UNIT 2 THE UPS AND DOWNS

Structure
21 Introduction
Objectives
22 Maxima-Minima of Functions
2 2.1 Definitions and Examples
2 2 2 A Necessary Condition for the Existence of Extreme Points
23 Mean Value Theorems
2.3.1 Rolle's Theorem
2.3 2 Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem
2.4 Sufficient Conditions for the Existence of Extreme Poiqts
2.4.1 First Derivative Test
2.4.2 Second Der~vativeTest
2.5 More Information from the Second Derivative
2 5 1 Concavity/Convex~ty
2.5.2 Polnts of lnflect~ons
2.6 Summary
2.7 Solutions and Answers

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Why do drops of oil on the surface of water coalesce? Why do honeycombs have hexagonal
cells? Why is a drop of water spherical? Why does a red corpuscle in blood have the shape of
a biconcave disc? The answers to these questions are closely related to minimum and
maximum values of some functions. Drops of oils tend to coalesce so as to mnimise total
surface tension. The scheme of hexagonal cells enables bees to store a fixed amount of honey
by using the mlnunum amount of wax for sealing. A drop of water is spherical because a sphere
is the shape which encloses a given volume with minimum surface area. The oxygen carrier red
corpuscle, on the other hand, is in the shape of a biconcave disc so as to maximise the surface
area. It enables our system to carry the maximum amount of oxygen on the surface of a fixed
amount of blood.
In this unit we shall discuss an important technique involved in solving the problem of
maximising or minimising various functions. This technique, as you will soon see, involves the
use of derivatives which you studied in Units 3-6. We shall also discuss Rolle's theorem and
the mean value theorem which have very important applications as you will see further in your
study of calculus.

Objectives
After having gone through this unit, you should be able to
obtain the maximum and minimum values of some functions
solve practical problems of maxima-minima
state Rolle's theorem and the mean value theorem
find the points of inflection and the curvature of a curve
determine whether a given function is concave or convex or neither in a given interval.

2.2 MAXIMA-MINIMA OF FUNCTIONS

Look at the points P and Q in the graphs in Fig. 1. How are they different from other points on
the graphs?
We could describe Q's as the peaks or hill-tops and the P's as the,.valley-bottoms. Using the
language of mathematics, we could say that each P has the property that the value of the
function fat P is smaller than the value off at neighbouring points. Similarly, the peaks Q are
distinguished by f having a maximum value there when compared to the values at near-by-
points.
But before proceeding any further, let us define maximum and minimum points of a fbnction
precisely.
 The Ups and Downs

Fig. 1

2.2.1 Definitions and Examples

]x - 6, x + 6[, that IS, the set
Definition 1 :Mpoint c is said to be a maximum point for a function f if there exists a
of points whose distance from
6 > 0, such that x is less than a pos~tivcnumber
f(c) 2 f(x) for all x such that I x - c 1 <6. 6 is called a neighbourhood ol'
f is said to have a maximum at c, and f(c) is called a maximum value off. x.

We can similarly define a minimum value of f.

f is said to have a minimum at a point c of its domain provided there exists a 6 > 0 such that
f(c) 5 f(x) whenever ( x - c 1 < 6.
A maximum or a minimumvalue is known as an extreme value.
Example 1 The fimction f(x) = ( x I + 1 has a rninimum value atx = 0. You can see from
Fig. 2 that f(0) = 1 and f(x) > 1 for all x in any every neighbourhood 10- 6,0 + 6[ of 0.
The mimimum value off is thus f(0) = 1. Do you agree that this function has no maximum
value?

Fig. 2 : Grrph of f(x) - ( ' rI + I

111 rlris exaniple we see that f(x) 2 f(0) in every neighbourhood of 0. But to prove that f(0) is a
~r~i~iim value,
i ~ nwe
~ need to find only one such neighbourhood.
Our next example shows that Definition 1 cannot be applied to functions defined on closed
~ntervalsif their extrema occur at either of the end points of the interval.
Example 2 Consider the function qx) = x + 2, v x E [O, 23.
From its graph (Fig. 3), it is clear that x = 0 is a minimum point and x = 2 is a maximum poilit
of this function. In fact, you will see that
z = f ( o ) s q x ) s f ( 2 ) = 4 tX~E [0.2]
Drawing Curves Xote that here we cannot find a 6 > 0 such that f(0) I f(x) v x E ] - 6 , 6 [ for the simple reason
that f7x)is not defined for x < 0. The same argument holds good for the rnaxlmum. Since f7x)
is not defined for x > 2, we cannot find any 6 > 0, such that f7x) I f72) v x E 12 - 6,2 + 6[. This
means f does not have extrema at 0 or 2 in the sense of Definition 1. How do we resolve this
paradox? We modify Definition 1 to suit such cases.
Y t
Let f be defined on [a, b]. We shall say that f has a maximum (minimum) at a if we can f u d 6 > 0,
4-- such that f7a)2 f7x)(f7a)< f7x))for all x E [a, a + 6[.
Similarly,we shall say that f has a maximum (minimum) at b, if we can find 6 > 0 such that

/
/
, I
f(b) 2 f7x) (f(b) I f7x))for all x E ]b - 6, b].
Example 3 The function f7x) -sin x has a maximum value at several points. Fig. 4 shows the
2 /j graph of this function. Can you see that these points are d 2 , 5 d 2 , ....... -3d2, -7d2, .......?
I

I
I
I
I
I
0 2 E
Fig. 3

Fig. 4 : Graph of f(x) = sin I

In general, the sine fimction has a maximum at each of the points 2nrc + (7c/2), n being any
integer. The maximum value is sin [2nn + (d2)] = 1. This function has a minimum value too at
several points. What are these points? Do you agree that the minimum value at these points is
-l? We can now say that this function has an extermum at all points m + d 2 , n being any
integer.
The functions in the examples considered so far were all continuous. For such functions, a
valley in the graph of the function indicates a minimum and a peak points to a maximum.But
we can talk about maximum and minimum values of non-continuous functions too. Here, we
may find extreme values which are neither at a peak nor at a valley-bottom, as in Example 4.
Example 4 Consider the function f defined follows :

This funition has three extreme points, P, Q and R (see Fig. 5). You should be able to see for
yourself that P is a maximum and R is a minimum point of f.
The h c t i o n also has a minimum at Q, that is, at x = 1. Let us see why. Consider the

neighbourhood ] -5 1 [
1
1
9 + 9 that is;]
1 3
59 [ of 1. The function in E s interval is

defined as follows :
 The Ups and Uo~vns

I '
9 :

' '
I
1:
4I ;r
a5 ! f
[
Fig. 5
,<
b'

~hu~f(l)=-l-1'=-2
1
j ik For -
2
< x < 1,x2<1 =$-x2>- 1
i4
b / =$ -1-x2>-2
:i
i' =$ flx)>fll)
\
I Now, when 1 < x < 312, f(x) is positive, and therefore is greater than f( 1). Hence f(x)2 f (1)
I whenever x E ] l a , 312 [.
Thus f( 1) = - 2 is a minimum value of the function.
!, Remark 1We found in the above example that f(0) = - 1 was a maximum value off whereas
?
f(3) = 0 was a minimum value. Did you find it hard to swallow that a maximum value of the
function is smaller than a minimum value? If yes, recall our defdtion of an extreme value. We
were concerned with the values of the function only in a neighbowhood (that is, points near-
by) of the extreme point. Thus, the concept of maxima-- is essentially a local
phenomenon. What happens globally or elsewhere was not under consideration. For this
reason, some people use the tenns local (or relative) maximum and local (or relative) minimum
insteadofmaximumandminimua
A value qc) such that f(c)2 f(x) for all x in the domain of the *tion, is then called an
absolute (or global) maximum. Similarly, if 0 ) 5 f(x)for all x in the domain, then 0 ) is called the
absolute (or global) miuimum. Therefore, a function may have many local minima or maxima,
but it can have only one absolute minimum or maximum. In the light of this we see that f(0) =1
is the absolute minimum value for the function in Example 1.
E E 1) Find the maxima, minima of each of the following functions. If a function has no
lmixhdminimumsay so.

iii) flx)=x,forO<x< 1.
[Be carell! 0 and 1 are NOT in the domain of the function!]
iv) flx)=x2,for all x E R
D r a w i n g Curves

2.2.2 A Necessary Condition for the Existence of Extreme Points

So far, we have used the graph of a function as an aid to discovering extreme points. Clearly,
this is not going to be feasible in all circumstances. Drawing graphs may be time-consuming
and cumbersome. Certainly there must exist quicker and neater techniques. In this subsection
we describe an analytic method of f~ndingextrema. But fust, a definition :
Definition 2 A point c of a set A G R is said to be an interior point of A if for some
6>0,]~-6,~+6[~A.
The point 1 E A = [O, 21 is an interior point, since ] 1 - 6 , 1 + 6 [ c [O, 21,
1
if we choose 6 = - .But neither 0, nor 2 is an interior point of A.
2
The fallowing theorem gives us a necessary condition for the existence of an extremum.
Theorem 1Let f be a function which is derivable at an interior point c of its domain D. Iff has
an extremum at c, then f (c) = 0.
Proof :Since f is derivable at c, f (c) exists. This means that Lf (c) and R f (c) exist, and are
equal. Suppose, fust that f has a maximum at c. This means.
f(x) 5 f(c), t/ x E ]C - 6, c + 61, where 6 is some positive number.
*f(x)-f(c)<O v X E ] C - 6 , ~ + 6 [

f(x) - f(c)
Nowifc-6<x<c,thenx-c<Oand
X-C

f(x) - f(c)
Similarly,if c < x < c + 6, then x - c >0, and
X-C

Therefore,

Lf (c)= 2 [f(x) - f (c)]

X-C
,and
But we know that Lf (c) = Rf (c), Hence the above inequalitiesyield Lf (c) = R f (c) = 0.
that is, f (c) = 0.
Proceeding exactly as above, we can prove that f (c) = 0 even when f has a minimumat c
(see E 2).
Remark 2 The condition f (c) = 0 is only a necessary condition for f to have an extremum at c.
This means that iff has an extremum at c, then we must necessarily have f (c) = 0. But it is by
no means a sufficient condition. In other words, if we are given that f (c) = 0, this information
is not sufficient for us to conclude that f has an extremum at c. That is, a function may not
have an extreme value at c even though f (c) is zero. For example, take the function fix) = x3
shown in Fig. 6. We know that f (0) =0. Now, qO) =0, whereas qx) <0 for - 6 <x <0, and
qx) > 0 for 0 < x < 6, whatever positive number 6 may be. Thus there is no 6 for which either
fix)<f(O),foraUx~1-6,6[orfix)2fiO),forallx~] 4 , 6 [ .
This indicates that f has neither a maximum, nor a minimum at x = 0, even though f(0) = 0.
Remark 3 The condition f (c) = 0 applies in the case when f (c) exists. But a function may
have an extremum at x = c even though it is not derivable at c. For instance, the function f of
Example 4 is not derivable at x = 1. Yet it has a minimum there. Similarly, k t i o n fix) = - I x I is
not derivable at x = 0 but has a maximum thm. Can you point out another function fiom the
examples above, which is not derivable but has an extremum?
From this discussion we arrive at the following corollary:
Corollary 1 If a ~ k t i o fnhas an extreme value at a point x = c, then one of the following
conditions is satisfied :
3 f is not derivable at c.
ii) f is derivable at c, and f (c) =0. '

Definition 3 A point at which either f (x) does not exist.or is zero is brown as'a critical point.
If you study Definition 3 and Cor. 1 carefully, you will realise that any extreme point is a critical
point. But the converse is not true. That is, a critical point need not be an extreme point. You
will find an example to illustrate this in Remark 2 above.
Example 5 Consider the function qx) = xY3for all x E R.
2
f (x) = - x-'I3. Thus, this function is not derivable at x = 0.
3
This means that f has a critical point at x = 0.
Further, at other points f exists, but
f (x) =(2/3)x-'" # 0.
Hence, the function has only one critical point, namely 0. For every 6 > 0, and every x in
]-6,6[,~x)=xm=(~'")22Oandfi~)=~.'Ihus~=~isafninimumpointandf(~)=~isthe
minimum value (also see Fig. 7).

Fig. 7 : Graph of f(r) --

1"'.
Drawing C u r v e s
Since there is only one
maximum value, namely f(k),
of qx), f(k) 1 f(x) for all x s.t.
o < x < 2k.
Example 6 A farmer has a certain length of fencing wire. We wants to make a fence in a
rectangular shape to keep his goats. Now what dimensions should he choose to ensure
maximum enclosed area?
It is clear that in order to get a maximum enclosed area, the farmer should use the whole length
of wire. Suppose it is 4k metres. Then 4k is the perimeter of the enclosure. Thus if x and y are
the length and the breadth, respectively, of the enclosure (in metres), then 2(x + y) = 4k, or
y=2k-x,O<x<2k. .
Thus, we can regard the enclosed area xy (in m2)as a function f of its length x. Thus, we have
.the function f defined as
f(x) = x(2k - x), for all x > 0 (length is always positive). Our task is to find that value of x, for
which Rx) becomes maximum. Now f(x) is a polynomial in x, and therefore f is derivable for all x.
Hence its critical points (among which we should seek the extreme values) are obtained from
the equation f (x) = 0, which in this case gives 2k - 2x = 0, that is x = k.
This means that the function qx) = x (2k - x) has a critical point at x = k. I
Let us see whether it has an extremum at x = k.
Now, f(k) = k2,and
f(x)=2kx-~~=k~-(x-k)~ ...(1) 1
It is obvious from ( 1) that for values of x less than or greater than k, (x - k)2 > 0 and therefore, 1
I
f(x)< k2= f(k). Hence, for any 6 > 0, f(x) 5 f(k)for all x E ]k- 6, k + 6[. This means Qk) is a local
maximum. But since there is only one extreme point, f(k) is the maximum value ofthe area. Now, f
when x = k, y = 2k- x = k. So, the farmer should have a square fence made, taking the entire
length of his wire.
I
In this example it was easy to compare the neighbouring function values with f(k). Are you I
wondering how you would tackle this problem when the functions under consideration would
not be so nice? There is no need for speculation. We have suficient condition which tell us
whether f(x) is an extreme value or not, and if it is, whether it is a minimum or a maximum value,
without actually having to compare values. Section 6 is, in fact, devoted to such explorations.
Before that, in the next section we shall discuss the mean value theorems. But now it's time to
do some exercises.
 Find the critical points of each of the following functions. The Ups and Downs

a) f(x)=(x-3)(x-5),v XE R.
b) f43=d+13x2+Sx+7,v X E R
c) fTx)=sinx+3,t/ x e R.
d) f(x)=ex,t/ XE R.
e) f(x)=2lxl,v X E R
f) f(x)=lxl + 2 , v X E R .
g) f(x)=(xl+lx-1 ) , v X E R.
h) f(x)=x+ l/x,x>O

2.3 MEAN VALUE THEOREMS

t
,In this section we shall study the means value theorems. These theorems have proved to be
very handy tools in proving other theorems not only in calculus, but also in other branches of
mathematics, such as Numerical Analysis. Their importance lies in their wide applicability and
I tremendous usefulness.
We shall first consider Rolle's Theorem, which is a special case of Lagrange's mean value
theorem. We shall not attempt the proofs of these theorems here, but you will agree that both
L
are intuitively obvious. We shall discuss their geometrical significanceand illustrate their
usefulness through some examples.

2.3.1 Rolle's Theorem

Rolle's Theorem was not actually proved by Rolle. He had only stated it as a remark. In fact,
Michel Rolle (1652- 1719) was known to be a critic of the newly founded theory of Newton and
4
Drawing Curves Leibniz. It is ironical then, that one of the most important theorems of this theory is known
after him. Now let us see what this theorem is.

Fig. 8

In Fig. 8 we see the graphs of two continuous functions defined on the closed interval [a, b].
Here we observe the following features common to both of them.

Rough S t a t e m e n t Precise Statement.

1. The curve is drawn without breaks or gaps. The function f is continuous on [a, b].

2. There are no comers in the curve, except The function is differentiable in the open
possibly at the end points. rnterval ]a, b[.
3. The two end points of the curve lie on the same f(a) = f(b)
horizontal line.
4. The curve admits a horizontal tangent (drawn f(c) = 0 for some c in ]a, b[.
as a dotted Irne) at some point.
i

The line joining the two end points may be imagined to be pushed upward or downward,
keeping it always horizontal, and keeping the curve unmoved. Then there is a position, shown
by the dotted line, where it touches the curve. This makes us believe that the fourth property
holds for all the functions satisfying the first three properties. This is what Rolle's Theorem
states.
1.1
Theorem 2 (Rolle's Theorem) Let f be a function continuous on the closed interval [a,b] and 1 :

differentiablein the open interval ]a, b[. Further, letfja) = f(b). Then there is some c in ]a, b[ 1
such that f (c) = 0. I
We give some examples below to illustrate this theorem.
Example 7 Consider f(x) = sin x on the interval [O, 2x3. All the assumptions ofRolle's theorem
I
are satisfied here. f(O) = 0 = q2x)
Therefore according to Ro!le's theorem, there should exist c in ]0,2x[ such that f (c) = 0.
Here f(c) = cos c.
Can we find an element c such that cos c = O?
Yes. In fact there are two such points c in ]0,21t[, namely n12 and 31~12.
I
 ~ ~ . .

The Ups and Downs

0
1-

I
Fig. 9

At d 2 , the function sin x attains its.maximumvalue.

At 3d2, the functionsin x attainsits minimumvalue.
Both these belong to the iat'e~al]O,2x[.
Rolle's theorem asserts that there is at least one c in ]a, b[ such that f (c) = 0. Example 7 shows
us that there may be more than one points m ]a, b[, at which f (x) = 0.
.
In Rolle's theorem, a function f on [a, b] has to satisfy three conditions. .

i) f is continuous on [a, b]
ii) f is differentiable on ]a, b[
'iii) f(a)= f@)
Now, we shall see through some examples that each of these conditions is essential. We
cannot drop any one of them and still prove the theorem.
Example 8 Let fix) = x - [x] = fractional part of x, be defined on [0, I.].This can also be described. y
as

f (x) =
I
xifOSx<l.
0 if x = 1.

Here 40) = f( 1) = 0. f is differentiable in the open interval 10.1 [.Thus, two of the three
I,- T
conditions af Rolle's theorem are satisfied by f. The derivative off is 1 at every pomt of 10.1 [.
There is no point of ]O,1[ where the derivative is zero. What happens to Rolle's Theorem in
this example? Obviously, its conclusion does not hold here.
/"
The reason is that f is not continuous on the closed interval [O, I], since it fails &be +-b
continuous at 1.
In the next example, we see that the assumption of differentiability in ]a, b[ cannot be omitted. Fig. 10

Example 9 Consider f(x)= Ix I on [-I, 11. There is no c in ] -, 1,1[ such that f (c) = 0. Actual
computation shows that
Y

i
-lif - 1 < x < O
k, 9

I\
f'= lifO<x<l
does not exist at x = 0
/
f is continuous on [ - 1,1]. / b
I Also,f(-l)=f(l). 0 X
I But f is not differentiable hE l , 1[.
Our next example shows that the assumption f(a) = fib) is essential in Rolle's Theorem.
Example 10Let f(x)= x3on [O,l], Then f is continuous on [0, 11, and is differentiablein 10, 11.

i But fiO)# fil). ~lg.11

Drawing Curves In this case f (x) = 3x2# 0 for any x E 10, 1[. Thus, we see that the conclusion of Rolle's
theorem may not hold when f(a) # f(b)
fY
\ I I
1 Lastly, we give an example where Rolle's Theorem is applicable and yields a unique c.
i Example 11Let f(x) = x2on [-I, I]. Then f (x) = 2x.
Here all the three conditions of Rolle's Theorem are satisfied. There is only one c, namely
\ c = 0, such that f (c) = 0.
-4- You will now be able to solve these exercises.

I E E4) Can Rolle's Theorem be applied to each of the following functions? Find 'c' in case it
can be applied.
Fig. 12
a) y = sin2x on the interval [0, n].
b) f(x)=x2+1on[-2,2].
C) f(x) = x3+ x on [0, 11.
d) f(x) = sinx + cos x on [0, d2].
e) f(x) = sin x - cos x on [O,2n].

E E5) Consider the function f(x) = x2- 3x + 2. Prove that f( - 1) = f(4). Find apoint c between
-1 and 4 such that the derivative off vanishes at c. Is this point the midpoint of - 1
and 4?
 The Ups and Downs

I:LE E6) For the same function f(x) =x2- 3x + 2, verify Rolle's Theorem 011 the interval [I, 21.

E E 7) Let f(x) = ax2+ bx + c be the given function. If p and q are two real numbers such that

) qd,prove ~ l a t
f ( ~= f1 =0 .

I
: E8) Consider the curve y = ax2+ bx + c. Let x, be the unique real number such that the
tangent at (x,, yo) to this curve is horizontal. Prove that the function y is one-one on
L the interval [x,, m [ (Hint :If f(p) = f(@, apply Rolle's theorem in the interval [p, ql).
Drewing Curves E E9) Let I be an open interval of R. Let f :I +R be a differentiable function such that f does
not vanish on I. Prove that f is one-one on I.

2.3.2 Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem

Now we shall discuss the mean value theorem. It was proved by Joseph Louis Lagrange, a
towering mathematician of the eighteenth century.
We have already mentioned that Rolle's theorem is a special case of the mean value theorem.
Let us recall the statement of Rolle's Theorem in the following f o m
Let f be a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b], and differentiable in the open
interval ]a, b[. The graph off is a curve in the plane. If the endpoints of this c w e lie in the
same horizontal line, (that is, f(a) = 0)) there is a point c on the curve where the tangent to the
curve is horizontal (f (c) = 0). .
The last sentence' can be restated as follows.
If the endpoints of the curve lie in the same horizontal line, there is a point on the c w e , where
the tangwt to the curve is parallel to the line joining its endpoints.
The mean value theorem asserts the same conclusion, even without the assumption of
horizontality of the line joining the endpoints of the curve. Fig. 13 illustrates this
difference. H m P and Q are the end points of the curve. The line PQ is horizontal m
Fig. 13 (a), but not in Fig. 13(b). But in both the cases the point R on the curve has the
property that the tangent to the cunle at R is parallel to the line PQ.The number c is the
x-coordinate of R

Fig. 13
Fig. 13(a) illustrates Rolle's theorem, whereas Fig. 13(b) illustrates Lagrange's mean value The Ups and Downs
theorem,
The two end points of the curve are (a, f(a)) and (b,f(b)). The line joining these two points has
the slope [f(b) - f(a)]/(b - a). Any line parallel to this line will a l s have
~ the same slope.
Therefore, the conclusion of the mean value theorem is
f (c) = [f(b)- f(a)]/(b - a) for some a < c < b.
This is because, we already know that f (c) is the slope of the tangent to the curve at (c, f(c)).
Now we are ready to give the precise statement of the theorem.
Theorem 3 (Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem) Let f be a continuous function on a closed
interval [a, b]. Let f be differentiable in the open interval ]a, b[. Then there is a point c in the
f(b) - f (a)
open interval ]a, b[ such that f (c) = -a
Rolle's Theorem has three assumptions : a continuity assumption, a differentiability
assumption, and the assumption f(a) = f(b).

.
The mean value theorem has only two assumptions. These are the same as the fust two
assumptions of Rolle's Theorem.
Suppose in addition to the two assumptions of the mean value theorem, f(a) = f(b) also holds.
Then what does the mean value theorem yield? It says that
f(b) - f(a)
f ( ~ ) = b-a for some a < c < b. But f(b) - f(a) = 0.

Therefore, we get f (c) = 0 for some a < c < b.

This is the same as the conclusion of Rolle's theorem. This proves our contention that Rolle's
theorem can be deduced from the mean value theorem.
But why the name mean value theorem? What is the mean value here?
f(a) is the initial value off.
f(b) is the final value off.
Therefore f(b) - f(a) is the total change in the value off. This change has occurred when the x-
coordinate has changed from a to b. For a change of b - a in the domain, there is a change of
f(b) - f (a) in the value of. Therefore, the mean value, that is, the average value of the rate of
change is [@) - f(a)]/(b - a). The mean value theorem asserts that this average value of the
rate of change o f f is assumed at some point c by derivative f .
We shall illustrate the same thing by meansof an example. Consider a car moving from h i e a
to time b; let f(t) be the position of the car at time t. Then the average speed of the car is
distanceltime= [@) - f(a)]l(b -a)
According to mean value theorem, the speedometer of the car would have shown this
[f(b) - f (a)]/ (b - a) at some time between a and b. For instance, if the car has travelled 100 krrrs.
in two hours, at sbme point of time, its speed would have been actually 50 kmph. (which is its
average velocity over the span of two hours).
Example 12 Let us veriQ the truth of Lagrange's mean value theorem for ~e hnction
f(x)=x2-2xontheinte~al[1,2].
This is a polynomial function. Therefore it is continuous on [I, 21 and differentiable in ]1,2[.
(We have seen this in Unit 2 and 3). Here

We want to check that f ' (c) = 1 for some c such that 1 < c < 2.
Now f '(x) =2x - 2. For what value of x will it be l?
Drawing Curves Now. 2x - 2 = 1 when x -+ 312 and 312 E ] 1,2 [. Thus, we see that

Eow consider the function f : [a, b] -+ R which satisfies the assumptions of mean value
theorem. Let p and q be any two points such that a I p < q I b. Is there some c between
p and q such that
f (c) - [f(q) - f(p)j/(q - p)? To answer this, consider the restriction off to the interval [p.q]. It
satisfies the assumptions of the mean-value-theorem. Therefore such a point c exists.
This result can be geometrically interpreted as follows. (p, f(p)) and (q, f(q)) are two points on
the curve y = f(x).

f(q).- f(p)
The line joining them is called a chord of the curve. is
q-P
the slope of this chord. What we have shown is that the slope of this chord is the same as the
slope of the tangent at the point (c, f(c)). This means, that the tangent at (c, f(c)) is parallel to
the chord (see Fig. 14). Thus, for any chord of the curve, there is a point on the curve where
the tangent is parallel to the chord.
Fig. 14 Example 13 i) Let us find the point c in ] - d 4 , n/4[ such that the tangent to f(x) =
f(x) = cos x at (c, f(c)) is parallel to the chord joining ( 4 4 , f(-d4)) and (d4, f (d4)).
ii) We shall prove further that for the same c, the tangent at (c, g (c)) to the curve
g(x) = cos x + x2+ x is parallel to the chordjoining (-d4, g(- ~ 1 4 )and
) (nl4, g(d4)).

9 The slope of the chord joining

(- n/4, f(- ~ 1 4 )and
) (n4, f(d4)) is
f(nl4)-f(-n/4) - - 1143-1/43 =0
n/4-(-n/4) n/2
Therefore we seek c such that f (c) = 0. We have f (x) =-sin x.
The only point in 1 4 4 , d 4 , [ where this vanishes is at c = 0.
The corresponding point on the curve is (0, f(0)) = (0,l).

The slope of the chord joining (( -n/4), g( -d4) and (~14,g(d4)) is

When c = 0, we want to prove that the tqngent at (c, g(c)) to the curve g(x) also has the
same slope 1. In other words, we must prove that g' (0) = 1.

This proves that, for both the functions f(x) and g(x) over ] - nI4, n!4[, it is the same point c
where the conclusion of the mean value theorem holds.
~xarnple14 For the curve y = In x, suppose we want to find a point on the curve where the
tangent is parallel to the chord joining the points (1,O) and (e, 1).
Since In 1 = 0 and In e = 1, these two points (1,O) and (e, 1) lie on the curve y = In x. Consider
this function on the closed interval [l, el (see Fig. 15). It is continuous there. It is also
differentiable on 11,e[.
I Therefore by the mean value theorem, there is a point c between 1 and e such that the
Fig. 15 tangent at (c, It! c) is parallel to the chord joining (1,O) and (e, 1). We have to find this point.
Now, y' = l/x.
Its value at c is l/c.
The required point is given by The Ups and Downs

The required point on the c w e is (e - 1, In (e - 1)).

Remark 4 Let f : [a, b] -,R satisfy the assumptions of the mean value theorem. Then
9 8 , 0 < 8 < 1, suchthat@)=f(a)+(b-a)f(a+O(b-a)).
This is because any point c between a and b is of the form a + 8(b - a) for some 0 < 8 <
Notethata=a+O(b-a)andb=a+ 1 (b-a).
Are you ready for these exercise?
E 10) Verify the mean value theorem for f(x)= x2+ 1 on the following intervals
a) [-I, 11 b) 1-1,21

E 11) Verify the mean value theorem on the interval [O, 21 for the following functions
a) f(x)=sinm
Drawing Curves E E 12) a) Let f(x) = x3on [0,1]. Find a point c in ]O,1[ as in the mean value theorem.
b) Let f(x) = x3on [-I, 01. Find a point c in 1- 1,0[ as in the mean value theorem
c) Let f(x) = x30n [-I, 11. Show that there are two points c hi ] - 1,1[ such that .

E E 13) Lef f be a function on [a, b] satisfying the assumptions of the mean value theorem.
Let c be a point guaranteed by the mean value theorem. Prove that if
g,(x)=flx)+ 1
and g, (x) = f(x) + x for all x in [a, b], then the same point c satisfies
g, tb) - g, (a)
= g,'(c)
b-a
g2 (b) - gz (a)
and - = g,' (c) also.
b-a
Drawing Curves The mean value theorem assures us that the equation 3x2- cos x = 25 n2 has atleast one
solution, c. But it does not enable us to find the value or values of c. You can study methods
of solving such equations iu the course in numerical analysis.
In the next section we shall see how the mean value theorem helps us to derive sufficient
conditions for the existence of extreme points of a fimction.

2.4 SUFFICIENT CONDITIONS FOR THE

EXISTENCE OF EXTREME POINTS
In Sec. 2 we have seen that a necessary condition for the existence of an extreme point of a
given derivable function is that the derivative is zero at that point. We have also seen that the
condition is not a sufficient one. In this section we shall discuss some tests which give
suff~cientconditions for the existence of extreme points. Lagrange's mean value theorem which
we have studied in Sec. 3 is used in deriving these tests.

2.4.1 First Derivative Test

The following theorem gives a sufficient condition for a function f to have an extreme value at
an interior point c of its domain. It also tells us whether the extreme value is a minimum or a
lnaximm

Theorem 4 (FIRSTDERIVATIVE TEST) Let c be an interior point of the domain of a func'tion f.

Suppose f is derivable on ]c - 6, c + 6[ for some 6 > 0 and that f (c) = 0. Then
a) i f f (x)>Owhenc-6<x<cand
f (x) iO when c < x <c + 6, then f has a maximum at c, and
b) i f f (x)<Owhenc-6<x<c
and f (x) > 0 when c < x < c + 6, then f has a minimum at c.
Proof a) We have to prove that f has a maximum at c. In other words, we have to show that
f(c) 1 f(x) for all x in some neighbourhood of c.
Now, let x E ]c - 6, c[. Then f is differentiable onlx, c[ (in fact on [x,c]), and continuous on [x, c]
because differentiability at a point implies continuity there (Theorem 6, Unit 3). By Lagrange's
theorem, there exists a E ]x, c[ such that
f(c) - f (x)
=f (a). That is,
C-X
f(c) - f(x) =(c - x) f (a). ...(1)

therefore, f (a) > 0. Also, c -x > 0 since x E ] c - 6, c[. Hence, from (1)
f(c)- f (x) > 0 or f(c) > f(x). ...(2)
Similarly, if x E ]c, c + 6[, then by Lagrange's theorem, there exists a point b E ] c, x[ such that
f(x)-f(c)=(x-c) f (b). ...(3)

Since f * (x) < 0, when x E ]c, c + 6[, f*(b)<0. Further, since x E ]c, c + 6[, x - c > 0.
(3) now gives
-
f(x) f(c) <0 or f(c)> qx). ...(4)

-
Thus,it follows from (2) and (4) that whether x e ]c 6, c[ or to ]c, c + 6[, f(c) > f(x). In other
words, f(c) 2 f(x) y x E ]C - 6, c + S[. Hence, f(x) is a maximum value off and f has a maximum
at C.
The proof of part (b) proceeds on similar lines. See if you can write it yourself.
E E 15)Prove part (b)ofTheonm4.
 Tbc Ups and Downs

We can also interpret Theorem 4 as follows.

If while crossing a point, moving fiom left to right, the derivative changes sign fiom positive '
to negative, then that point must be a maximum.Similarly, while crossing a point, if the
derivative changes sign from negative to positive, then that point must be a minimum.
Remark 5 From Theorem 4 we can deduce that when f (x) > 0 in an interval, the function f is
strictly increasing in that interval. Similarly, f (x) < 0 in an interval would imply that f is a
strictly decreasing function in that interval f = 0 in an interval, likewise, means that the
function is a constant function in the interval. VJe shall talk about this in Block 4.
You should note that the conditions stated in Theorem 4 are sufficient and are by no means
necessary for the existence of extreme poins. Thus, a function may have an extreme value at c
even though the conditio~wgiven in the theorem are not satisfied as shown in the following
example.

f(0 + h)- f(0)

f(0) = lim
h+O h

= lim
*
h [5 + sin(1 / h)]
h

Thus f (x) exist for all x. However, neither in the interval ] -6,0[, nor in ]0,6[ does f (x)
keeps the same sign, no matter how small 6 is (you may check this yourself). Thus, the
question o f f (x) being positive or negative on two sides of 0 docs not arise.
Example 18Among all rectangles having a given area, is there one which makes the perimeter
aminimum?
Suppose that the length and the breadth of the rectangle are x and y, respectively. Then x > 0,
y > 0. The area xy being constant, k2say, we have y = k2x-' .Then, the perimeter of this
rectangle

I = 2 (length +breadth)
, = 2 (x + k2 X-I), x >0. This is a fhction of x alone. Let us denote it by fix). Thus,
! f(x)=2(x+lr'X-'),x>O.
Drawing Carves we want that value of x which makes f(x)a minimum.The function f is derivable at all points of
its domain. The derivative is given by
f (x) = 2 [l -(lC2Ix2)]
Now,f(x)=0~x2=kZ~x=fk.1fweassumethatk>0,~en-kisnotinthedomainoff.'
Thus the only critical point is x = k. Let 6 be any positive number such that k - 6 >0. Then f is
derivable at all points of ]k - 6, k + &.
1) x€JK-&k[*x<k,
*
x2 <k=,
-k2ht2> 1,
*f(x)<O

Hence by Theorem 4, f has amhimum at x =k. Also, when x = k,

y=kzx-l =k.
This means that a square shapeyields a minimum perimeter among all rectangles with a fured
area.
You should be able to solve the followidg exercisenow.
E E 16) Find all possible extreme values of each of the following functionsby applying the fmt
derivative test
a) f l ~ ) ~ ~ ~ - 5 d + 5 ~ ~ - l f o b d x € R
[It may be helpful to fktorize f(x)]
2.4.2 Second Derivative Test be up8 and Downs

We now investigate another condition which, if satisfied, does away with the need to examine
the sign o f f (x) in ]c - 6, c[ and ]c, c + S[ as in the first derivative test. This condition also is
only sufficient, but very functional and hence, useful.
Theorem 7 (Second Derivative Test) Let f be derivable in ]c - 6, c + 6[ for some 6 > 0 and
suppose f (c) = 0.
Then
a) f has a maximum at x = c provided f' (c) exists and is negative.
b) f has a minimum at x =c proided f' (c) exists and is positive.
Proof :a) Since f"(c) < 0, f is a strictly decreasing function in the neighbourhood of c (see
Remark 5). Thus there exists an & > 0 (and we may take it smaller than 6 ) such that
f (x) > f:(c) when x E ]C - €, C[ (sincex <c)
and f (x) < f (c) when x E ]c, c + &[(since,here, x >c)
Since f (c) =0, this means that f (x) > 0 when x E ] c - E, C[and f (x) < 0 when
X E ]c,c+E[.

By the first derivativetest it follows that f has a maximum at c. 'lhe proof for (b) follows along
similar lines.
Remark 6 Ybu must have obsaved that this theorem says nothing about the cam when f"(c)
isaim zero.In this case the function may have a maximumor a minimum value or neither as the
followingexamples show.
3 f(x)=-x4,forallx~R
Here f (0) =0 = f' (O), but the functionbas a maximum at 0. (see Fig. 17 (a)).
ii) f(x)=x4,f~allxeR
H m f '(0) = 0 =f '(0). but the function has a minimum at 0. (see Fig. 17 (b))

Here f (0)= 0 = f'(0) and the functionhas neither a maximumnor a minimumat 0 (see Fig. 17
(c)). 'lhus, the first derivative test does have some merit.

Example 19 Let us find tbe extmne vrlues of the W o n f defined by

f(x)=2x+3/x,forallx#O
Here, f (x) = 2 - 3/x2,and therefore,
f (x)=0*x=f J37Z
Also, f' (x) =6x-j, This means
f'(&Z)>~andf'(- ,/m)<0.
Drawing Curves
Since, f (- rn ), it follows from the second derivativetest that f has a
) = 0 =f (
minimum at rn and a maximum at - rn .The minimumvalue is
f(-m)= 2,k ,andthemaximurnvalueisf(- m ) = - 2 , k .
Example 20 From each comer of a square paper of side 24 cm, suppose we remove a square of
side x cm and fold the edges upward to f o m an open box. Let us try to find that value of x
which willgive us a box with maximum capacity.

Fig. 18

Clearly, 0 < x < 12 for a box to be formed. Also, the box thus formed has dimensions
(24 - 2x), (24 -2x) and x (see Fig. 18).
The volume fix) is a function of x given by

Since 12 is hot in the domain of our function f, 4 is the only critical point. Also,
f"(x)=24x- 192.

Hence x = 4 is a maximum point off. The maximum value f(4) off (that is, the maximum capacity
of thp box) is 1024cm3.
Are you surprised that the box is not a cube for maximum capacity? But, had it been a cube,
four 414areseach of side 8 cm (the removed portions) would have been wasted, whereas, now
four*sqmseach of side only 4 cm have been thrown away. There had to be a compromise
between the waste mataial and making the box as near a cube as possible. Moral :
Mathematics does not fail even though intuition may!
Here are some exercises for you to solve.
E ,817) Find the extretne points for each of the followingfunctions. Point out which of them are
maximum, which are minimumand which lue neither. Also find the extreme values off.

d) qx) =a,+ a,x2 + q x 4+ ....+ anx2., where x E R and eacha, is positive.

D o not get bogged down by the degree, of qx)!]

(Hint :A maximumpoint off will be the minimumpoint of llf aid vice versa).
 The Upr and Downs

E E 18) Show that d3 is a critical point off, whe~e

qx) = sin x (1 + cos x), x E R Does f have a maximum or minimum at this point?

E E 19) Show that the rectangle of maximum area which can be inscribed in a ctcle, is a square.
[Notice that the diagonals of the rectangle must be diameter of the circle]
E E20) A man wants a nameplate with &splay area equal to 48 cm2bordered by a white strip
2 cm along top and bottom and 1 cm along each of the two remaining sides. What
dimensions should the plate have so that the total area of the plate is a minimum?

2.5 MORE INFORMATION FROM THE SECOND

DERIVATIVE
In the previous section we used the sign of the second derivative at a critical point to discover
wh& the function baa a maximumor a minimum at that point. For &wing the necessary
conclusion we regarded f" as the derivative of the anction f , and then applied the first
derivative test. We shall now use the monotonicity considerations o f f to draw another
conclusion, which would give us an idea about the shape of the graph of the function f. Given
that a function f increases in [a, b], its graph may be anything like (a), @) or (c) inFig. 19.
In this section we shall use the second derivative to determine the type of graph the given
function f has. We shall assume that the function is twice differentiable in its domain.
 The Ups and Downs

Fig. 19

Iff' >0 in some interval [a, b], thm f increases in this interval (Remark 5 applied to f). In
other words, as x increases, the slope of the tangent to the graph at (x, qx)) increases, so that
the tangent hvns counter-clockwise. This results in the graph bending upward or bulging
&wnward.Such graphs and functions are known as convex. We also use the terms concave
upward or convex downward. Such graphs lie below their chord (line-segment joining the
points on graph which correspond to x = a and x = b) and above their tangents. See
Fig. 20 (a).
Similarly i f f ' < 0 in [a, b] so that f decreases, and hence slope decreases, the tangent tums
clockwise. Such functions are known as ccncave (equivalently, concave downward and
convex upward). The graph in this case lies below the tangents and above the chord. (see Fig.
20 (b)).

We say that a function f is concave (convex) at a point, if it is concave (convex) in a

neighbourhod of the point.

II
Rcmuk 7: i) The can&vity is towards the chord. If the chord lies above the graph, the graph
is concave upward. When the chord lies below the graph, the graph is concave downward.
hi Every convex function is of the form -f, where if is concave.
hi Only concave and convex hctions have the property that each of their tangent lines
intersect their graph, exactly once.
Till now we.weh concerned only with the manner of bending of a graph. Let us now &s.souss
the measure of the bending of a graph at a point also known as the curvature at that pomt. We
measure the curvature at (c, qc)) by the ratio.
Drawing Curves f "(c)
k(c) =
[l + f ' ( ~ ) ~ ] ~ ' ~
1
The radius of curvature at (c, qc)) is denoted by p (c) and is defined by p(c) = k(c) ,if
y c ) # 0.
You will note that the radius of curvature is positive if the function is convex at that point and
i s negative if the function is concave there.
How does one get the ratio? Oh well! Surely, you don't thlnk this course covers the why of
everything about functions?
/'--

.'I-,<
f--.-. /. /
/

LC,f(c))
Points of Inflection 2.5.2

//
. Suppose f' (c) = 0 for some c E ]a, b[, and f changes sign in passing through c". That is, f" has
,(/
,
one sign on the left of c, in ]c - c[ say, and the other on the right of c, in I*, c + 6 [ say. Then
on one side of (c, qc)) the tangents are above the graph and on the other side of (c, qc)) these
are below the graph. This means that the tangent at (c, qc)) must be crossing the graph (Also
see Fig. 21).
Such points (c, qc)) are known as the points of inflection of (the graph of) f.
Note that we did not really use the fact that f' (c) is zero. In fact f' (c) = 0 is neither a necessary
nor a sufficient condition as you will find out from Examples 2 1 and 22. A function may have a
point of inflection at x = c without Q' (c) existing at all. For the tangent to exist, the existence of
f (c) is enough. However, note that iff' (c) exists in ]c - 6, c + 6[ and changes sign in passing
~4 through c, then f' (c) must be zero.
Example 21 Consider the function qx) = x 1 x 1, for all x E R shown in Fig. 22. This function can
be rewritten as

Hence,

I
' But f' (0) does not exist and
-
Fir. 22
2ifx>O
f "(x) =
-2ifxe0
Thus f' changes sign at 0 and the tangent crosses the graph at 0. x =O, is thus a point of
inflection even though f' (0) # 0 (it does not exist!). Hence f' (c) = 0 is NOT a necessary
condition for f to have apoint of inflection at x = c.

4 Example 22 Let qx) = x4.The first derivativetest shows that f has a minimum at x = 0. Thus f
das not have a point of inflection at x = 0 even though f'(0) = 0 (also see Fig. 17 (b)).This
happens because f' (x) = 12x2> 0 for all x # 0, and accordingly it does not change sign in
passing 0. Thus, f' (c) = 0 (by itself) is not sufficient either, for f to have a point of inflection
atx=c.
~ x a m ~23l ; Suppose we want b fmd the values of x for which the graph of the function
qx) = llx, x E R\{O) is convex (i.e., concaveupward) and concave (i.e., concave downward).
We shall also find if the graph (Fig. 23) has any points of inflection, and the curvature at
x= 1.
Here, f (x) =- 11x2,f' (x) = 2/x3.

Pig. 23
nT f'(x)+OfbranyxcR\{O),and
 It follows fiom (i) that the graph in question is convex (i:e., concave upward) in 10, -[. The Ups and Downs
From (ii) and the fact that f' exists for all x in the domain off, we conclude that the graph
has no points of inflection. From (iii) we deduce that the graph is concave (i.e., concave
downward) in] - w, O[.
Further, curvature at x = 1, is

Example 24 Suppose we want to examine the function f for points of inflection if If f ' (c) exists, theh f '(c) = 0)
f(x)=xZn+',forallx~
R,ne N. is a necessary condition for
(c, f (c)) to be a point of
inflection.

Therefore, f'(x) =0 +x =0. Since f' (x) exist for all x, there can be at most onepoint of
inflection, namely, (0, @)), or (40). Now to the left of x 30, &at is, for x <0, f' (x) <0, and to
the right of x = 0, f' (x) > 0. Hence, f' changes sign (fromnegative to positive) in passing
through the origin. Thus the origin is a point of inflection of fix) = xw'.
E E21) Examine each of the following functions for concavity, convexity and points of
inflection.
D y w i n g Curves

I I
E 22) Find the curvature at an arbitrary point of the graph of the function

2.6 SUMMARY
In tbis unit we have discussedthe following points.
1) A function f is said to have a maximum (resp.,minimum) value at a point c of its domain if
+,
thereexists a positive number 6 such that for all x E ]C- 6, c + f(x)5 f(c)(nsp. f(x)2 qc)).
Maximum and minimum values are known as the extreme values of the function.
2) At an extreme point c of a h t i o n f, either the derivative does not exist or is zero.
3) Critical points for a h t i o n are those where either the derivative does not exist or else has
the value zero. All extreme points are critical points. A critical point may fail to be an extreme
point.
4) Rolle's and Lagrange's mean value theorems, and their geometrical inerpretation. The Ups and Downs

5) A sdiicienf condition for a function f to have an extreme value at x = c is that f is

continuous at c and the derivative f changes sign in passing through c. If the change is from
positive to negative, c is a maximum point. In the other event, c is a minimum point. This test is
known as the first derivative test.
6) Second derivative test, another sufficient condition for the existence of extreme points
asserts that i f f (c) = 0 then f' (c) > 0 implies f has a minimum at x = c and f' (c) < 0 guarantees
a maximum value at c.
7) I f f ' (x) > 0 on some interval then f is convex on it. I f f ''(x) < 0 then f is concave on it.
8) I f f ' (c) = 0 or does not exist and f' changes sign in passing through c, then f has a point of
inflection at x = c. This means the tangent at (c, f(c)) crosses the graph off at this point.

9) The radius of curvature = .

,,(c)

2.7 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

E 1) a) all point of R are maxima as well as minima:
b) no maxima or minima on R
c) no maxima or minima on ]O,l{.
d) 0 E R is a minimum. No maxima.

E2) f has a minimumat c a 3 6 such that

qx)2f(c) VXE ]c-S,c+S[
+~ ( x ) - ~ ( c ) ~ O ~ / X E ] C - ~ , C + ~ [
- f(c)
* f(x)
(x-c)
2 O,c<x<c+6

f(x) - f(c)
and l0,c-s<x<c
(x -c)
3 Rf (c) 2 0 and Lf (c) < 0. But since f is differentiable at c, f (c) exists and
Lf (c) = Rf (c) a each is equal to zero.
*f (c)=O.
E3) a) f (x)=(x-3)+(x-5)=2x-8
. f(x)=O-x=4
.-.
x = 4 is a critical point.

d) no critical points
e) x=O f)x=O
g) All pohts x for which 0 5 x 5 1 are critical points because the function is &fwd ae
[I-2x,if x < O
Drawing Curves E4) a) Y q y ; = 2 s i n x c o s x = s i n 2 ~ = 0 i f x = d 2 [O,IC]
~
b) Yes,f (x)=2x=0 ifxaO E [-2,2]
c) No. f (x) = 3x2+ 1 # 0 for x E [0, 11. Rolle's t h e ~ r ~ d onot
e shold as
40)#4l)

E 5) c = 3 0 . Yes.

E8) Suppose f(x) is not (1 - 1) on [boo [

*p,q[xo,=[,suchthatp*qandf@)=f(q)

P*9
2
= x,,as x,, is the unique point with f (x,,)~ 0
Therefore either p c x,,or q c x, since p and q both cannot be equal to x,,.
This is a contradiction as we have taken, p,q E [x, a [.
E9) Suppose p,q e I s.t. p # q and f@)= f(q)
If p < q we have [p, ql c I, f is differentiableon [p, ql and f@)= f(q).
Thus f satisfiesthe conditions of Rolle's theorem on [p, ql
~f(x,,)=Oforsomex,,e[p,qlcl.
But this is a contradiction
Therefore f is one-one

E l l ) a) qO)=O=f12)
f (x)=~cosmaf(1/2)=0.
 The Ups and Downs

f(b)- f(a)
E 13) f (c) = =I
b-a

g2(b) - g2(a) -
- f(b) - f(a) + 1= f 9 ( c ) +1zg2.(c)
b-a b -a
E 14) a) y, = nxb'. Slope of the chord from (0,O) to (2,2") is

b) Slope of the chord from (0,O) to (1,l) is 1

1"
point: piai' piT)
' ( I
E 15) Let x E ]c - 6, c[. Applying the mean value theorem to [x, c], 3a E ]x, c[, such that
f(c)-f(x)=f (a)(c-x)<O,sincef (a)<Oandc-x>.O.
Hence flc) >flx).
Similarly, if x E ]c, c + 6[, then by the mean value theorem 3b E ]c, x[, such that
f(x)-f(c)=f (b)(x-c)>Osincef (b)>Oandx-c>O.
a flx)>f(c),or f (c) <flx).
*cisaminknun.
E16) a) Max.atx=l,min.atx =3.Ext~emevaluesat.eOand-28.Butx=Oisnotanextremum
because there is a neighburhood of 0 in which f (x) has the same sign on either
side of 0. tai ,-'

b) Min.atx= 1,x = 3
Max.x=-1
Extreme values a~-e-3,285,29

E 17) a) x = 0; min. point. extreme value =0

b) There are no extreme points.

d) f (x) = xg(x) where g(x) is polynomial in x2with all co-efficients positive.

Hence g(x) >0 for all x # 0. Therefore the only extreme point off is x =0.
Clearly, f(O)=a,andf(x)>a,,x#O.HenceOisarnin.andE.Visg
Drawing Curves E 19) If a and b are the sides of the inscribed rectangle,
a2+b2=d2*b= J /
Area=A=ab=a
A8=Oifa=dJZ
A"=<Ofora=dJZaa=#JZ isamax.
a = d J Z a b = d J Z atherectangleisasquare.
E20) Suppose the display area is a rectangle with sides a cm and b cm. Then the dimensions
of the name plate are a + 2 cm and b + 4 cm.
ab=48*b=48/a.
A=(a+2)@+4)=(a+2)(48/~1+4)

Dimensions of the plate :2(1+ & ), 4(1+ & )

E21) a) Convex in 10, m[; concave in ] - -, O[; point of inflection (P.1) = (0,o).
b) Convex in ] - m, O[; concave in 10, m[; P.I. :0,O)
c) Convex in]--,- l [ u ] 2 , m[; concave in]- l,2[, P.1.:- 1, (-1,-12),(2,-47)
d) Convex if x > 3, concave if x <3; no P.I.
e) Concave everywhere; no P.I.
f ) Convex in]d2,3d2[; concave in 10, d 2 [ u-]
3d2,2x[; P.I.; (d2,Q)and
(3fl, 0).