,thetypicalAmericandietcan,andshould,be
changedforthebetter.Thesetwostatementscondensethemainpointwhichtheauthoristryingtoimpartthata
junkfoodtaxhasagoodchanceofbeingsuccessfulandshouldbeimplemented.

2.Doestheauthorlimittheclaimbyusinganyguardingwords?

Theauthorguardsherclaimbyaddressingtheissuesbroughtupbylackofaccesstohealthyoptionsinher
restatementoftheclaim.Specifically,thequalifierappearsasthestatementhowever,ifprecautionsaretakento
ensureequalaccesstohealthyfoodamongallcitizens,then....Theclaimisagainstatedasshecontinueswith
usingthecarrotofsubsidizedhealthyfoodandnutritioneducationalongwiththestickofafoodtax,thetypical
Americandietcanandshouldbechangedforthebetter.

3.Whereevidencedoestheauthorpresentinthisessay?

ThemainevidencetosupportherclaimisgivenintheformofstatisticsaboutfoodconsumptionintheUSto
highlighttheneedforaprogramencouraginghealthyfoodconsumption.Specifically,shestatesAmericanstoday
areconsumingalmost20percentmorecaloriesthantheydidintheearly1980s,andthosecaloriesarecomingfrom
increasinglylesshealthysources,mainlyhighfatandhighsugarprocessedfoods.Furthermore,processedfoods
anddrinksareincreasinglymoreaffordablethanthefruits,vegetables,andwholegrainsneededtoforahealthydiet.

4.Whatassumptions(alsoknownassuppressedpremises,enthymemes,orwarrants)connecttheevidencetotheclaim?

Becausetheauthorisarguingthatataxonunhealthyfoodwouldencouragehealthyfoodconsumption,the
assumptionlinkingevidenceofunhealthyeatingtotheuseofafoodtaxisthatcustomersmakepurchasing
decisionslargelyonthebasisofcost.Thisideaisexplicitlystatedwhentheauthorwritesmentionsthatwemight
assumecostisamorepertinentfactoroffoodchoicethanpersonaltaste.

5.Doestheauthorpresentanycounterclaims?

Yes,theauthoraddressestwopossiblecounterargumentsbybringingthemup,andthenrefutingthem.Shenotes
thatwithregardtothelegitimacyofcomparingsmokingtoeatinghabits,somemightarguethatsmokingismoreofa
lifestylechoicethaneating,itisratherthechoiceofwhatfoodstoeatwhichwillhopefullybeaffectedinthelongrun.
Shealsonotestheissueoffooddesertsbywritingadditionally,thistaxmighthurtthoseinareaswithlittleaccessto
freshproduceandwholegrains,suchasinlowincomeurbanareasthereforethejunkfoodtaxwouldonlyworkif
healthyfoodchoicesaremadenotonlyaffordablebuteasilyavailabletolowincomeconsumersthroughtheuseof
subsidies(Marsh).

6.Howwouldyoujudgetooverallqualityofthisargument?Isthereasoningvalid?

Thisanswerdependentsonyourownanalysisoftheargument.However,therearemanyissuesworthnoting.The
evidenceprovideddoesexplainthatthereisatrendinunhealthyeating,butdoesnotgiveevidenceforwhythis
trendisharmful,nordoesitprovideevidenceforwhythistrendexists.Theoverallclaimthatajunkfoodtaxshould
beimplementedwouldbestrongerifevidenceweregivenexplainingtheconsequencesofallowingthisunhealthy
trendtocontinuealso,theassumptionthatcostisaprimaryfactoroffoodpurchasingchoiceswouldbemorevalidif

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

evidencewasprovidedoutliningotherfactorsinthistypeofdecisionmaking.Additionally,therebuttalandqualifier
addressingthelackofaccessibilitytohealthyfoodinlowincomeareaswouldbestrongeriftheauthorhad
suggestedspecificmeasuresbywhichtheaccessibilityissuewouldberesolved.

"Writer'sWeb:ToulminModelExercise."Writer'sWeb:ToulminModelExercise.N.p.,n.d.Web.26May2013.

TheLanguageofArgument

Writing an Argument

ShortArguments

Beforewritinganextendedargumentessay,itisbesttobeginpracticingbywritingafewshort
arguments.Shortargumentsareonlyabouttwoparagraphslong.Usethefollowingrulestohelp
insureyourshortargumentislogicalandclear.Besuretoreviseyourworktoinsureyouhaveused
elaborationstrategiesfor
fulleffect.

SomeGeneralGuidelines

1.Identifyyourreasonsandclaims.

Askyourself,WhatamItryingtoprove?Thisis
yourclaim.Thinkofaclaimasaminithesis.
(Thereasonswhyyouareclaimingwhatyouare
claimingarealsoknownasprooforpremises
theywillbecomeyourprojectedorganization.)

2.Developyourideasinanaturalorder.

Putyourclaimfirst,followedbyyourreasonsOR
putyourreasonsfirstandyourclaimlast.

3.Startfromgood,reliablereasons.

Nomatterhowwellyouuselogicandword
choice,yourclaimwillappearsillyifyourreasons
arequestionable.

4.Beconcreteandconcisewhenyouuse
examplesfortoillustrateyourreasons.

Avoidgeneralities.Useclearexamplesto
illustrateandclarifyyourreasons.Dont
overelaborateoryouwillloseyouraudience.

5.Buildonsubstance,notovertone.

Offeractualreasonsdontjustrelyonpowerful
wordchoiceorgeneralizations.

WRITE:Tryit.Followingtheguidelinesabovewriteatwoparagraphlettertotheeditoratopicinthe
newsaboutwhichyouhaveanopinion.Next,rewriteyourargumentandchangetheorderyou

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

presentedyourreasonsandclaim.Whichversionismorenaturalandeffective?Why?

"AWorkbookforArguments:ACompleteCourseinCriticalThinking[Paperback]."AWorkbookforArguments:ACompleteCourseinCriticalThinking:David
Morrow,AnthonyWeston:9781603845496:Amazon.com:Books.N.p.,n.d.Web.23May2013.

UsefulTipsforFindingFallaciesinYourOwnWriting
Goodargumentwritingdependsonclear,logicalthinking.Fallaciesareillogical.Herearesomegeneral
tipstoimproveyourargumentbyfindingandeliminatingfallaciesinyourownarguments:
1)Pretendyoudisagreewiththeclaimyouaredefending.Whatpartsoftheargumentwould
nowseemfishytoyou?Whatpartswouldseemeasiesttoattack?Givespecialattentionto
strengtheningthoseparts.
2)Listyourmainpointsundereachone,listtheevidenceyouhaveforit.Seeingyourclaims
andevidencelaidoutthiswaymaymakeyourealizethatyouhavenogoodevidencefora
particularclaim,oritmayhelpyoulookmorecriticallyattheevidenceyoureusing.
3)Learnwhichtypesoffallaciesyouareespeciallyproneto,andbecarefultocheckforthem
inyourwork.Somewritersmakemanyofappealstoauthorityothersaremorelikelytorelyon
weakanalogiesorsetupstrawmen.Readoversomeofyouroldpaperstoseeiftheresa
particularkindoffallacyyouneedtowatchoutfor.
4)Beawarethatbroadclaimsneedmoreproofthannarrowones.Claimsthatusesweeping
wordslikeall,no,none,every,always,never,noone,andeveryonearesometimes
appropriatebuttheyrequiremuchmoreproofthanlesssweepingclaimsthatusewordslike
some,many,few,sometimes,usually,andsoforth.
5)Doublecheckyourcharacterizationsofothers,especiallyyouropponents,tobesuretheyare
accurateandfair.

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

"Fallacies."TheWritingCenter.UniversityofNorthCarolina,n.d.Web.09May2013.

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

StructuringanExtendedArgument

Anextendedargumentisalsoknownasapositionpaper.Whenawritertakesaposition,heorshemakes
aclaim.Therearemanystrategiesfororganizingyourideasbeforewritingyourextendedargument.Two
areexplainedbelow.Eachhasitsstrengthsandlimitations.Whichoneyouusedependsentirelyonyour
purposeformakingtheargumentandtheaudienceyouaretryingtopersuade.

TheClassicalApproach

Thefirstextendedargumentswerenotintendedtobereadtheywereintendedtobeheard.
AncientGreekandRomanoratorsworkedoutaconsistentformatthathelpedkeeptheirsometimes
longwindedspeechesfrombecomingtooconfusingtolistento.Eachextendedargumentconsisted
ofanexordium(attentiongrabber),narratio(explanationoftheissueandneededbackground
information),propositio(themainthesis),partitio(theprojectedorganization),confirmatio
(presentationofthewritersposition),confutatio(summaryofopposingviews,responsetoopposing
views),andperoratio(theconclusion).Thisformatisstillusedtodayinwriting.Theleftsideofthe
tablebelowpresentsthisclassicalstructureclearly.

RogerianOrganizationPlan

AdifferentapproachtoorganizinganextendedargumentistheRogerianmethod.Itwasnamed
afterCarlRogers,apsychologist,whorecognizedthattheclassicalapproachtoargumentationoften
putsanaudienceonthedefensive.TheRogerianmethod,ontheotherhand,attemptstofind
compromiseandagreement,therebyinvitingtheaudiencetoparticipateinthewritersargument.
Anotherkeydifferenceisthatthethesisstatementisnotrevealeduntiltheendoftheessay.The
rightsideofthetablebelowpresentsthismoremodernapproachtowritinganextendedargument.

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

TwoArgumentStrategiesCompared

Classical

Rogerian

1.
Introduction

Capturetheaudiencesattention.
Introducetheissueandcreate
exigenceforyourclaim.

Whyisthisanissue?Whydowe
needtopayattention?

Supplythecontextneededto
understandthecaseyoupresent.
Whatcircumstances,
occurrences,orconditionsdowe
needtobemadeawareof?

Stateyourposition(claim/thesis),
basedontheinformationyou
havepresented,andoutlinethe
majorpointsthatwillfollow.
Separatethebackground
informationfromthereasoning.

1.
Introduction

Statetheproblemyouhopeto
resolve.Bypresentingyourissue
asaproblemyouraisethe
possibilityofpositivechange.
Oftenopponentswillwanttosolve
thesameproblem.

2.
Summaryof
Opposing
Views

Asaccuratelyandneutrallyas
possible,statetheviewsofthe
peoplewithwhomyoudisagree.
Bydoingthisyoushowthatyou
arecapableoflisteningwithout
judgingandhavegivenafair
hearingtopeoplewhothink
differentlyfromyou.

3.
Statementof
Understanding

Presentyourreasons,subclaims,
andevidence.Clarify
connectionsbetweenclaimand
support.Provideadditional
evidencewherenecessary.
Explainandjustifyassumptions.

Anticipateandrefuteopposing
arguments.Inthissectionyou
demonstratethatyouhave
alreadyconsideredtheissue
thoroughlyandhavereachedthe
onlyreasonableconclusion.

4.
Statementof
YourPosition

5.
Statementof
Contexts

Summarizethemostimportant
points.Makeafinalappealto
values,motivations,andfeelings
thatarelikelytoencouragethe
audiencetoidentifywithyour
argument

6.
Statementof
Benefits

2.
Statementof
Background

3.
Proposition

4.
Proof

5.
Rebuttal

6.
Conclusion

Alsocalledthestatementof
validity.Showthatyouunderstand
thattherearesituationsinwhich
theseviewsarevalid.Whichparts
oftheopposingargumentsdoyou
concede?Underwhichconditions
mightyousharetheseviews?

Nowthatreadershaveseenthat
youvegivenfullconsiderationto
viewsotherthanyourown,they
shouldbepreparedtolistenfairly
toyourviews.Stateyourposition.

Describesituationsinwhichyou
hopeyourviewswillbehonored.
Byshowingthatyourpositionhas
meritinspecificcontexts,you
recognizethatpeoplewontagree
withyouallofthetime.However,
opponentsareallowedtoagreein
partandsharecommonground.

Appealtotheselfinterestofyour
opponentsbyshowinghowthey
wouldbenefitfromacceptingyour
positionthisconcludesyouressay
onahopeful,positivenote.

"UM.SiteMaker Message." UM.SiteMaker: Message. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 May 2013.

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

ExploringBothSides

WhetheryouusetheclassicalorRogerianapproach,youMUSTexaminebothsidesoftheargumentwhen
prewritinganddrafting.Consideringbothsidesofanargumentinthiswaymayhelpyoudeterminewhere
yourargumentisstrongestandwheretheopposingviewisweakest,ORitmayleadyoutosomecommon
groundbetweenyourpositionandtheopposingviewpoint.Inanycase,exploringthecounterclaiminthis
wayhelpsyouappearmorereasonabletoyourreader.Notetheexamplebelowinwhichthewriterhas
donesomeprewritingtoconsiderbothsidesofthequestionofwhethergirlsshouldbeencouragedtoplay
firstpersonshootervideogames.

Prompt:Shouldgirlsbeencouragedtoplayfirstpersonshootervideogames?

OneView...

OpposingView...

Firstpersonshootervideo
gamesareGOODforgirls.

vs

COUNTER
CLAIM:

Firstpersonshootervideo
gamesareBADforgirls.

REASON
1

becausebeatingguysattheirown
gameisempoweringforgirls.

vs.

REASON
1

becausetheypromoteantisocial
valuessuchasindiscriminate
killing.

REASON
2

becausebeingskilledatthese
gamesfreesgirlsfromfeminine
stereotypes.

vs.

REASON
2

becausetheyamplifythebad
sideofmalestereotypes.

REASON
3

becausetheygivegirlsadifferent
wayofconnectingwithmales.

vs.

REASON
3

becausetheywastevaluable
timethatcouldhavebeenspent
onsomethingconstructive.

REASON
4

becausetheygivegirlsnew
insightsintoamalesubculture.

vs.

REASON
4

becauseFPSgamescould
encouragewomentosee
themselvesasobjects.

CLAIM:

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

PRACTICE:Foreachblank,fillinagoodreasonfortheopposingviewtotheclaimthatwomenshouldbe
preventedfromjoiningmilitarycombatunits.

Prompt:Shouldwomenbeallowedtojoinmilitarycombatunits?

OneView...

OpposingView...

CLAIM:

WomenshouldbePREVENTED
fromjoiningmilitarycombatunits.

COUNTER
CLAIM:

WomenshouldbeALLOWEDto
joincombatunitsinthemilitary.

REASON Womentypicallydonothavethe
1
strengthorenduranceforcombat.

REASON
1

???

REASON Womenincloseknitcombatunits
2
wouldhurtmoralebyintroducing
sexualjealousies.

REASON
2

Theimageofwomenascombat
soldierswouldhelpsocietyovercome
harmfulgenderstereotyping.

REASON Womenhavenotbeensocializedinto
3
fightersandwouldnthavethe
killemwithabayonetspiritthatmen
canget.

REASON
3

???

REASON Womenwouldbelessreliabletoa
4
combatunitiftheybecamepregnant
orhadtocareforinfantsorsmall
children.

REASON
4

Womenwouldhavemore
opportunitiesforpromotionsifthey
couldserveincombatunits.

REASON
5
???

REASON
5

Allowingwomentoserveincombat
unitspromotesequalrights.

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

DRAFT

CounterArgument

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

ExcerptedfromTheAcademicEssay:ABriefAnatomybyGordonHarvey

Whenyoucounterargue,youconsiderapossibleargumentagainstyourthesissclaimorsomeaspectof
yourreasoning.Thisstrategyisagoodwaytotestyourideaswhendrafting.Inthefinishedessay,itcanbe
apersuasiveanddisarmingtactic.Itallowsyoutoanticipatedoubtsandheadoffobjectionsthataskeptical
readermighthave.Italsoenhancesyourcredibilitybecauseitpresentsyouasthekindofpersonwho
weighsalternativesbeforearguingforone,whoconfrontsdifficultiesinsteadofsweepingthemunderthe
rug,andwhoismoreinterestedindiscoveringthetruththanwinningapoint.

TheTurnAgainst

Counterargumentinanessayhastwostages:youturnagainstyourargumenttochallengeitandthenyou
turnbacktoreaffirmit.Youfirstimagineaskepticalreaderwhomightresistyourargumentbypointingout
aproblemwithyourdemonstration,e.g.thatadifferentconclusioncouldbedrawnfromthesame
facts,akeyassumptionisunwarranted,akeytermisusedunfairly,certainevidenceisignoredor
playeddown
oneormoredisadvantagesorpracticaldrawbackstowhatyoupropose
analternativeexplanationorproposalthatmakesmoresense.

YouintroducethisturnagainstwithaphraselikeOnemightobjectherethat...orItmightseemthat...orIt's
truethat...orAdmittedly,...orOfcourse,...orwithananticipatedchallengingquestion:Buthow...?orBut
why...?orButisn'tthisjust...?orButifthisisso,whatabout...?Thenyoustatethecaseagainstyourselfas
brieflybutasclearlyandforcefullyasyoucan,pointingtoevidencewherepossible.

TheTurnBack

Yourreturntoyourownargumentwhichyouannouncewithatransitionalwordsuchasbut,yet,however,
neverthelessorstillmustlikewiseinvolvecarefulreasoning,notasimpledismissal.Inreasoningaboutthe
proposedcounterargument,youmay
refuteit,showingwhyitismistakenanapparentbutnotrealproblem
acknowledgeitsvalidityorplausibility,butsuggestwhyonbalanceit'srelativelylessimportantor
lesslikelythanwhatyoupropose,andthusdoesn'toverturnit
concedeitsforceandcomplicateyourideaaccordinglyrestateyourthesisinamoreexact,
qualified,ornuancedwaythattakesaccountoftheobjection,orstartanewsectioninwhichyou
consideryourtopicinlightofit.

WheretoPutaCounterArgument

Counterargumentsmostcommonlyappear
aspartofyourintroductionbeforeyouproposeyourclaimorthesiswheretheexistenceofa
differentviewisthemotiveforyouressay,thereasonitneedswriting
asasectionorparagraphjustafteryourintroduction,inwhichyoulayouttheexpectedreactionor
standardpositionbeforeturningawaytodevelopyourown
asaquickmovewithinaparagraph,whereyouimagineacounterargumentnottoyourmainidea
buttothesubideathattheparagraphisarguingorisabouttoargue
asasectionorparagraphjustbeforetheconclusionofyouressay,inwhichyouimaginewhat
someonemightobjecttowhatyouhaveargued.

WRITE:Usingtheturnagainstandturntowardstepsabove,writeacounterargumentrefuting
whywomenshouldNOTbeallowedincombatunits(seepreviousexample).

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

IllustratingyourReasonswithExamplesandStatingyourAssumptions

Whilecounterargumentsareespeciallyhelpfulinestablishingyourcredibility,withoutexamplessuchas
factsandfigurestoillustrateyourownargumentforyourreader,yourargumentwillfallflat.Itisalso
importanttostateoutrighthowtheseexampleshelpillustrateyourreasonsandsupportyourclaim.Never
assumeyourreaderwillmakethisconnectiononhisorherown.Itisalsoagoodideatodeterminewhich
assumptionsarenotsharedbyyouandyouraudience.Bystatingtheseassumptionsoutright,youanswer
thequestion,Sowhat?forthereader.Inthisway,thereaderwillseeyouhavesolidgroundsforyour
claimwhetherornotheagreeswithyourclaim.(Theassumptionthattiesyourclaimandevidencetogether
isalsoknownasgrounds,asuppressedpremise,enthymeme,orwarrant.Inyouressay,itwilloftenappear
inyourclincher.)

Thetablesbelowillustratehowstatinganassumptionmakestheexamplespurposeclearinsupportingthe
argument.Noticehowthestatedassumptionclearlycallsbacktotheclaimandreasonusingtheirexact
phrasing(thesecallbackwordsareitalicized).

CLAIM

REASON

EXAMPLE

STATEDASSUMPTION

Sowhat?Howdoestheexampletiethe
reasonandclaimtogether?

Someteachersassign
toomuchhomework...

...becausethey
forgetthat
studentshavea
lifeoutsideof
school.

Forexample,Mr.
Hammerhead
requiresstudents
tocarryanotebook
andkeepawritten
loginanotebookof
everytimewe
recycle.

Mostpeoplewouldagreethatteens
havearighttosociallifeoutsideof
schoolandteenswouldfindit
embarrassingtocarryarounda
notebooktosocialevents.Since
teenswillnormallyoptforsocial
acceptanceoverembarrassment,it
isnotrealisticorrightforateacher
toexpectstudentstodothiskindof
aroundtheclockhomework.

CLAIM

REASON

EXAMPLE

STATEDASSUMPTIONS

Womenshouldbe
preventedfromjoining
combatunits

...because
womentypically
arenotstrong
enoughfor
combat.

Forexample,
womengenerally
haveweaker
upperbody
strength,acrucial
requirementfor
carryingawounded
soldieroffofthe
battlefield.

Clearlymenweighsignificantlymore
thanwomen.Itwouldbewrongto
jeopardizewoundedmenslivesby
reducingthenumberofthosestrong
enoughtoliftandcarrytheseheavy,
woundedmentosafety.Beingfairto
womenbylettingthemjointhe
infantrymeansbeingunfairtomen
whowoulddieonthebattlefieldasa
result,whichiswhywomenshould
bepreventedfromjoiningcombat
units.

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

PRACTICE:Makeaclaimaboutsomethingyoubelieveandprovideagoodreasonsupportingyour
claim.Stateanexamplewhichillustratesyourreason.Explaintheassumptionthatconnectsyour
exampletoyourreasonandclaim.Usethetablebelowtohelpyoudevelopyourideas.

CLAIM

Statesomethingyou
believeinstrongly.

REASON

Provideagood
reasonsupporting
yourclaim.

EXAMPLE

Stateanexample
whichillustratesthe
reason.

STATEYOUR
ASSUMPTIONS

Sowhat?Explainhowtheexample
tiesthereasonandclaimtogether.
Circlethewordsthatcallbackto
yourclaimandreason.

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

GRAPHICORGANIZERSFOREXTENDEDARGUMENTS

GettingStartedwithClaims,Reasons,andCounterclaims

1. Decideonanissueforanextendedargumentessayyouwouldliketowrite(e.g.,firstpersonshooter
videogames).Makesureitsadebatableissuethatreasonablepeoplecoulddisagreeon.
2. Writeaonesentencequestionthatsummarizesthecontroversialissueyourclaimaddresses(e.g.,
Shouldgirlsbeallowedtoplayfirstpersonshootervideogames?).Thiswillbeyourpromptfor
writing.
3. Draftaworkingthesisstatement(claim)foryourproposedargument.
4. Listseveralbulletedbecausestatementsforyourreasons(twotofourissufficient).NOTE:Aclaim
CANNOTbesupportedbyotheropinionsunlessacceptedbythereaderasfact(e.g.,adoctors
opinion,anexpertsopinion,etc.).
5. Draftaworkingopposingthesisstatement(counterclaim).
6. Listseveralbulletedbecausestatementsascounterreasons.
7. Freewriteforseveralminutesexploringyourownfeelingsandthoughtsaboutthereasonsonboth
sides.Trynottofinalizeyourpositionuntilyoufinishwriting.Keepanopenmind.
8. Decideonasidetoargueandfinalizeyourposition.Writeyourclaim.
9. Finalizeyourreasonsandlistthem.Makesuretheyaregoodones.Orderyourreasonsinaway
thatmakethemostsense.
10. Finalizeyourcounterclaimandcounterreasons.Listthemusingthechartbelow:

PROMPT:__________________________________________________________________________

OneView...

OpposingView...

vs.

COUNTER
CLAIM:

REASON
1

>because...

vs.

REASON
1

>because...

REASON
2

>because...

vs.

REASON
2

>because...

REASON
3

>because..

vs.

REASON
3

*>because...

REASON
4

>because...

vs.

REASON
4

>because...

CLAIM:

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

DevelopingyourArgumentFurther:ExamplesandAssumptions

1. Foreachreasonyouprovidedabove,listatleastoneexamplewhichillustratesthereason.
2. Next,statehowtheexampleindeedhelpsproveyourpoint.
3. Usethetablebelowasmanytimesasneededtoelaborateonyourreasonsconvincingly.

RestateyourClaim:
_______________________________________________________________________

REASON1

Provideagoodreason
supportingyourclaim.

EXAMPLE

Stateanexamplewhichillustrates
thereason.

STATEYOURASSUMPTION

Sowhat?Explainhowtheexampletiesthe
reasonandclaimtogether.Circlethewords
thatcallbacktoyourclaimandreason.

REASON2

Provideagoodreason
supportingyourclaim.

EXAMPLE

Stateanexamplewhichillustrates
thereason.

STATEYOURASSUMPTION

Sowhat?Explainhowtheexampletiesthe
reasonandclaimtogether.Circlethewords
thatcallbacktoyourclaimandreason.

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

REASON3

Provideagoodreason
supportingyourclaim.

EXAMPLE

Stateanexamplewhichillustrates
thereason.

STATEYOURASSUMPTION

Sowhat?Explainhowtheexampletiesthe
reasonandclaimtogether.Circlethewords
thatcallbacktoyourclaimandreason.

REASON4

Provideagoodreason
supportingyourclaim.

EXAMPLE

Stateanexamplewhichillustrates
thereason.

STATEYOURASSUMPTION

Sowhat?Explainhowtheexampletiesthe
reasonandclaimtogether.Circlethewords
thatcallbacktoyourclaimandreason.

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

StrategizingandOrganizing:ClassicalorRogerianStructure?

DecidewhethertheclassicalorRogerianstrategyisbestsuitedforyouressayspurpose,occasion,and
audience.Next,fillouttheappropriatebrainstormingsectionsforEITHERtheClassicalorRogerianplans
below.Tohelpyoubrainstorm,usetheclaims,reasons,counterclaims,examples,andstatedassumptions
youhavealreadydeveloped.

ClassicalOrganizer

SECTION

BRAINSTORMHERE...

(eachofthefivesectionsmayconsistofmore
thanoneparagraph)

Introduceyourtopic
(onetoseveralparagraphs)

>Beginwithanattentiongrabbinghook(e.g.,
amemorablescene)
>Explaintheissueandneededbackground
>Stateclaim(thesis)andprojected
organization(arguments)

Presentyourposition

>Thisisthemainbodyoftheessay.
>Presentandsupporteachreasoninorder.
>Tieeachreasontoavalueorbeliefheldby
theaudience.

Summarizeopposingviews

>Summaryofviewsdifferingfromwriters
(opposingviewsshouldbefairand
complete).

Respondtoopposingviews

>Dismissorconcedetoopposingviews.
>Showweaknessesinopposingviews.
>Mayconcedetosomestrengths.

Conclude

>Summarizetheargumentbriefly.
>Leaveastronglastingimpression.
>Callsforanactionorrelatetopictothe
broaderworldofideas.

DRAFT

East Greenwich High School English Department 2013

RogerianOrganizer

BRAINSTORMHERE...

Introduceyourtopic

Statetheproblemyouhopetoresolve.By
presentingyourissueasaproblem,raisethe
possibilityofpositivechange.Trytostatewhy
opponentswillwanttosolvethesameproblem.

SummarizeOpposingViews

Asaccuratelyandneutrallyaspossible,state
theviewsofthepeoplewithwhomyou
disagree.Bydoingthisyoushowthatyouare
capableoflisteningwithoutjudgingandhave
givenafairhearingtopeoplewhothink
differentlyfromyou.

ShowYouUnderstandtheOpposition

Alsocalledthestatementofvalidity.Showthat
youunderstandthattherearesituationsin
whichtheopposingviewsarevalid.Which
partsoftheopposingargumentsdoyou
concede?Underwhichconditionsmightyou
sharetheseviews?

MakeyourClaim

Nowthatreadershaveseenthatyouvegiven
fullconsiderationtoviewsotherthanyourown,
theyshouldbepreparedtolistenfairlytoyour
views.Stateyourposition.

GuardyourClaim

Describesituationsinwhichyouhopeyour
viewswillbehonored.Byshowingthatyour
positionisreasonableinspecificcontexts,you
recognizethatpeoplewontagreewithyouall
ofthetime.However,opponentsareallowedto
agreeinpartandsharecommonground.

StatetheBenefits

Appealtotheselfinterestofyouropponentsby
showinghowtheywouldbenefitfromaccepting
yourpositionconcludeyouressayona
hopeful,positivenote.