The Use of History and Archaeology in Contemporary Arthurian Fiction

Author(s): CHRISTOPHER A. SNYDER

Source: Arthuriana, Vol. 19, No. 3, BONNIE WHEELER (FALL 2009), pp. 114-122
Published by: Scriptorium Press
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The Use

of History

in Contemporary

and Archaeology
Arthurian Fiction

CHRISTOPHER

A.

SNYDER

From

the 1970s on, the majority of writers of narrative fiction who have
an historical
turned to theArthurian
legends for their novels have chosen

approach.

These

novelists

used history and archaeology

to reconstruct

theworld ofKing Arthur. (CAS)

William Caxton justified

his printingofThomasMalory sMorte
1485

In d'Arthur in large part on the basis ofArthur s historicity:

.. .diversmen hold
opinion that therewas no suchArthur, and that all such
books as been made of him be but feigned and fables, because that some
him that should say or think
chroniclesmake of him no mention_[But]
that therewas never such a king called Arthur might well be aretted great
follyand blindness.1

For you can visitArthurs sepulcher inGlastonbury Abbey, continued Caxton,

see the Round Table atWinchester,
and even grasp Lancelot s sword! It is
debatable whether Malory himself would have cared to have Caxton describe
his work as 'histories': few of the greats' who succeeded him?Spenser,
any effort anchoring their
Tennyson, William Morris, T.H. White?spent
Arthurian stories in the historical soil of post-Roman Britain. Why, then,
should so many of the novelists sinceWhite choose the genre of historical
fiction for rheirArthurian tales?
For one person to read every modern Arthurian novel, or ar least those
in English which made theirway to trade paperback, was just doable up to
about 1980; it is likely impossible now.2 Furthermore, it seems to thiswriter
that nearly all of the contemporary Arthurian authors, from the late 1970s
on, prefer the historical approach toArthur. I think it not only pertinent
to ask 'Why?' this is, but also 'How?'; that is,why and inwhat ways have
contemporary writers of fiction used history and archaeology ro reconstruct

theworld of King Arthur?

Novels are not the only genre inwhich this 'historical turn' can be glimpsed.
Elizabeth Sklar points to the historical emphasis inArthurian gaming and
comics, whose creators and authors are 'eschewing glamorized medievalism
formore somber settings and representation that suggest theDark Ages [sic]
ARTHURIAN
114

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A 19.3

(2OO9)

CONTEMPORARY

ARTHURIAN

FICTION

115

time frame currently considered the "authentic" period ofArthurian legend.'3

the same can be said formodern Arthurian cinema.4 Gone are the

Much

TechnicolorpageantryofMGMs KnightsoftheRoundTable (1953)and the

romantic sentimentality ofWarner Brothers' Camelot (1967), replaced by the

mud and blood reality of Excalibur (1981),King Arthur (2004), and Tristan
and Isolde (2006).5 Similarly,History Channel-style documentary filmmakers
play up the violence and gritty realism of the earlyMiddle Ages with an
increasing use of 'historical re-enactors' (often extras who come with their
own homemade arms and armor). Lastly, it goes almost without
saying that
the Internet is teeming with historical Arthur theorists and enthusiasts.6 One
need only browse theweekly digests ofArthurnet to see how dominant are the
historical discussion threads, often outnumbering the literarynearly 10 to 1.7
interest in the
Trade publishers clearly recognize this overwhelming
historical Arthur. Take, for example, the following promotional material
from the frontmatter of JackWhyte's 1996 novel The Skystone (Tor Books),
the first book of his Camulod Chronicles:
'Whyte breathes life into the

Arthurian myths,' writes Tony Hillerman,

'byweaving the reality of history
into them.' One could question whether Arthurian myths need lifebreathed
into them and ifhistory is really up to the task. 'We see theworld as itwas
1600 years ago,' proclaims The Ottawa Citizen, while The Edmonton Journal
describes rhe novel as an 'historical treatise.' Does Whyte himself ascribe
to such a position? In an 'Introductory Note'
(extramaterial also includes
a map of Roman Britain, a list of
an essay on the Roman
and
placenames,
the
that
'the
makes
claim
historical
characters' of his
army),Whyte
major
novel 'lived and behaved as described herein and that, by the year 450,
'civilized life, literacy, education and Christianity were stamped out and the
Dark Ages settled on Britain.' This would have been rather shocking news
to saints Patrick and Gildas.
I do not mean to pick onWhyte in particular for his historical blunders;
as far as I can tell, he is one of the better writers in the genre. I
applaud the
at
most
of
in
novels
least
this group (or
them) for their enthusiasm forhistory
and archaeology and theirmeticulous attention to detail (these Norris Lacy
calls 'both scholars and writers of fiction').8 Indeed, as I admit to the authors
and would-be-authors who seekmy advice, academic historians can rarelydo
much betterwhen it comes to details of clothing, food, and drink. Raymond
Thompson
recognizes this in his definition of Arthurian historical fiction:
'Historical novels endeavor to recreate the spirit of the age ofArthur through
attention to authentic detail. Setting is carefully constructed, based upon the
latest knowledge of the period.... '9
This gives historians and general readers a legitimate set of historical criteria
for evaluating theseworks (apart from plot, character development, etc.). Has
an author
convincingly captured the spirit of the age? Has he or she offered

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ii6

ARTHURIANA

or
archaeological detail? Is there any evidence that the
legitimate historical
author has read recent scholarship on Britain in the fifth and sixth centuries

(a period I have termedtheBrittonic

Age)?

I cannot here offer a comprehensive account ofArthurian historical fiction.

For that you must turn ro the surveys of Nathan Comfort Starr, Raymond
Thompson, Alan and Barbara Lupack, and others. InKing Arthur inAmerica,
the Lupacks proclaim William H. Babcock's Cian of theChariots (Lothrop,
1898) the firstAmerican historical novel to deal with theArthurian legends.10

Here Babcock draws from several scholarly studies ofmedieval Welsh literature
towrire abour Arthur and the
aswell as
Anglo-Saxon
archaeological journals
invasions, and a pagan warrior poet named Cian who takes a stand against
compulsory Christianity.
not the firstEnglish writer in rhis genre, Rosemary Sutcliffwas
Though
an
influential pioneer with her novels The Lantern Bearers (Oxford
certainly
Press,
1959) and Sword at Sunset (Hodder and Stoughton, 1963).
University
Sutcliffe explains why she
In a 1986 interview with Raymond Thompson,
chose an historical setting for her Arthurian novels:
not
Originally I read retellingsofwhat we might call theMalory version. I did
discover thehistorical side ofArthurian legenduntil Iwas eighteenor nineteen,
when I read two intriguingbooks by some absolute crackpot called Dayrel
dealt with theDark Ages, but particularlywith theArthurian
Reid?They
and
with
the possibilities of an historicalArthur. Iwas fascinated by
legend
this idea, and I set off looking for all the other clues that I could find.Then,
little by little, other people, likeGeoffreyAshe, began to write about the
historicalArthur, and I read theirbooks as theycame along. I always believed
very strongly that there could be no smokewithout a fire.A legendaryhero
almost always has a basis in a real person, around whom bits of legend and
bits of other people s storiesgather and collect... Iwas convinced that there

was

a real man

in the middle

somewhere.11

that she also read much archaeology early

Surcliff larer admirs toThompson
on, and that she is up to speed with themost recenr excavations at South
Cadbury. For Sutcliff, placing her story in the so-called Dark Ages 'has the
additional advantage that if you cant prove your interpretation is righr,
am a writer, not an historian,
nobody else can prove it iswrong.. .but since I
Iwill sacrifice historical accuracy... [for] a good story'
A contemporary of Sutcliff swho also prefers a Roman Arthur isAlfred
a member of
as an
atOxford.
Evelyn Waugh's circle
undergraduate
Duggan,
two
wrote
novels
Late in life,after serving in
War
historical
World
II, Duggan
the
Conscience
wirh Arthurian connections: The Little Emperors and
King
of

Tom Shippeyhas shownhow

(bothpublishedby Faber and Faber in 1951).

at
incorporates in his novels details from archaeological excavations
Duggan
as
towns
and
such Romano-British
Verulamium, Venra Belgarum, Corinium,

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CONTEMPORARY

ARTHURIAN

117

FICTION

Calleva.12 Duggan also shows amore-than-amateur grasp of the intricacies of

provincial politics in the Late Roman Empire.
For Mary Stewart, itwas an interest in history?not
Arthur?that
to write the firstof four Arthurian novels, The
her
prompted
Crystal Cave
and
(Hodder
Stoughton, 1970):
Ed alwayswanted towrite a historical novel. One ofmy main interests,as you
was Roman history.Fd been to look at the
will notice inmy modern thrillers,
Roman sites inEngland many a time,and tried to recreatethings inmy mind.
Thus when I finallydecided towrite a historical novel, Roman Britain seemed
theobvious place to start_I wouldn't say that Iwas attracted to theArthurian
never appealed tome
legend at first. It is, afterall,medieval, and thatperiod
at all.

Itwas

Roman

Britain

that interested

me.13

Stewart admits toworking with maps of ancient and Roman Britain and to
use of local
making great
topographical traditions concerning Arthur and
Merlin.14

For her Guinevere Trilogy (St.Martins,

1981-85), Sharon Newman was
a
course on the Fall of the Roman Empire and
sampled
inspired by history
as
some of the
archaeological literature well.15Yet she rejected purely historical
fiction, combining some elements instead with those of fantasy:
Iwas sick of reading stories set in theDark Ages, where everybodywas sitting
around in skins in frontofmusty fires and belching. That didn't appeal to
me. I wanted to show the period in a different light. I felt I was writing a
historical novel, only I was using the fantastic elements that the people in
those days would not have been surprised to find.These elementswere part
of the social history.

In The High Kings (Bantam, 1983), author JoyChant came up with a unique
formula formixing Iron Age culture with Geoffrey ofMonmouth-inspired
fiction:
I came up with the idea of the storiesbeing told to thehistoricalArthur.. .Given
that informationon thehistoricalArthur is so conjectural, I also decided that I
would be closer to expressinghow I imagined he might have lived in snapshot
glimpses,

rather

than

trying

to make

a continuous,

coherent

narrative.16

includes both maps and pronunciation

Stephen Lawhead
guides in the
volumes of his Pendragon Cycle (Crossway Books, 1987?2000). Beginning
with Taliesin (1987), Lawhead attempts toweave the story of the collapse of
Atlantis togetherwith earlymedieval Welsh material, producing a rare-for-the
genre pro-Christian world.17
Far more numerous are what we might call the neo-Pagan authors (by
a
not
subject if
religious affiliation). Such group might include Parke Godwin,
Persia Wooley, J. Robert King, and Diana Paxson. Paxson, author of The

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ii8

ARTHURIANA

(Morrow, 1988), sites among her influences Rosemary Sutcliffe,

Zimmer Bradley, and historian JohnMorris.18
No writer of Arthurian fiction since T.H. White has been as popular as
Marion Zimmer Bradley, theAmerican author ofMists ofAvalon (Knopf,
White Raven

Marion

1982) and Lady ofAvalon (Viking, 1997).19 Her ground-breaking shift of

the narrative to female figures such as Morgan
(Morgaine) and Guinevere
on the
is
ancient
Britons were devoted to
built
that
(Gwenhwyfar)
premise
theworship of theMother Goddess, a religion that came under attack from
inroleranrChristians.20 Though such matriarchal paganism finds itsway into
many Arthurian retellings, suffice it to say that there is no evidence of this in
either the historical or archaeological record of Britain.21According toDiana
Paxson, Bradley s sister-in-law and fellow priestess ofDarkmoon Circle, she
realized early on rhat in order for her ro be true to her vision shewould have
to abandon history, and instead, tell the truth of
legend.'22
Nikolai Tolstoy has written both an historical study and a novel centering
on the
is
figure ofMerlin. His path, again told to Raymond Thompson,
perhaps unique:
The light came quite suddenly on the road toDamascus, when I readAnn
Ross' Pagan Celtic Britain, about 1967,1 believe. It had a strongeffecton me
because I read it at just the rightmoment. I thoughther book might throw
on aspects ofDark
light
Age history,but I found itwas the otherway round:
my reading of historymade many things in the literaturemake sense_I
suppose that, likemany historians, I've also toyedwith the idea of historical
fiction... [But] to understand thementality of primitivepeople?in thiscase,
sixth-centuryBritish people?you cannot restrictyourself to purely factual
material events, ignoring thewhole mythic world inwhich they lived and set
the frameworkof theirbeing.23

Bernard Cornwell was already an accomplished writer of historical fiction

when he turned to Arthur in 1995 with The Winter King, the first of his
Warlord Chronicles (St.Martin's, 1995-98). In an otherwise sane and moderate
Author's Note, Cornwell wrires:
We might know very littleabout Arthur, butwe can infera lot from the times
inwhich he probably lived. Fifth-and sixth-centuryBritainmust have been a
horrid place... as rackedby religiousdissent as itwas by invasion and politics/4
Was fifth-century Britain reallyworse than other eras, and if it reallywas
a horrid
it?From this cursory survey of
read?about
place,' why write?or
modern English-language novelists, the following trends can be discerned:
1. There is often a very deliberate attempt to create either a Roman Arthur or a
native/CelticArthur, and then to show a culture clash.

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CONTEMPORARY

ARTHURIAN

FICTION

119

2. There ismuch interestin thePicts and other indigenous Britons?the Old Ones,
are depicted as the keepers of ancient
the Little People, theDark Ones?who
and

wisdom

rites.

3. These novels often employmaps and glossaries as aids to the reader, in essence
mimicking modern history textbooks.
4. Romano-British towns (often the same ones) usually play a significantrole in the
story,though the archaeology of these towns is only cursorilyused.
5. The situation is similarwith hillforts,and of these South Cadbury and Tintagel
are most

prominent.

6. There is a preference for perceived older, Welsh heroes?Cai,

Bedwyr,
Gwalchmai?and
Bedwyr often performsLancelots role in the narrative.
7. Paganism is celebrated, or used as a device with which to criticizeChristianity.
8. Studies on thehistoricalArthur byGeoffreyAshe and JohnMorris, inparticular,
have

been major

influences

on many

novelists.

Lastly, I would add the following from personal conversations I've had
on theway to
recentlywith twoArthurian writers, one
being published, the
on
Arthurian
his third
novel. Both were drawn to the early
other working
Welsh material. The former, an academic, is learningWelsh and ridingWelsh
mountain ponies to give her novel historical verisimilitude.25 The latter, a
as rich a
journalist turned novelist, remarked, 'I just find theDark Ages
literary
as any other ... Iwanted the realArthur ... Iwas
playground
intrigued by
the challenge of painting Arthur as a man, not a legend.'26
Imust admit that I findmany, ifnot most of these novels?even
Bradley's
in smallways, very convincing representations of daily
Mists ofAvalon?offer,
life in the Brittonic Age. But all of them, inmy opinion, are much lesser
literary accomplishments than, for example, White's Once and Future King,
which utterly dismisses the historical origins of theArthurian legends with
the author's cringe-worthy statement, Arthur was not a distressed Briton
a
hopping about in suit ofwoad.'
Does thismean then that the history and archaeology of early medieval
Britain are irrelevant to the literary tradition ofArthur? Hardly. The Brittonic
Age, glimpsed through its fragmentary documents and material culture,
either produced an historical King Arthur (still a possibility), or itproduced
an ethos which demanded the creation
a political climate, a
religion, and
of Arthurian tales. The itinerant kings, the warbands, themonastic saints,
the tores and spears and bardic poetry which appear in the first literary
manifestations of the Arthurian legend are very much a product of early
medieval Brittonic culture. Geoffrey ofMonmouth, Chretien de Troyes, and
Sir Thomas Malory may not have followed the same methodology as Alfred
Duggan, Rosemary Sutcliffe, and Marion Zimmer Bradley; nonetheless,
these medieval
'Founding Fathers' also found history and heroic culture to
be useful in their interpretations ofArthurian myth.

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HO

ARTHURIANA
UNIVERSITY

MARYMOUNT
Christopher A. Snyder
at Marymount
Program

isProfessor of European History and Director of theHonors

in
in Arlington, Virginia. He holds a Ph.D.
University

Medieval History fromEmoryUniversityand is theauthorof TheWorld ofKing

Arthur

(Thames

is a member

& Hudson,

2000)

of the editorial boards

and The Britons

of Arthuriana

(Blackwell,

2003). Dr.

and The Camelot

Snyder

Project.

NOTES

1 Caxton, 'Preface' toLeMorte d'Arthur (NY:Modern Library, 1999), p. xvi.

2 According toRaymond Thompson, thenumber ofArthurian novels published in
the firsthalf of the twentiethcenturywas less than 50,while thatnumber more
thandoubled from 1950-85; seeThompson, The Return
from Avalon: A Study ofthe
Arthurian Legend inModern Fiction (Westport,CT: Greenwood, 1985), 3.Norris
Lacy charts nearly 80 Arthurian novels appearing inEnglish between 1990 and
1995: seeNorris J.Lacy and GeoffreyAshe with Debra N. Mancoff, TheArthurian
Handbook, 2nd ed. (NY: Garland, 1997), p. 171.
3 Elizabeth S. Sklar, 'Marketing Arthur: The Commodification of Arthurian
Legend,' inKing Arthur in Popular Culture, edited by Elizabeth S. Sklar and
NC: McFarland, 2002), pp. 9-23 (18-19).
Donald L. Hoffman (Jefferson,
in
for
the
See,
4
essays Kevin Harty, ed., Cinema Arthuriana, rev. ed.
example,
NC:
McFarland,
2002).
(Jefferson,
5 For an example of the damage thathas been done, see Stephanie Zachare, 'The
glitter of Camelot has been lost inAntoine Fuqua's valiant quest for historical
accuracy,butKeira Knightley does prance around ina leatherbikini,' reviewofKing
Arthur forSalon.com, http://dir.salon.com/story/ent/movies/review/2004/07/07/
accessedMarch 14,2009: 'The big sellingpoint ofAntoine
king_arthur/print.html,
Fuqua's spin-cycle epicKing Arthur is its claim to authenticity. Ifyou're looking
for the glitz and glitterofCamelot, you'vemade awrong turn,because thisKing
Arthur takes place not inGreat Britain's glamorous Middle Ages but in its far
less dazzling Dark Ages?the
5th century,before the invention of soap. (They
didn't call it theDark Ages for nothing.) InKing Arthur, faces are permanently
and realistically smudged; there ismuch wearing of rough, nubby cloaks and
a
dingy chainmail, reinforcingthe hopelessness of it all.Merlin isn't glam-rock
an
wears
blue lipstick.Primitivebeliefs
wizard but
all-knowingwarrior kingwho
abound; savage enemies lurk, theirdusty beards arranged in threateningplaits,
waiting for the rightopportunity to burn thevillages, just forkicks.The Britain
ofKing Arthur is a country sitting in thedark,waiting for something to happen.
The

audience

can

relate.'

6 For a survey of the historical Arthur theories, both in print and electronic
publications, see Christopher A. Snyder,Arthurian Origins,' inA History of
Arthurian Scholarship, edited byNorris Lacy (Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 2006),
pp.

1-18.

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121

7 Of the 55 submissions during the thirdweek ofApril, 2009, some 40 concerned

overtlyhistorical or archaeological topics,while only 4 examined purely literary
issues.

8 Lacy et al.,ArthurianHandbook, p. 172.

9 Thompson, The Returnfrom Avalon, p. 4.
10Alan Lupack and Barbara Tepa
Lupack, King Arthur inAmerica (Rochester,NY:
and
Brewer, 2001), pp. 93-97.
Boydell
11The
Thompson interviews,originally for the periodical Avalon toCamelot, are
now part ofThe Camelot Project:
http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/intrvws/
The no smokewithout a fire comment isa rejectionof the argument
sutcliff.htm.
against an historical Arthur put forward by David Dumville in 'Sub-Roman
Brirain: History and Legend,' History n.s. 62 (1977): 173-92.
12 Thomas
Shippey, 'The Historical Vision ofAlfred Duggan (unpublished), p. 3.
13 Interviewed by Raymond Thompson at Lochawe, Scotland (April 1989): http://
www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/intrvws/stewart.htm.

14 Ibid. 'The traditions probably recall reality. It's like Schliemann and Troy, in a
way. I'm sure that an old traditionwith lotsof legends around ithas a very sound
basis in truth.The idea ofArthur
galloping about in plate armour is a piece of
nonsense,

but

I'm

sure he existed.'

15 Interviewed by Raymond Thompson atVancouver 0uly 1989): http://www.lib.

rochester.edu/camelot/intrvws/newman.htm:'I prettymuch covered the field of
medieval Arthurian literature in English, French,Welsh, German. At the same
time Iwas takinga history course on theFall of theRoman
Empire, where I read
Gildas andAusonius, the
Gaulish poet, aswell asmodern historians
fourth-century
like JohnMorris and GeoffreyAshe... .1know that Iwrite fantasies, and I know
that they'reconsidered
light reading... .But everybit of history in those books is
absolutely as accurate as I could make it. I read numerous archaeological studies,
discovering, for example, that the body of a Saxon girlwas found in a Roman
graveyard inYork, faraway from any other Saxon.'
16 Interviewed by Thompson at
Leigh-on-Sea, Essex in 1989: http://www.lib.
rochester.edu/camelot/intrvws/chant.htm.In the interview,Chant admits to
being influencedbyRosemary Sutcliffand JohnMorris' The Age ofArthur.
17More overtly Christian isDonna Fletcher Crow's
Glastonbury: The Novel of
Christian England (Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books, 1992).

18 See

Thompson's
htm.

interview:

http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/intrvws/paxson.

19Additional material is cited fromMarion Zimmer Bradley, TheMists

ofAvalon
(New York: Ballantine, 2001).
20 See Lupack and
Lupack, pp. 292-95.
21 In the
Acknowledgments ofMists, Bradleywrites that she read all of JamesFrazer's
The Golden Bough aswell as books on
comparative religionand Druids. She thanks
GeoffreyAshe, JamieGeorge of The Gothic Image bookstore inGlastonbury, local
neopagan groups, and various modern Druid andWiccan adherents. Christine

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122

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Hartley's The WesternMystery Tradition and Dion Fortune'sAvalon of theHeart

are specificallycited.
22 ? Letter fromDiana L. Paxson' (datedMarch 26,2001), published in
Mists (2001).
23 Interviewed by Thompson at Southmoor, Berkshire in 1989: http://www.lib.
rochester.edu/camelot/intrvws/tolstoy.htm.

24 Cornwell, Winter King (NY: StMartin's, 1995), pp. 428-29.

25 Jaquelyn Lyman (pers. com.).
26 Tony Hays (pers. com.). Hays' firstbook in a seriesof planned Arthurianmysteries
isThe Killing Way (NY: Tor/Forge Books, 2009).

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