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Dyslexia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Dyslexia
Classification and external resources
R48.0
ICD-9
315.02
OMIM
127700
DiseasesDB
4016
MedlinePlus
001406
Patient UK
Dyslexia
MeSH
D004410
5 Diagnosis
o 5.1 Central dyslexias
o 5.2 Peripheral dyslexias
o 5.3 Neglect dyslexia
6 Management
7 Epidemiology
8 History
o 8.1 Research
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Classification[edit]
Internationally, dyslexia is designated as a cognitive disorder related to
reading and speech. More than seventy related names are used to
describe its manifestations, characterizations or causes. The National
Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke definition describes,
"difficulty with spelling, phonological processing (the manipulation of
sounds), and/or rapid visual-verbal responding." [4] Many published
definitions are purely descriptive or embody causal theories. These
definitions for dyslexia encompass a variety of reading skills, deficits and
difficulties with distinct causes rather than a single condition. [13]
Acquired dyslexia, alexia, can be caused by brain damage, stroke,
and atrophy. Forms of alexia include: surface dyslexia, semantic
dyslexia, phonological dyslexia, and deep dyslexia.[14][15] Acquired
surface dyslexia arises after brain damage in a previously literate person
and results in pronunciation errors that indicate impairment of the lexical
route.[16][17] Numerous symptom-based definitions of dyslexia suggest
neurological approaches.
Signs and symptoms[edit]
See also: Characteristics of dyslexia
Diagnosis[edit]
Central dyslexias[edit]
Central dyslexias include surface dyslexia, semantic
dyslexia, phonological dyslexia, and deep dyslexia. [66][67] ICD-10
reclassified the previous distinction between dyslexia (315.02 in ICD-9)
and alexia (315.01 in ICD-9) into a single classification as R48.0. The
terms are applied for developmental dyslexia and inherited dyslexia
along with developmental aphasia and inherited alexia, which are now
read as cognates in meaning and synonymous. [68]
Surface dyslexia[edit]
Main article: Surface dyslexia
In surface dyslexia, words whose pronunciations are 'regular' (highly
consistent with their spelling e.g. mint) are read more accurately than
words with irregular pronunciation, such as colonel.[69] Difficulty
distinguishing homophones is diagnostic of some forms of surface
dyslexia.[69] This disorder is usually accompanied by (surface) agraphia
and fluent aphasia,[69] surface dyslexia is associated with lesions in
the temporo-parietal region of the left hemisphere.
Phonological dyslexia[edit]
Main article: Phonological dyslexia
In phonological dyslexia, patients can read familiar words but have
difficulty reading unfamiliar words (such as invented pseudo-words). It is
thought that they can recognize words by accessing lexical memory
orthographically but cannot 'sound out' novel words. Phonological
dyslexia is associated with lesions in varied locations within the territory
of the middle cerebral artery. The superior temporal lobe is often also
involved. Research has pointed towards the theory that phonological
dyslexia is a development of deep dyslexia. A treatment for phonological
dyslexia is the Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing Program (LiPS). This
program is based on a three way sensory feedback process. The subject
uses their auditory, visual, and oral skills to learn to recognize words and
word patterns. This is considered letter-by-letter reading using a bottomup processing technique. Case studies with a total of three patients
found a significant improvement in spelling and reading ability after using
LiPS.[70]
Deep dyslexia[edit]
See also: Deep dyslexia
Patients with deep dyslexia experience semantic paralexia (paradyslexia), which happens when the patient reads a word, and says a
related meaning instead of the denoted meaning. [69] Deep alexia is more
practice. This supports the findings that MOR also has bottom-up
processing components.[71]
Hemianopic dyslexia[edit]
Commonly considered to derive from visual field loss due to damage to
the primary visual cortex. Sufferers may complain of slow reading but
are able to read individual words normally. This is the most common
form of peripheral alexia, and the form with the best evidence of the
(possibility of) effective treatment.[72]
Neglect dyslexia[edit]
In neglect dyslexia, some letters are neglected (skipped or misread)
during reading - most commonly the letters at the beginning or left side
of words. This alexia is associated with right parietal lesions.Use of
prism glasses in treatment has been demonstrated to produce
substantial benefit.[73]
Attentional dyslexia[edit]
People with attentional dyslexia complain of letter crowding or migration,
sometimes blending elements of two words into one. The lesion usually
affects the left parietal lobe (Warrington et al., 1993). Patients perform
better when word stimuli are presented in isolation rather than flanked by
other words and letters. Using a large magnifying glass may help as this
should reduce the effects of flanking interference from nearby words;
however, no trials of this or indeed any other therapy for left parietal
syndromes have been published.[74]
Management[edit]
Main articles: Management of dyslexia and Dyslexia interventions
Through compensation strategies and therapy, dyslexic individuals can
learn to read and write with educational support. [75] There are techniques
and technical aids that can manage or even conceal symptoms of the
disorder.[76] Removing stress and anxiety alone can sometimes improve
written comprehension.[77] For dyslexia intervention with alphabet writing
systems, the fundamental aim is to increase a child's awareness of
correspondences between graphemes (letters) and phonemes (sounds),
and to relate these to reading and spelling by teaching him or her to
blend the sounds into words. It has been found that reinforced collateral
training focused towards visual language (reading)
andorthographic (spelling) yields longer-lasting gains than mere oral
phonological training.[78] Intervention early on while language areas in the
brain are still developing is most successful in reducing long-term
impacts of dyslexia.[79] There is some evidence that the use of specially
tailored fonts may provide some measure of assistance for people who
have dyslexia.[80][81] Among these fonts are Dyslexie and OpenDyslexic,
which were created with the notion that many of the letters in the Latin
alphabet are visually similar and therefore confusing for people with
dyslexia.[82] Dyslexie, along with OpenDyslexic, put emphasis on making
each letter more unique to assist in reading. [82]
Epidemiology[edit]
The prevalence of dyslexia is unknown; with estimations varying greatly
between 1% to 33% of the population.[83] It is often estimated that the
prevalence of dyslexia is around 510 percent of a given population
although there have been no studies to indicate an accurate percentage.
[38][84]
Internationally, there are differing definitions of dyslexia, but despite
the significant differences between the writing systems, Italian, German
and English speaking populations suffer similarly from dyslexia.
[85]
Dyslexia is not limited to difficulty in converting letters into sounds, but
Chinese dyslexics have difficulty in extracting shapes of Chinese
characters into meanings.[86]
History[edit]
Main article: History of developmental dyslexia
Dyslexia was identified by Oswald Berkhan in 1881,[87] but the
term dyslexia was coined in 1887 by Rudolf Berlin, who was
an ophthalmologist in Stuttgart.[45] He used the term to refer to a case of
a young boy who had a severe impairment in learning to read and write
in spite of showing typical intellectual and physical abilities in all other
respects. In 1896 W. Pringle Morgan, a British physician from Seaford,
East Sussex, published a description of a reading-specific learning
disorder in a report to the British Medical Journal titled "Congenital Word
Blindness". This described the case of Percy, a 14-year-old boy who had
not yet learned to read, yet showed normal intelligence and was
generally adept at other activities typical of children that age.
[88]
Castles and Coltheart describe phonological and surface types of
developmental dyslexia (dysphonetic and dyseidetic, respectively) to
classical subtypes of alexia which are classified according to the rate of
errors in reading non-words.[55][89] The surface/phonological distinction is
only descriptive, and devoid of any etiological assumption as to the
underlying brain mechanisms.[90] Studies have, however, alluded to
potential differential underlying brain mechanisms in these populations
given performance differences.[91][92]
Definition
By Mayo Clinic Staf
Dyslexia is a learning disorder characterized by difficulty reading due to
problems identifying speech sounds and learning how they relate to
letters and words. Also called specific reading disability, dyslexia is a
common learning disability in children.
Dyslexia occurs in children with normal vision and intelligence.
Sometimes dyslexia goes undiagnosed for years and isn't recognized
until adulthood.
There's no cure for dyslexia. It's a lifelong condition caused by inherited
traits that afect how your brain works. However, most children with
dyslexia can succeed in school with tutoring or a specialized education
program. Emotional support also plays an important role.
Symptoms
By Mayo Clinic Staf
Dyslexia symptoms can be difficult to recognize before your child enters
school, but some early clues may indicate a problem. Once your child
reaches school age, your child's teacher may be the first to notice a
problem. The condition often becomes apparent as a child starts
learning to read.
Before school
Late talking
School age
Once your child is in school, dyslexia signs and symptoms may become
more apparent, including:
Reading well below the expected level for your child's age
Difficulty spelling
Difficulty memorizing
Causes
By Mayo Clinic Staf
Dyslexia has been linked to certain genes that control how the brain
develops. It appears to be an inherited condition it tends to run in
families.
These inherited traits appear to afect parts of the brain concerned with
language, interfering with the ability to convert written letters and words
into speech.
Risk factors
By Mayo Clinic Staf
Dyslexia risk factors include:
Complications
By Mayo Clinic Staf
Dyslexia can lead to a number of problems, including:
Social problems. Left untreated, dyslexia may lead to low selfesteem, behavior problems, anxiety, aggression, and withdrawal from
friends, parents and teachers.
Children who have dyslexia are at increased risk of having attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and vice versa. ADHD can cause
difficulty sustaining attention as well as hyperactivity and impulsive
behavior, which can make dyslexia harder to treat.
You may first bring up your concerns with your child's pediatrician or
family doctor. To ensure that another problem isn't at the root of your
child's reading difficulties, the doctor may refer your child to:
Make a list of questions to ask your doctor to help you make the
most of your appointment.
What kind of help for dyslexia can I expect from my child's school?
When did you first notice that your child was having trouble
reading? Did a teacher bring it to your attention?
Your child's home life. The doctor may ask for a description of your
family and home life, including who lives at home and whether there
are any problems at home.
Testing reading and other academic skills. Your child may take a
set of educational tests and have the process and quality of reading
skills analyzed by a reading expert.
Read aloud
Build a vocabulary
If your child has a severe reading disability, tutoring may need to occur
more frequently, and progress may be slower.
Individual education plan
In the United States, schools have a legal obligation to take steps to help
children diagnosed with dyslexia with their learning problems. Talk to
your child's teacher about setting up a meeting to create a plan that
outlines your child's needs and how the school will help him or her
succeed. This is called an Individualized Education Plan (IEP). To
receive help, your child may need a structured, written plan.
Children with dyslexia who get extra help in kindergarten or first grade
often improve their reading skills enough to succeed in elementary
school and high school.
Children who don't get help until later grades may have more difficulty
learning the skills needed to read well. They're likely to lag behind
academically and may never be able to catch up. A child with severe
dyslexia may never have an easy time reading, but he or she can learn
skills that improve reading.
Academic problems don't necessarily mean a person with dyslexia can't
succeed. Students with dyslexia can be highly capable, given the right
resources. Many people with dyslexia are creative and bright, and may
be gifted in math, science or the arts. Some even have successful
writing careers.
What parents can do
You play a key role in helping your child succeed. Take these steps:
Address the problem early. If you suspect your child has dyslexia,
talk to your child's doctor. Early intervention can improve success.
Read aloud to your child. It's best if you start when your child is 6
months old or even younger. Try listening to recorded books with your
child. When your child is old enough, read the stories together after
your child hears them.
Work with your child's school. Talk to your child's teacher about
how the school will help him or her succeed. You are your child's best
advocate.
Be supportive. Trouble learning to read may afect your child's selfesteem. Be sure to express your love and support. Encourage your
child by praising his or her talents and strengths.
Talk to your child. Explain to your child what dyslexia is and that it's
not a personal failure. The better your child understands this, the
better he or she will be able to cope with having a learning disability.
Take steps to help your child learn at home. Provide a clean, quiet,
organized place for your child to study, and designate a study time.
Also, make sure your child gets enough rest and eats regular, healthy
meals.
Join a support group. This can help you stay in contact with
parents whose children face similar learning disabilities. Support
groups can provide useful information and emotional support. Ask
your doctor or your child's reading specialist if there are any support
groups in your area. Or search reputable sites on the Internet for
dyslexia or reading disability support groups.