READ and TRANSLATE

1. SHIPPING
Merchant ships are designed to carry cargo. Some are also designed to carry
passengers. Nowadays, most merchant ships are built to carry cargo, but a few still carry
passengers. Merchant vessels can operate in the following three basic ways. They can operate
as liners. These are employed on regular routes on a fixed timetable. A list of their arrival and
departure dates is published in advance and they sail whether full or not. Liners can be classed
as either deep-sea liners or short-sea liners. The former carry mainly containerized cargo
across the oceans of the world; the latter carry containerized or conventional cargo on shorter
routes. Ferries are also classed as liners. These offer a daily or weekly service for passengers
and vehicles across channels and narrow seas. A few ships are still employed as passenger
liners. They not only carry passengers but also some cargo on routes from Europe to North
America and to the Far East. Nowadays the passenger trade is very small and passenger liners
usually operate as cruise ships for part of the year.
Merchant ships also operate as tramps. These vessels do not sail on regular routes or
keep to a fixed timetable, but are employed where there is cargo for them to carry. Tramps can
be classed as deep-sea tramps or short-sea tramps. A number are classed as coasters. These ply
on coastal routes and up rivers to inland ports. The traditional tramp cargoes are dry bulk
cargoes, but some are designed to carry general cargoes.
A large number of merchant ships operate as specialized vessels. These are designed to
carry a particular type of cargo. There are several types of specialized vessel. The most
common are oil tankers. They are owned by the major oil companies or by independent
operators. Two other types of liquid bulk carrier of growing importance are chemical carriers
and liquefied natural gas (LNG) carriers.

2. TYPES OF VESSELS
Merchant ships can be classified according to what they carry. Most are designed to
carry cargo, but a few still carry passengers. Cargo ships can be divided into two basic types.
One type carries dry cargo, the other carries liquid cargo; however, an OBO ship is designed
to carry both. A traditional dry cargo ship is the multi-deck vessel. Her holds are divided
horizontally by one or two 'tween decks, because these make stowage of individual packages
easier. Dry bulk cargo is carried in bulk carriers. These do not have 'tween decks as cargo is
carried loose. The most modern type of dry cargo carrier is the container ship. They carry
containers of standard dimensions, consequently stowage is easier.
Fruit, meat and dairy produce are carried in refrigerated ships. Oil tankers are the most
common type of liquid cargo carrier. They are often very large, because huge
quantities of oil need to be transported and one large vessel is more economical to
operate than two smaller ones. Two other types of liquid bulk carrier of growing
importance are the liquefied natural gas (LNG) carrier and the chemical carrier,
although chemicals can also be carried in drums in general cargo ships. In comparison with
cargo vessels, passenger ships are fewer in number and type. The traditional passenger ship is
the passenger liner; however, many carry cargo as well. Nowadays their number has been
greatly reduced, because of competition from air transport. Another type of passenger vessel

is the cruise ship. These are similar in appearance to passenger liners. The most common type
of passenger vessel is the ferry. Many of them are also designed to carry vehicles, therefore
these have doors at the stern or bows.

3. THE MAIN PARTS OF A SHIP

The main structure of a ship is the hull. Within the hull are the 'tween decks or
platforms on which the cargo rests. The uppermost platform or the upper deck, covers the
holds in which cargo is stowed. It is loaded and discharged either by cranes on the quay or by
the ship's derricks. Derricks are operated by winches. The derricks are fitted to masts which
stand on the upper deck. The cargo passes into or out of the holds through cargo hatches.
At sea, the ship is controlled from the bridge by the captain and navigating officers.
The front part of a ship is called the bow and the rear part the stern. Near the bridge is the
funnel. Smoke and gases pass through the funnel from the engine. The engine is fitted near
the bottom of the ship in the engine room. The engine drives the propeller at the stern of the
ship. The anchors and cables and the windlass are located in the bow of the ship.
The right side of a ship facing the bow is called the starboard side and the other side is
the port side. The beam is the greatest width of the ship. The draught is the depth of the ship's
bottom or keel below the water surface. The captain and officers are accommodated in cabins.
These are located in the middle part of the ship near the bridge. The other members of the
crew live in cabins. They are usually in the rear part of the ship.

4. CARGO AND ITS HANDLING

The carriage of cargo by sea is the principal reason for the existence of ships. The
officer in charge of the loading, stowage, and safe delivery of cargo is the first mate. Before
the cargo arrives at the quay or "ship's side", he will have had information about the cargo to
be loaded.
Mixed cargo, such as bags of cement, crates of machinery, boxes of electrical
equipment, motor car tyres, and crates of cotton goods, is known as general cargo. Cargo
which is not in crates, boxes, bundles or bags, such as coal, iron ore and grain, is known as
bulk cargo.
The first mate draws up a cargo plan based on the information he has received of the
cargo to be loaded. It is important that, if the ship is to discharge at more than one port, the
cargo for the first port of discharge is stowed in the upper part of the hold. In other words,
cargo which is to be discharged at the first discharging port should be loaded last.
The first mate considers the stability of the ship when cargo is loaded. The ship must
not be too stiff nor too tender to ensure that she will be safe in rough seas. The cargo must be
securely stowed in the holds so that there is no possibility of the cargo shifting. Any
movement of cargo in the ship might affect the ship's stability and seaworthiness. The
handling of cargo into and out of the ship's holds requires great skill. It is the work of the
stevedores The stevedores work in gangs. Each gang is under the charge of a gang foreman.
He usually stands on deck at the hatch when cargo is being discharged. When loading
cargo the gang foreman usually supervises in the ship's hold. The gang member who stands on
deck near the hatch to advise the crane driver or winchman is called the hatchwayman. The
winchmen operate the winches on board the ship.
The cargo is checked as it is loaded by a tallyman, and if it is necessary to measure the
volumes of the separate items of cargo, this is done by a checker. When loading general cargo

as many as eight stevedores work in the hold and six on the quay-side or in the lighter
alongside the ship.

5. STEERING A COURSE
Orders to the helmsman, who steers the ship, are given by the officer of the watch. The
officer orders the helmsman to turn the wheel (or helm) to port or starboard and to steady the
ship on the new compass course. It is stated as a compass point or in three-figure notation in
degrees. The helmsman repeats all orders given to him so that the officer knows that his
orders have been understood.
When the helmsman has completed his turn at the wheel, he states clearly the course
to be steered to the relieving helmsman. He also repeats the course to the officer of the watch
when reporting that he has been relieved.
When the ship is on voyage, the wind and waves, as well as the action of the propeller,
tend to cause the direction in which the ship is heading to change. The helmsman, therefore,
must counter the swing of the ship by applying the rudder in the reverse direction of that of
the swing of the ship.
The art of steering a ship requires the helmsman to keep a very close watch on the
compass and to turn the wheel as soon as the compass indicates that the ship is turning off
course. An experienced helmsman is able to anticipate how the ship behaves. He is, therefore,
able to keep the ship on a straight course, and so save time on voyage. Most ships are
equipped with gyrocompasses. A gyrocompass is an electromechanical instrument. But every
ship is equipped with a magnetic compass the action of which is dependent upon the
magnetism of the earth. The rudder fitted at the stern of the ship is turned by a steering
engine. It is operated by the helmsman whenever he turns the wheel. If the steering engine
fails, it is necessary to use an emergency steering system with which every ship must be
equipped.

6. COMMUNICATION AT SEA
There are three main methods of communication between ships and the shore. These
are: Radio signals which may be passed using radio-telegraphy or radio-telephone. Radiotelegraphy uses Morse Code signals. Radio-telephony uses Very High Frequency (VHF) radio
and allows spoken messages to be passed. Daylight or night-time flashing equipment (such as
Aldis Lamps) in which signals are sent in plain language using the Morse Code. Flag
signalling in which coded messages using hoists of flags are passed.
Besides these methods sound signals may be used by the ship's whistle or siren, or by
bells or gongs. Semaphore signalling uses hand flags. Rockets and flares are used for distress
and certain other circumstances. Loud hailer uses voice which is amplified.
Messages are most commonly passed in plain language. When they are so passed
between ships of different flags, the English language (the language of the sea) is almost
always used. There is. however, an International Code of Signals available in seven
languages. This Code, printed in two volumes, gives visual coded signals in Volume One and
radio-telegraphy signals in Volume Two. By means of the 'International Code of Signals'
seamen who do not understand each other's language may communicate with each other.

7. NAVIGATION
In addition to the traditional methods of navigation a number of sophisticated electronic
devices have been developed to help the navigators. These include the k echo sounder, radar
and various types of radio navigation equipment. The echo sounder sends a radio signal from
the bottom of the ship to the sea-bed, from which it is reflected. The time taken to receive the
reflected signal is a measure of the depth of water under the ship. The received pulse is
displayed on a chart by a pen recorder so that the navigator can sound of the bottom over
which the vessel is passing.
A similar device is the sonar system, which uses high frequency sound signals. In sonar
the sound signal can be sent ahead or sideways. The time for the echo to be sent back from an
object, such as an underwater rock, is a measure of the object's distance from the ship. The
sonar system can also be used to measure the speed of the ship over the seabed. It is now
common for ships, including trawlers, tugs and ferries, to be fitted with radar to help them
navigate near land. High-frequency radio beams are sent out and received by a rotating radar
scanner on the ship.
These signals are then converted into images on a screen. The ship is shown in the centre
of the screen and nearby ships are shown in relation to it. On the screen moving objects leave
a short trail to indicate their direction and speed. But radar is only an aid to navigation. It is
the correct interpretation of the picture on the screen which ensures the safe passage of the
ship. Nearly all seagoing vessels are fitted with radio for transmitting and receiving signals.
One of the mos common methods of checking a vessel's position is by using the system
which the operator finds the direction but the system is often not very accurate.
If Equipment such as the Decca Navigator, the Omega Navigator and Loran, use
synchronized signals received from specific shore stations to establish position. This may be
done either by comparing the time of arrival of a certain signal from three or more stations, or
by comparing the difference in phase of radio waves. They all work on the same principle.
Signals received from a pair of stations place the ship on a curved line of position. However
along this line the received signals from the two stations would seem the same. Signals
received from another pair of stations define a second line of position? The ship's position is
where the two lines cross.
The position is displayed on a chart and on dials. The accuracy of this system is usually
within half a mile. Since the late 1960s it has been possible to navigate by satellite. Signals
from satellites are received by a dish-shaped aerial on the ship. As the satellite approaches or
goes away from the ship, the character of the signal received changes? This change depends
on where the ship is in relation to the orbiting satellite: Because the position of the satellite is
known with very high accuracy the ship's position can also be fixed. This system gives an
accuracy of better than one tenth of a mile in all weathers, all over the world. The introduction
of satellites has led to fully automatic navigation in the open sea for modern ships.

The ultimate in navigation may eventually be in a dual system combining satellites with
inertial navigation. In inertial navigation, sensors measure the ship's speed and direction, and
compute the changing position from these readings. This system is entirely internal and
independent of any external references such as landmarks, the sun, stars, radio or radar
transmission. The equipment only needs to know the exact location of the starting point.
Using this system, which is extremely accurate, a ship can be on course and kept on it despite
current, winds and alterations in engine power. Inertial navigation is used in warships.

8. SHIP CONSTRUCTION
Ships cost a lot of money to build. A general cargo vessel costs several million pounds
and a giant tanker can cost over 40 million pounds. One reason for this is the high cost of
steel and other materials used in shipbuilding. 4Another reason is the high cost of labour.
A modern shipyard is designed for building ships as cheaply and quickly as possible.
Many of the old processes have disappeared or been combined into one fully mechanized
process. Machines are now used instead of them. Today, ships can be built in about sixteen
months and costs can be kept to a minimum.
Who designs ships? Ships are designed by naval architects. The largest ship-ping
companies have their own naval architects. In Europe and Japan, shipyards employ naval
architects to design a ship for a customer, or offer basic designs which can be varied to suit
the customer's needs. Shipowners may also go to independent firms of shipping consultants
and ask their naval architects to design a ship for them.
When shipowners decide to order a new ship, they tell the naval architect the cargo
they want the ship to carry. They also tell him what routes the ship will ply and the desired
speed. They put limits on the ship's dimensions and on the price that they are prepared to pay.
The ship must also comply with the rules of the classification society and international
regulations. Economic, engineering and safety factors all govern the design of a ship.

9. SHIP STRUCTURE
The right side of a ship facing the bow is called the starboard side and the other side is
the port side. The beam is the greatest width of the ship. The draught is the depth of the ship's
bottom or keel below the water surface. The captain and officers are accommodated in cabins.
These are located in the middle part of the ship near the bridge. The other members of the
crew live in cabins. They are usually in the rear part of the ship.
At sea, the ship is controlled from the bridge by the captain and navigating officers.
The front part of a ship is called the bow and the rear part the stern. Near the bridge is the
funnel. Smoke and gases pass through the funnel from the engine. The engine is fitted near
the bottom of the ship in the engine room. The engine drives the propeller at the stern of the
ship. The anchors and cables and the windlass are located in the bow of the ship.

ADDITIONAL MATERIAL
1. General Structure of the Ship
The main body of the ship is called the hull. The hull consists of an inside framework
and an outside skin called shell plating. At the base of the hull is a heavy metal plate called
the keel. When the ship is at sea this part of the ship is under water. To make it easier to refer
to parts of the ship, the hull is divided into three areas or parts. They are the forward,
amidships and after parts. The forward part is nearest the bow. The after part is nearest the
stern. Amidships is in the centre part of the ship.
Identify the main parts of the hull in the diagram below:

In the bow, the hull is attached to the stem post. In the stern, the hull is attached to the
sternpost. The hull is divided into a number of watertight compartments. Decks divide the
hull horizontally and bulkheads divide it vertically. Deck beams support the decks and
stanchions support the bulkheads.
Label the deck beams and the stanchions on the diagram below:

Cargoes are stored in cargo holds. Cargo holds are usually situated at the bottom of the
ship. Within the hull, decks are given a special name, i.e. between decks (often called simply
tween decks). There may be upper tween decks and lower tween decks above the holds.

Bulkheads are partitions that can run either transversely (across the ship) or longitudinally
(fore and aft). Sometimes bulkheads are built so that they are completely watertight. This
makes it possible either to carry liquid cargoes, or to seal off the ship if water should break in.
The bulkhead nearest the stem must be very strong. If the ship is damaged it must remain
watertight. This bulkhead is called the collision bulkhead.

Besides the space for cargo the hull also contains the engine room, which is situated
at the after end of the ship, and a number of tanks: at the fore end of the ship is the forepeak
tank, and at the after end of the ship is the after peak tank. These tanks are used for storing
fresh water and ballast water. At the bottom of the ship is the double bottom tank, which is
used for storing fuel and water ballast.

If you look at the after part of the ships hull, you can see small round openings in the
ships side. These let light and air into the cabins, the crews quarters. The openings are called
portholes.

Now look at the diagram below:

The diagram shows you the upper deck, which is the deck covering the top of the hull, and
the bulwarks at the fore and after end of the hull. The bulwark is an extension of the hull
plating, which rises above the top of the upper deck. They act as a barrier against the force of
the waves. Along the edge of the remainder of the upper deck, especially amidships, you will
find a line of guard rails. These are made up of vertical posts called guard stanchions which
are linked together by either wires or tubes. These protect the passengers and crew from
falling overboard.
1.2. As stated previously, ships are divided off into different levels called decks. The upper
deck is the deck which is level with the top of the hull. Modern ships also have decks forward
and aft above the upper deck and these are called the forecastle deck and poop deck.
Amidships above the level of the upper deck is the superstructure. On a cargo ship the
superstructure is usually quite small. The superstructure consists of several decks each with a
different purpose. In the diagram below the four decks are named.

The lowest of the four decks of the superstructure is called the bridge deck. The crews
quarters and the galley are on this deck. The next deck is the upper bridge deck or saloon
deck. Here are cabins for the passengers and a lounge and saloon for their use. Above the
saloon deck is the boat deck. On this deck the officers have their accommodation and so does
the captain. On the boat deck you can also find lifeboats, which are raised and lowered into
the water by davits. The highest deck in the superstructure is called the navigation bridge.
This is the nerve centre of the ship. The wheelhouse is here and so is the chart room and the
radio room. The navigation bridge is where the ship is steered or conned from.
Look at the diagram below and name the four decks of the superstructure labelled as A to
D. What are the decks E and F called ?

On which deck are the following found?

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

Lifeboats
Wheelhouse
Galley
Passengers accommodation
Crews quarters
Captains cabin.

2. VOCABULARY
Words and phrases
Hull = coc, corp de nav; osatur, carcas
Keel= chil
Bow= prova
Stern = pupa
Forward = partea din fa a navei, nainte, n prova
Amidships = la cantrul/mijlocul navei; in axul navei; la cuplul maestru
After = din(spre) pupa; la/spre pupa; napoi
Hold = magazie/hambar (de nav)
Deck = punte de nav, covert
Bulkhead =perete etan de nav, perete de compartimentare (de regul transversal)
Between deck (tween deck) = ntrepunte (spaiu)
Watertight compartment = compartiment etan
Collision bulkhead = perete de coliziune/de forpic; perete de pic prova
Stem post= etrava
Sternpost =etambou
Porthole =iublou
Bulwark = parapet, falsbord; spargeval de punte
Guard stanchion = baston de balustrad
Upper deck = punte superioar
Forecastle deck = puntea teug
Poop deck =puntea dunat
Superstructure = suprastructura
Fore =prova; extremitate prova; // spre prova; n/la prova, dinspre prova
Aft = pupa// la/spre/dinspre pupa, din pupa
Bridge deck = punte de comand/navigaie
Boat deck = punte a brcilor; punte de promenad (la navele de pasageri)
Upper bridge deck= punte superioar
Crew quarters = cabinele echipajului
Galley = buctrie (pe nava)
Saloon deck= punte de clasa ntia (la navele de pasageri)
Lounge = careu
Accommodation = cabine, spaiu de locuit pentru ofieri
Lifeboats = brci de salvare
Wheelhouse = camer a timonei
Funnel = co

SHIPS DIMENSIONS

LENGTH
A ships length is measured in different ways for ships officers, for architects and designers,
and for registry. Terms used for technical or registry purposes include registered length,
tonnage length, floodable length, and length by ABS rules. We mention these terms for
familiarization only. The more commonly used length measurements-length overall, length
between perpendiculars, and length on load waterline are discussed as follows.
1.1.Length Overall (LOA)
A ships Length Overall is measured in feet and inches from the extreme forward end
of the bow to the extreme aft end of the stern. Watercraft operators must be familiar with this
and similar dimensions to safely manoeuvre the ship. The dimension is commonly found in
lists of ships data for each vessel.
1.1.2.Length Between Perpendiculars (LBP)
A ships Length Between Perpendiculars is measured in feet and inches from the
forward surface of the stem, or main bow perpendicular member, to the after surface of the
sternpost, or main stern perpendicular member. On some types of vessels this is, for all
practical purposes, a waterline measurement.
1.13. Length on Load Waterline (LWL)
A ships Length on Load Waterline is an important dimension because length at the
waterline is a key factor in the complex problem of speed, resistance, and friction. On vessels
with a counter stern, the LWL and LBP can be the same or about the same. On a ship with a
cruiser stern, the LWL is greater than the LBP.

1.2. WIDTH

A ships width or, more properly a ships breadth is expressed in a number of ways and,
like length, for a number of reasons.
1.2.1. Maximum/Extreme Breadth
A ships maximum/extreme breadth is measured in feet and inches from the most
outboard point on one side to the most outboard point on the other at the widest point on the
ship.
1.2.2. Beam
The beam of a ship is the width of the ship (over the plating) taken at any position along
the length. When giving a brief summary of ships measurements there is a tendency to use
the term beam for maximum/extreme breadth.

1.3.

DEPTH

The depth of a vessel involves several important vertical dimensions. They involve
terms like freeboard, draft, draft marks, and load lines. The vessels depth is measured
vertically from the lowest point of the hull, ordinarily from the bottom of the keel, to the side
of any deck that you may choose as a reference point.
1.3.1. Freeboard
When a ship floats, a large part of it is below the waterline. The waterline is the line at
which a ship floats in the water, depending on its load. The vertical distance from the
waterline to the edge of the lowest outside deck is the freeboard.
1.3.2. Draft/Draught
The vertical distance form the waterline to the lowest part of the ships bottom is the
draft. The draft is also the least depth of water in which a ship will float. The draft of a ship
will vary according to the weight with which it is loaded. A fully-loaded ship will have a
deeper draft than when unloaded. An unloaded ship will have a shallow draft. There may be a
difference between the ships draft aft and her draft forward according to the weight of the
load carried. Large vessels are usually vessels of deep draft or hampered vessels. They have to
comply with maritime international regulations relating to the maximum draft permitted in
various navigable areas.

1.3.3. Draft marks and load lines

A vessel that was overloaded might become unstable and sink. To stop that from
happening there are very strict laws governing the loading of ships. On the side of every
vessel there is painted a line (like the one in the drawing) which shows the safe level at which
the ship floats in water of different densities. The vessel must never be loaded so that this line
goes below the level of the water. This safety line carries the name of the man who advocated
it- Samuel Plimsoll. It is called the Plimsoll Line. A set of marks are painted on the bows, the
stern and amidships. These marks show the vertical height of the hull from the underside of
the keel to just the load line. These marks are called draft marks.

1.3.4.Trim and List

The relation of the length of the draft and the bow and stern is called the trim. The ship
in the figure below is horizontal, so we say its in trim. Sometimes either the bow or stern is
lower in the water than it should be. Then we say the ship is out of trim. When this happens
we say that the ship is trimmed by the head or trimmed by the stern/down by the head or down
by the stern.
If the ship is out of balance from left to right, she is said to have a list. The ship may
have a list to port/starboard of.degrees. In order to upright the ship you have to transfer
fuel/ ballast water/ fresh water/oil from one tank to another to correct the list. If cargo is not
properly lashed, it may shift and cause a list of the ship to port or starboard. In this case you
have to move the cargo to correct the list.
Study the diagram below showing some important ship dimensions:

VOCABULARY
Words and phrases
Length = lungime
LOA(length overall) = lungime maxim
LBP(length between perpendiculars) = lungime a navei ntre perpendiculare

LWL( length on load waterline) = lungime a navei la linia de plutire de ncrcare

Width = lime
Breadth = lime a navei
Beam = lime maxim (a navei); traversul navei
Depth = adncime(a apei);nal]ime a bordului; pescaj
Freeboard = bordul liber
Draught/draft = pescaj
Draught /draft forward =pescaj prova
Draught/draft aft = pescaj pupa
Draught/draft marks = scara de pescaj/ncrcare
Load lines = marca de ncarcare, marca de bord liber
Plimsoll line/mark = semn Plimsoll, marca de bord liber
Trim = asiet, diferen de pescaj; nclinare longitudinal
Trimmed by the bow/head/stem = (nav) aprovat
Trimmed by the stern = (nav) apupat
List = canarisire, nclinare transversal permanent/static, unghi de canarisire/a se nclina, a
se canarisi
To have/take a list = a (se) canarisi
Counter stern = pup cu bolt
Cruiser stern = pup de crucitor

DIRECTIONS
TERMS RELATING TO POSITION ON BOARD SHIP
1.
One way in which the language of the sea and the language used on land are different
is in the terminology of directions. When a sailor gets on a ship he goes aboard. He doesnt
go to the back of the ship, he goes aft. If he wants to walk toward the bow of the ship, he goes
forward .If he doesnt find what he wants, he checks fore and aft, which means from the bow
to the stern. If that doesnt help, he looks abaft which means further to the rear, or astern
(behind the stern). He never watches the sea from the right side of the ship, he watches from
the starboard. The left side is always called the port side. If he sees something directly off
either side of the ship, its located abeam. An object or area which lies across the ship from
the starboard to the port side is said to be athwartships. Anything in the centre of the ship is
located amidships. A sailor looking to either side of the ship from amidships is facing
outboard. Somebody watching him from either side has to face inboard. Something over him
from any part of the ship is above. If its very high, such as on a mast, its aloft .If its under

him, its below. Something away from the wind is lee. If its in a lee direction, its leeward.If it
moves in a lee direction, it goes leeway. If its near the ship, its close aboard.
2. VOCABULARY
Words and phrases
Aft = n spate, spre pupa
Forward = n fa, spre prova
Fore and aft = de-a lungul
Abaft = la pupa, aproape de pupa; napoia, spre/ctre/nspre pupa
Astern = napoi, n spate, la/n pupa; mers napoi; cu mers/mar napoi
Starboard side = tribord
Port side = babord
Abeam = la travers, de la travers
Athwartships = transversal/travers pe nava; la traversul navei
Amidships = la centrul/mijlocul navei; in axul navei; la cuplul maestru; pozitie zero a cirmei
Outboard = peste bord, in exteriorul navei
Inboard = interior, in interiorul navei
Above = deasupra; in amonte
Aloft = n gabie, n arborad, sus pe verga
Below = jos, sub
Lee = bord de sub vnt, zona de calm( n bordul de sub vnt al navei) ; sub vnt
Leeward = bord de sub vnt; a veni sub vnt(despre nava);sub vnt, la adapost de vnt
Close aboard = foarte aproape, la mic distan (de nav)