SWINBURNE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING & INDUSTRIAL SCIENCES

Swinburne course in which you are enrolled:

ASSIGNMENT COVER SHEET

NAME

Ahmed Abu Bakar AL Hiyawi

ID NUMBER

7250924

SUBJECT CODE

MRE80004

SUBJECT TITLE

Port and Harbour Engineering

ASSIGNMENT No & Title

DUE DATE

28 July 2014

DATE submitted BY
STUDENT

28 July 2014
e-mail: 7250924@student.swin.edu.au

PHONE: -

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Date 28 July 2014
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Ahmed AL Hiyawi
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Assignment 2

Ahmed AL Hiyawi (7250924)

1. Plan a hydrographical survey of the existing harbor to produce an up-to-date

bathymetry of the area. (hint: what instrumentation? What measurement method?
Etc) (15%)

Coulls (2014) stated that the following information is necessary for hydrographical survey:

Regular depth to seaward of shoreline

Location of coastline High Water and Low Water marks

Location and least depth over shoals reefs, etc.

Location of breakers or tide rips, etc.

Nature of seabeds

Topographic detail

Leading lines

Location of all floating navigation marks

Tidal stream measurements

Tidal observation

Sailing directions checked and amended

Record of all sonar sweeping undertaken

Wreck and obstruction details

Port information, etc.

There are three specific classes of standards and guidelines that need to be satisfied in all
hydrographic survey to fulfil requirements in order to attain safe marine navigation. Table 1
shows the maximum allowable errors in hydrographical surveys for different types of survey.
Table 1: Maximum allowable errors in hydrographical surveys
Type of survey

Class 1

Class 2

Class 3

Vertical accuracy

150 mm

300 mm

500 mm

12 m

100 m

Horizontal positioning

6m

Some of the ways are explained as following. The depth sensors can be divided in two
categories i.e.
Acoustics based

Single beam eco sounder (SBES)

Multi beam eco sounder (MBES)

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Side Scan Sonar (SSS)

Non acoustics based

Airborne Laser sounding system

Airborne electromagnetic system

Remote sensing

Mechanic system

Single Beam Echo Sounder (SBES)

Single beam echo sounder is one of the oldest types of echo sounder after lead line and
sounding pole, derived from military sonar and it is used by the hydrographic since mid1900. SBES necessitates only one transducer that functions as transmission and reception.
The transducer is attached to a vessel and generates an acoustic pulse to the seafloor which
will be bounced back and receive by the transducer. The travel time of sound pulses will be
measured and water depth can be known by basic calculation of travel time and speed of
sound pulse.
To have narrow beam in low frequency, bigger transducers are used. The transducer may
perhaps have narrow beam to concern about high directivity or wide beam if directivity is not
a concern but the detection of the least possible depth or obstacle on the sea floor is a main
concern. SBES only used narrow beam 20 to 50, low frequencies and large transducer to get
high resolution mapping. The systems have two main components consist of a surface
processor and transducer head. Soundings were recorded in meters and corrected for the
speed of sound through water as determine by multiple daily measurements of the water
column profile.
Multi Beam Echo Sounder (MBES)

This is a newly new device growing rapidly offers precise and total sea floor exploration
when used with the suitable techniques and providing that the resolution of the method is
suitable for precise detection of navigational hazardous. Normally, the principle of the
operation of multi-beam approach is based on a fan formed transmission pulse directed in the
direction of the seafloor. Due to the reflection of the acoustic energy because of the seabed;
numerous beams are electronically shaped, using signal processing methods, with identified
beam angles. The two-way travel time between transmission and reception is calculated using
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the algorithms of seabed exposure. The depth and the transverse distance to the center of the
personified area can be obtained through the application of the ray tracing. The mechanisms
of multi beam eco sounder (MBES) system is presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Multi beam eco sounder (MBES) system

MBES has more complexity than SBES. MBES could cover more survey area and better
accuracy that give advantage of cost reduction than SBES. Multi beam eco sounder have
separated transducers array for transmission and reception, i.e. one projector and one
hydrophone. The projector is focused on longitudinally and the hydrophone is focused on
transversely to the vessels bow. MBES Tilted Head is useful for surveying alongside berth
basins, channels and allows nadir accuracy on an angle. Basically the seafloor coverage is a
result of:
Intersection of transmitted and received beam patterns
Beam pointing angle and beam width
Depth and mean slope of seafloor
MBES systems associated sensors
Motion sensor attitude and heave
Sound velocity profiler SV through the water column
Sound velocity probe SV at transducer face
Positioning systems
Heading sensor

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Side Scan Sonar (SSS)

While MBES is good for depth measurement, SSS is good for detecting the feature of
seafloor. The features include:
Towed behind a vessel positional errors
Speed of advance to attain adequate pings on a target
Nadir blindspot
Height of towfish

SSS produces sound energy that sweeps the floor and the return signal is recorded
continuously to generate a detail picture of seafloor. SSS takes four key tasks for
hydrographical survey
Detection of wrecks and obstructions between sounding lines
Detection of other seafloor features
Identification on mobile areas of seafloor
collecting of seafloor organization data
Airborne Laser Systems (ALS)
Airborne laser sounding is a method for determining the water depth. The characteristics of
this method include:

LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging)

Can operate in extreme conditions of salinity and temperature

Sensitive to suspended material and turbidity

Fast, accurate depth survey of up to 65 km2 per hour

High density 100% survey coverage based on 6 x 6m, 5 x 5 m, 4 x 4 m, 3 x 3 m

Self-contained system suitable for deployment to remote areas

Safe charting of complex and hazardous waters.

Cost effective operation

Rapid deployment ability

Choice of Methodology
In order to provide a precise bathymetry data of the present existing harbour, Multibeam
Echo Sounder (MBES) is used for measuring depth resolution and Side scan Sonar (SSS) is
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used for detecting and determining materials and characteristics of the seafloors. It is also
important to take into account of the Single Beam Echo Sounding when the project owner
considers more about performing the work in a more economical way. Out of these
instruments, side scan sonar is the best technique to find out the obstructions in the channel
bed for the safe navigation. Because the geometry of the SSS has good shadow casting
capability in compare to the MBES.

2. Assume that the final product of the survey is the bathymetry provided during
lectures:
a. Using the Delft 3D simulations, assess the wave conditions (Hs, Tp, wave direction,
etc) at a few key points inside the harbor. (hint: explain where and why you
selected these key points) (6%)

After completing the hydrographical survey, the preparation of the breakwater is the next
step, if essential, layout to protect the port facilities. According to the provided port position
and DELFT 3D simulations, the position of essential point are presented in figure 2.

Figure 2: Key Point around the Harbour using DELFT 3D simulations (using Number for
better explanations)

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Using the above DELFT 3D simulations result with the port facilities location, the key
points are on number 1 to number 5. Point 6 does not really affect the port operation.

b. How does the present breakwater perform? Are extensions required to ensure
better conditions? If so, why? (7%)

The present breakwater is one of the oldest methods and that serves as a temporary and as a
submerged structure. An alternative breakwater extension is necessary to upgrade the present
breakwater structure. The result obtained from DELFT 3D simulations shows that only area
with point 2 and 5 are not actually affected by the wave. While the other area still affected by
the wave, either wave directed toward the area or due to wave refraction. Whereas there is
nothing can be completed for area within point 6, because this area is outside the breakwater
protection.

Breakwater has a significant effect on the coastal processes. So the breakwater requires to be
prolonged in order to protect the port facilities for longer period. Because the wave still pass
through the side of breakwater and in the future it can leads to sedimentation in port area,
changing in environment situation, etc.

c. If extensions are needed, what layout can be suggested and why? What are the wave
conditions inside the harbor with the upgraded breakwater? How does the new
breakwater compare with the original layout? (10%)

Breakwater layouts should be designed in accordance to wave propagation, tidal

hydrodynamics, and sediment transport. To help in arriving at the most economical and
technically feasible layout, one must consider different layouts. Other considerations to be
made are the geometry of the breakwater and its armour. From DELFT 3D simulations we
identified that it is necessary to the extension for breakwater. Hence, the recommended layout
is presented in figure 3.

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Figure 3: Layout of Breakwater Extension

The main purpose of the breakwater shape is to overcome all incoming wave that pass
through the adjacent of breakwater. The other issue is trying to create the breakwater shape as
effective as probable in order to use a smaller amount of material and a lesser amount of cost.
The stature of wave occurrence on a sea wall by and large adopts the size and conduct of the
jetty. It is consequently absolutely critical to get practical qualities of the waves needed in a
specific range. Conduct of water waves is a standout amongst the most fascinating of nature's
phenomena. Waves show themselves by bended undulations of the surface of the water
happening at intermittent interims. They are created by the activity of wind moving over a
water body; the stronger the wind blows, the higher the waves produced. Wind produced
waves can cause the most harm to seaside structures and if winds of a nearby storm blow
towards the shore, the storm waves will achieve the shore or shore in almost the structure in
which they were created. The important key points (number 1 to number 5) inside the harbour
will show condition improvement.
It can be concluded that extension of the breakwater is essential to increase the service of the
port facilities and make it last longer. Even though some excellence in the breakwater design
to achieve improved result is essential, for example, the key point number 3.

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3. Design the extension of the break water. What type of armour would you suggest
and why? (12%)
The main objective of the breakwater design is to decide the size and layout of the crosssection mechanisms. This can be usually accomplished through empirical formulae and other
recommended worldwide guidelines. In an open sea area, it is very difficult to ensure that
vessels are manoeuvred and accommodated safely without destruction from external factors.
According to UNCTA (1985), breakwaters are used to provide calmer water by deflecting,
reflecting and absorbing energy of swells and storm waves coming to the port. Therefore, the
use of breakwater is the only method for a better protection and calmness of port and
harbour.
Wave reflection and diffraction may influence on navigability, and the breakwater itself may
effect streams that may result scour and alter bathymetry, principally at the proceeding end
during assembly. It will increase the quantity of required material or have impact on the
permanency of adjacent constructions. Figure 4 shows the features of conventional break
water.

Figure 4: Conventional break water

Byrne (2014) mentioned some necessary steps to design breakwater. These are described
below:
A preliminary design using a simple formula
One of the available formulas is Hudsons formula which is simple. Therefore Hudsons
Formula is good enough for preliminary design. Hudsons formula is expressed as:

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Where,
W = weight of armour unit (Newtons)
Wr = unit weight of armour unit (N/m3)
H = Design wave height at the structure (m)
Sr = specific gravity of armour unit relative to water
Ww = unit weight of water
= Slope of the breakwater face
Kd = stability coefficient which depends on the shape of the armour

A review of available material

Following to preliminary design, the quantity, size and stability of armour material is
determined. It is then time to select the type of armour material to be used for the
construction of breakwater. The challenge for selecting the type of armour is the availability
and cost of the material for a required location. Other factors that need to be taken into
account for selecting the armour material are ease of manufacture, ease of storage without
moving from casting, no pattern placement and preferably single layer over underlayer.
Various types of armour materials can be used:
Tetrapods
Dolos
Sea Bees
Accropodes
Coreloc
Modification if necessary to any of the design criteria

In some conditions, it is suggested to use a lesser number of larger units to make economical.
It will decrease lesser damage during construction time. The design criteria should be
reviewed and modified if alternatives for reducing cost, time and effort can be executed.

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Modification of design criteria can be made according to logical explanations and earlier
experiences.
Physical model studies in wave flume
Physical models are created geometrically analogous to the full size assembly to check for
breakwater performance. Since, the greater part of a breakwater is immersed, construction
and assessment is challenging, particularly at irregular seas. Breakwaters in deep water must
be model verified with a suitable sea conditions.
Possible review of the design criteria after tenders
Other factors that can affect the process of designing breakwater should be
considered

Wave-breakwater interaction

The wave climate along the whole length of the breakwater must be checked to observe
whether there is any bathymetry concentrates wave energy anyplace. The breakwater can be
line up to reduce such concentrations depending on the suitability.

Cross-section configuration

Slope angle

Side slopes are usually as vertical as likely to reduce the volume of core material and to
decrease the reach of cranes working from the crest. The influence to the stability because of
the friction and interlocking increases with the increasing of the angle. However, the
reduction in the gradient-perpendicular indicates most favourable slope angles for supreme
interaction and strength.
-

Crest elevation

The altitude of the crest has to be the least possible at which satisfactory overtopping take
place. These have to be established on highest wave run up, with the permission of freeboard
and post-construction settlement.
Since the breakwater using conventional design, the armour that will be used is rock because
rock is common armour material for breakwater and in general the most cost effective
material. Byrne (2014) mentioned that the more efficient method is use rock size for armour

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that is bigger than 0.75 breakwaters. Nevertheless this can be changed depends on the
location.
Due to the unavailability of enormous armour rocks for a conservative two layer breakwater,
alternative materials, for example, tetrapod (as shown in figure 5)can also be used. The
tetrapod is a four-legged concrete structure used as armour unit on breakwaters. The shape of
the Tetrapod is useful to disperse the force of arriving waves by permitting water to flow all
over the place rather than against it and to decrease movement by permitting an arbitrary
distribution of tetrapods to equally interlock.

Figure 5: tetrapod blocks

4. Assume that the designed armour will be delivered in 9 months. However, the local
Government requires the port to be operational within the next 2months. What
type of temporary solution for the breakwater would you suggest? (5%)

It is estimated that the construction of designed amour will be completed in 9 months. The
local Government requested the port to operate after 2 months. So other alternative method
need to be used that can fulfil the time requirement and protect the port as well. With such
time constraints, temporary breakwater must be applied. Verhagen et al. (2009) stated that
nowadays three types of temporary breakwater available are: pneumatic breakwater and
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hydraulic breakwater, pile breakwater and floating breakwaters. The selected solution for this
issue is floating breakwater as shown in figure 6.

Figure 6: Temporary breakwaters technique

The advantage of floating breakwater is as the name suggested. The floating breakwater
functions to protect the port area similar to conventional breakwater. Moreover, floating
breakwater did not need any foundation for it, which means it is cheaper than conventional
breakwater because it remove the breakwater foundation. Farmer (1999) stated that floating
breakwater also has issue that need to be mentioned. To begin with floating breakwater only
can handle wave height less than 6.5 feet.
Cheng et al. (2013) stated that, this method is achieved by the use of floating structure with
direction towards of wave propagation, connected to seafloors via mooring cables or chains.
The mooring configuration determines and divides the reflective structure into two different
categories:
Rigid floating breakwater: It includes a rectangular floating box that can be made
either from reinforced concrete, steel or scrap ship with a rectangular shape connected
to seafloors via mooring cable or chains, which reduces the wave transmission by
decreasing reflected wave energy when waves travel through the rigid structure.

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Flexible floating breakwater: It includes a floating raft and waste tire floating
breakwaters connected to seafloors with mooring systems. This type of breakwater
decreases wave transmission and reduces wave energy by friction between the
flexibly floating elements of breakwater and water and elastic deformation.

5. The existing wharfs were (re)constructed in 1962, using prestressed concrete beams
and reinforced concrete for all other components.
a. You have to assess the extent of deterioration of the structure. Identify the factors
you will consider and approach that you will take in preparing for this assessment
(5%)
Durability of concrete structures in marine environment is a challenging issue because of
aggressiveness of sea water to concrete and reinforcement and long service life anticipated
of marine infrastructure like as harbour and coastal defence constructions. In addition to the
marine exposure conditions in the port, the prevalent weather is characterized by extreme hot
and dry conditions. The dominant mechanism of degradation of marine structures is chloride
induced corrosion which is based on the chloride transport into concrete by diffusion and
initiation of reinforcement corrosion when acute chloride content is surpassed at the steel
exterior.
The chloride induced failure of concrete occurs when C > Ccrit, where C is the chloride
content at the reinforcement surface and Ccrit is the critical (threshold) content. The critical
chloride content is a complex function of concrete properties (pH, water, oxygen, presence of
voids) at the steel/concrete interface. It is realized that there is no single general value of it
but rather a gradual increase of the probability of corrosion with increasing chloride content.
For concrete structures a value of 0.5% chloride ion by mass of cement is considered to be
the mean critical value for the Portland cement concrete.

The wharfs were constructed in 1962 and probably have some deteriorated part. In order to
investigate the deterioration, some factors that need to be assessed including investigation
method, investigation staff skill, nature behaviour (e.g. wave height, rain), etc. The method
to evaluate the wharf deterioration is illustrated below:
Determination of type of structure
Studying the structure details, such as reinforcement bar detail, concrete cover,
etc.

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Detect the micro-environment for the wharf, for example, splash zone,
submerged zone, etc.
Create usual development pro-forma plans of individual structural components
Detect site of investigations on the plans
Record deterioration impact for respective location for mapping
Plan inspection technique
Adopt investigation scope, for example, visual inspection, sampling, etc.
Prepare safety plan
Make classification for illustrating and recording the errors
Evaluate remedial selections

b. Outline features/testing techniques, which will form part of your investigation and
the issues that you expect to encounter in determining the remaining life of the
structure. (5%)

To develop a proper maintenance and rehabilitation program for the wharfs, a very thorough
and comprehensive visual survey of their current condition, in terms of extent and severity of
damage, need to be undertaken. This survey should be done in two distinct stages. The first
stage is an initial walk around and slow trips on four-wheel drives around the entire wharf.
Secondly, a comprehensive and detailed survey, wharf by wharf and structural element by
element, has been undertaken by using launches and small boats to be as close to the
structural elements as possible. Realizing the pivotal importance of the visual survey to get an
overview of the magnitude of the problem, this was undertaken in many sessions with a
minimum of two experts and at times with up to six material and structural specialists.
Practically, most visual inspection sessions have been videoed, photographed and marked on
drawings. The wharf structure was supposed to deteriorate, whether it was only one or many
part, since it was there for a long time. Thus the wharf needs to be investigated to determine
the remaining life. The testing methods that can be used in this condition are explained
below:
Walk around Survey
The initial walk around survey required conducted to get an overview of the extent of
degradation and the serviceability conditions of the wharfs and the facilities. No physical
testing needs to be undertaken. The first impression is that the whole infrastructure is in a bad
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disrepair. Most structural elements were rampant with extensive and wide cracking,
delaminating, visible corrosion in advanced stages of propagation and even broken
reinforcement.
Detailed visual survey
Visual inspection is the easiest test since this method only assesses the outer part
deterioration or structure part that can be seen by eyes. The main objective of this method is
to decide required future action. However visual inspection has huge downside. First of all, it
cannot determine the deterioration thoroughly and so further testing method is needed. The
next downside is all the findings need to be recorded properly for mapping, included
photographs, video tapes, and sketches.
In order to save time and to improve the value of the visual inspection, and make it as
independent of the observers as possible, the degree of cracking (width and length, visibility),
extent of spalling and the state of rusting and corrosion of elements has been used to
categorize the degree of severity of structural degradation. The classification used in this
investigation is according to the American Concrete Institute (ACI) Guide to damage
assessment. As shown, the four grades of damage are:
Light
Moderate
Severe and
Very severe
Admittedly, these four grades are still qualitative. Nonetheless, in the preliminary sessions
which were attended by all the members of the investigative team, the boundaries and
limitations of the system were well understood. Consequently, the ACI classification system
adopted in this investigation at Port has proven both reliable and satisfactory.
Detailed investigation
Sanjayan & Abdouka (2014) stated thatdDetailed investigation testing methods can be
divided into two categories such as (i) Non-Destructive Test and (ii) Destructive Test. Some
of common used detailed investigation methods are discussed below. The main issue that
usually encountered for marine structure is carbonation and chloride ingress.

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Carbonation

Carbonation happens when concrete pH is reducing because carbon dioxide diffuses into
concrete. Since carbonation makes the concrete lowering its pH, the common method to
assess this is carbonation testing. This method is discussed in later.

Chloride ingress

Chloride ingress is the major cases for reinforcement corrosion and concrete durability. Any
concrete that in marine environment is exposed to this problem and the cause can be from
aggregate, sea sand, and/or mixing water.
Carbonation testing
This is one of the Destructive Test methods that commonly used. The procedure includes
taking a part of the structure as sample for testing. Next the sample will be sprayed with
chemical, like phenolphthalein, to see the changing of concrete colour. Corrosion of
reinforcement is initiated when pH is reduced due to carbonation. Corrosion results in
formation of expansive oxides and hydroxides. Expansive reactions result in internal pressure
and cracking and spalling of concrete. Carbonation occurs when carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere diffuses into concrete and reacts to cause reduction of pH level.

Figure 7: Phenolphthalein testing on Cracked Concrete

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If the concrete change colour into magenta/purple, it means the concrete has pH above 9.2
which is good. However, if the concrete remain the same colour that means the concrete is
carbonated. This phenomenon is presented in figure 7. Based on the colour changing, the
carbonation penetration can be determined and solution can be provided.
Half-cell potential test
Half-cell potential is included as NDT, but some people also believe it can include as
destructive. The reason this method can be called destructive is drilling the concrete may be
needed to connect the rebar with the cable. The system of reinforcing steel corrosion is one
kind of electro-chemical approach. The characteristics of the reinforcing steel can be
observed by determining its half-cell potential. The more half-cell potential the greater
corrosion risk.
In this method, at first, detect the steel and measure the spacing of bar by a covermeter. The
concrete cover is distant in the vicinity over an appropriate bar and an electrical assembly
prepared to the steel. The reinforcing bar is attached to the half-cell via a digital voltmeter.
Half-cell potential reading is taken over a consistent grid of points to provide a potential map
of the area. When the reading result shows negative value, it means high chance of that area
is corroded. This step will be done repetitively until whole concrete area is tested.

c. Consider that fair amount of deterioration is visible on the reinforced concrete

components. How can the components be restored? (5%)

As can be seen, a rigorous and well-planned testing on all the structural elements of wharfs 2
- 8 at port has been undertaken. In all, about 50 concrete cores of 70 and 100 mm dia. were
extracted from piles, pile caps, beams and slabs. The results of the testing are satisfactory,
and as conclusive as could be. A summary of the results is:
The substrate concrete in most structural elements is still sound and of adequate
compressive strength in the range of 29 to 59 MPa.
The chlorides and sulphates concentration on the skin of all the structural elements are
dangerously high and most cracking, spalling and steel corrosion, which are
widespread, are due to the expansive pressure caused due to chloride, sulphate attack
and salt crystallization and its growth.
Although high, chloride and sulphate levels as seen in the profiles are not dangerously
high beyond 50 mm of the skin concrete. In particular, the present chloride ion
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concentration at steel level in all structural elements is not more than 0.4%, by weight
of cement.
Cover to reinforcement, where there is no cracking and spalling, is adequate and still
of good quality concrete. An average value of cover to reinforcement in piles, pile
caps, beams land slabs is 75, 90, 90 and 65 mm, respectively.
On the overall, the age of the wharfs 2 x 8, in tandem with thorough visual inspection
and test data (particularly chloride and sulphate ingress and salt crystallization)
suggest that many parts of the structure are now at a very high risk of corrosion
related damage becoming much more widespread.
Remedial works carried out early, will help arrest the corrosion before this manifests
on a larger scale.
Repairing the concrete
Sanjayan & Abdouka (2013) stated that the repair method is depending on deterioration
condition on the reinforced concrete and also the cost to do it.
Patch repair
Patch repair is a method to take out the deteriorated part of the concrete to replace it with the
new concrete. This method is cheaper compare to gunite application. Another thing is that
patch repair can take concrete part until 30 mm behind the reinforcement, make this suitable
if deterioration already deep inside the concrete. Concrete part, which has been done by the
patch repair, needs to be checked every 7 to 10 years. The reason is when some part is
removed from the original structure, the other part is open to marine environment condition,
and makes it vulnerable to another deterioration such as chloride.

Strategies for minimising the potential of deterioration mechanisms include:

Use of corrosion-resistant steels, such as stainless steel or stainless steel cladding.
Application of sacrificial/nonsacrificial coatings, such as fusion-bonded epoxy
powder
Use of chemical admixtures, such as corrosion inhibitors during the construction
stage.
Cathodic protection, either during construction stage or later.
Provide adequate concrete cover over the embedded steel reinforcement to maintain
passive iron-oxide film around the steel

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Use superplasticizers, pozzolanic materials in mixture with water-reducing admixture

which causes reduction in the porosity of the cement paste and then lowers the
concrete permeation by all the destructive representatives from a marine environment.
Ensure proper compaction and curing
Addition of supplementary cementatious materials in cements to provide some
protection from calcium and sodium sulphate attacks

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REFERENCE
1. Ahrens, J. P. (1987). Characteristics of reef breakwaters. USA Army Corps of
Engineers. Vicksburg, Tech. Rep. CERC, pp. 87'17.
2. Byrne G. 2014, Breakwater Design, MRE80004: Port and Harbour Engineering,
Learning Materials on Blackboard, Swinburne University of Technology.
3. Burcharth, H. F. and liu, Z. (1990). A general discussion of problems related to the
determination of concrete armour unit stress including specific results related to static
and dynamic stresses in Dolosse. Proc, of the Seminaral Stresses in Concrete Armour
Units, ASCE, Vicksburg, USA.
4. Cheng L. H., Fen C. Y., Jiang W.Y. 2013, Experimental Study On A New Type of
Floating Breakwater, International Conference on Asian Pacific Coats, 24-26
September 2013, Indonesia.
5. Coulls, A 2014, Introduction Hydrographic Surveying, MRE80004: Port and
Harbour Engineering, Learning Materials on Blackboard, Swinburne University of
Technology.
6. Danel, P. (1953) Tetrapods. Proc. Fourth Int. Conf. Coastal Eng., ASCE, Chicago.
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