Quality

Main article: Weld quality assurance

The blue area results from oxidation at a corresponding temperature of 600 F (316
C). This is an accurate way to identify temperature, but does not represent the
HAZ width. The HAZ is the narrow area that immediately surrounds the welded base
metal.
Many distinct factors influence the strength of welds and the material around th
em, including the welding method, the amount and concentration of energy input,
the weldability of the base material, filler material, and flux material, the de
sign of the joint, and the interactions between all these factors.[46] To test t
he quality of a weld, either destructive or nondestructive testing methods are c
ommonly used to verify that welds are free of defects, have acceptable levels of
residual stresses and distortion, and have acceptable heat-affected zone (HAZ)
properties. Types of welding defects include cracks, distortion, gas inclusions
(porosity), non-metallic inclusions, lack of fusion, incomplete penetration, lam
ellar tearing, and undercutting. Welding codes and specifications exist to guide
welders in proper welding technique and in how to judge the quality of welds.[4
6] Methods such as visual inspection, radiography, ultrasonic testing, dye penet
rant inspection, magnetic particle inspection, or industrial computed tomography
can help with detection and analysis of certain defects.
Heat-affected zone
The effects of welding on the material surrounding the weld can be detrimentaldep
ending on the materials used and the heat input of the welding process used, the
HAZ can be of varying size and strength. The thermal diffusivity of the base ma
terial plays a large roleif the diffusivity is high, the material cooling rate is
high and the HAZ is relatively small. Conversely, a low diffusivity leads to sl
ower cooling and a larger HAZ. The amount of heat injected by the welding proces
s plays an important role as well, as processes like oxyacetylene welding have a
n unconcentrated heat input and increase the size of the HAZ. Processes like las
er beam welding give a highly concentrated, limited amount of heat, resulting in
a small HAZ. Arc welding falls between these two extremes, with the individual
processes varying somewhat in heat input.[47][48] To calculate the heat input fo
r arc welding procedures, the following formula can be used:
Q = \left(\frac{V \times I \times 60}{S \times 1000} \right) \times \mathit{
Efficiency}
where Q = heat input (kJ/mm), V = voltage (V), I = current (A), and S = welding
speed (mm/min). The efficiency is dependent on the welding process used, with sh
ielded metal arc welding having a value of 0.75, gas metal arc welding and subme
rged arc welding, 0.9, and gas tungsten arc welding, 0.8.[49]
Lifetime extension with aftertreatment methods
Example: High Frequency Impact Treatment for lifetime extension
The durability and life of dynamically loaded, welded steel structures is determ
ined in many cases by the welds, particular the weld transitions. Through select
ive treatment of the transitions by grinding (abrasive cutting), shot peening, H
igh Frequency Impact Treatment, etc. the durability of many designs increase sig
nificantly.
Metallurgy
Most solids used are engineering materials consisting of crystalline solids in w
hich the atoms or ions are arranged in a repetitive geometric pattern which is k
nown as a lattice structure. The only exception is material that is made from gl
ass which is a combination of a supercooled liquid and polymers which are aggreg
ates of large organic molecules.[50]
Crystalline solids cohesion is obtained by a metallic or chemical bond which is

formed between the constituent atoms. Chemical bonds can be grouped into two typ
es consisting of ionic and covalent. To form an ionic bond, either a valence or
bonding electron separates from one atom and becomes attached to another atom to
form oppositely charged ions. The bonding in the static position is when the io
ns occupy an equilibrium position where the resulting force between them is zero
. When the ions are exerted in tension force, the inter-ionic spacing increases
creating an electrostatic attractive force, while a repulsing force under compre
ssive force between the atomic nuclei is dominant.[50]
Covalent bonding takes place when one of the constituent atoms loses one or more
electrons, with the other atom gaining the electrons, resulting in an electron
cloud that is shared by the molecule as a whole. In both ionic and covalent bond
ing the location of the ions and electrons are constrained relative to each othe
r, thereby resulting in the bond being characteristically brittle.[50]
Metallic bonding can be classified as a type of covalent bonding for which the c
onstituent atoms of the same type and do not combine with one another to form a
chemical bond. Atoms will lose an electron(s) forming an array of positive ions.
These electrons are shared by the lattice which makes the electron cluster mobi
le, as the electrons are free to move as well as the ions. For this, it gives me
tals their relatively high thermal and electrical conductivity as well as being
characteristically ductile.[50]
Three of the most commonly used crystal lattice structures in metals are the bod
y-centred cubic, face-centred cubic and close-packed hexagonal. Ferritic steel h
as a body-centred cubic structure and austenitic steel, non-ferrous metals like
aluminium, copper and nickel have the face-centred cubic structure.[50]
Ductility is an important factor in ensuring the integrity of structures by enab
ling them to sustain local stress concentrations without fracture. In addition,
structures are required to be of an acceptable strength, which is related to a m
aterial's yield strength. In general, as the yield strength of a material increa
ses, there is a corresponding reduction in fracture toughness.[50]
A reduction in fracture toughness may also be attributed to the embitterment eff
ect of impurities, or for body-centred cubic metals, from a reduction in tempera
ture. Metals and in particular steels have a transitional temperature range wher
e above this range the metal has acceptable notch-ductility while below this ran
ge the material becomes brittle. Within the range, the materials behavior is unp
redictable. The reduction in fracture toughness is accompanied by a change in th
e fracture appearance. When above the transition, the fracture is primarily due
to micro-void coalescence, which results in the fracture appearing fibrous. When
the temperatures falls the fracture will show signs of cleavage facets. These t
wo appearances are visible by the naked eye. Brittle fracture in steel plates ma
y appear as chevron markings under the microscope. These arrow-like ridges on th
e crack surface point towards the origin of the fracture.[50]
Fracture toughness is measured using a notched and pre-cracked rectangular speci
men, of which the dimensions are specified in standards, for example ASTM E23. T
here are other means of estimating or measuring fracture toughness by the follow
ing: The Charpy impact test per ASTM A370; The crack-tip opening displacement (C
TOD) test per BS 7448-1; The J integral test per ASTM E1820; The Pellini drop-we
ight test per ASTM E208.[50]
Unusual conditions
Underwater welding
While many welding applications are done in controlled environments such as fact
ories and repair shops, some welding processes are commonly used in a wide varie
ty of conditions, such as open air, underwater, and vacuums (such as space). In
open-air applications, such as construction and outdoors repair, shielded metal

arc welding is the most common process. Processes that employ inert gases to pro
tect the weld cannot be readily used in such situations, because unpredictable a
tmospheric movements can result in a faulty weld. Shielded metal arc welding is
also often used in underwater welding in the construction and repair of ships, o
ffshore platforms, and pipelines, but others, such as flux cored arc welding and
gas tungsten arc welding, are also common. Welding in space is also possibleit w
as first attempted in 1969 by Russian cosmonauts, when they performed experiment
s to test shielded metal arc welding, plasma arc welding, and electron beam weld
ing in a depressurized environment. Further testing of these methods was done in
the following decades, and today researchers continue to develop methods for us
ing other welding processes in space, such as laser beam welding, resistance wel
ding, and friction welding. Advances in these areas may be useful for future end
eavours similar to the construction of the International Space Station, which co
uld rely on welding for joining in space the parts that were manufactured on Ear
th.[51]
Safety issues
Arc welding with a welding helmet, gloves, and other protective clothing
Welding can be dangerous and unhealthy if the proper precautions are not taken.
However, using new technology and proper protection greatly reduces risks of inj
ury and death associated with welding.[52] Since many common welding procedures
involve an open electric arc or flame, the risk of burns and fire is significant
; this is why it is classified as a hot work process. To prevent injury, welders
wear personal protective equipment in the form of heavy leather gloves and prot
ective long sleeve jackets to avoid exposure to extreme heat and flames. Additio
nally, the brightness of the weld area leads to a condition called arc eye or fl
ash burns in which ultraviolet light causes inflammation of the cornea and can b
urn the retinas of the eyes. Goggles and welding helmets with dark UV-filtering
face plates are worn to prevent this exposure. Since the 2000s, some helmets hav
e included a face plate which instantly darkens upon exposure to the intense UV
light. To protect bystanders, the welding area is often surrounded with transluc
ent welding curtains. These curtains, made of a polyvinyl chloride plastic film,
shield people outside the welding area from the UV light of the electric arc, b
ut can not replace the filter glass used in helmets.[53]
Welders are often exposed to dangerous gases and particulate matter. Processes l
ike flux-cored arc welding and shielded metal arc welding produce smoke containi
ng particles of various types of oxides. The size of the particles in question t
ends to influence the toxicity of the fumes, with smaller particles presenting a
greater danger. This is because smaller particles have the ability to cross the
blood brain barrier. Fumes and gases, such as carbon dioxide, ozone, and fumes
containing heavy metals, can be dangerous to welders lacking proper ventilation
and training.[54] Exposure to manganese welding fumes, for example, even at low
levels (<0.2 mg/m3), may lead to neurological problems or to damage to the lungs
, liver, kidneys, or central nervous system.[55] Nano particles can become trapp
ed in the alveolar macrophages of the lungs and induce pulmonary fibrosis.[56] T
he use of compressed gases and flames in many welding processes poses an explosi
on and fire risk. Some common precautions include limiting the amount of oxygen
in the air, and keeping combustible materials away from the workplace.[54]
Costs and trends
As an industrial process, the cost of welding plays a crucial role in manufactur
ing decisions. Many different variables affect the total cost, including equipme
nt cost, labor cost, material cost, and energy cost.[57] Depending on the proces
s, equipment cost can vary, from inexpensive for methods like shielded metal arc
welding and oxyfuel welding, to extremely expensive for methods like laser beam
welding and electron beam welding. Because of their high cost, they are only us
ed in high production operations. Similarly, because automation and robots incre
ase equipment costs, they are only implemented when high production is necessary
. Labor cost depends on the deposition rate (the rate of welding), the hourly wa

ge, and the total operation time, including time spent fitting, welding, and han
dling the part. The cost of materials includes the cost of the base and filler m
aterial, and the cost of shielding gases. Finally, energy cost depends on arc ti
me and welding power demand.[57]
For manual welding methods, labor costs generally make up the vast majority of t
he total cost. As a result, many cost-saving measures are focused on minimizing
operation time. To do this, welding procedures with high deposition rates can be
selected, and weld parameters can be fine-tuned to increase welding speed. Mech
anization and automation are often implemented to reduce labor costs, but this f
requently increases the cost of equipment and creates additional setup time. Mat
erial costs tend to increase when special properties are necessary, and energy c
osts normally do not amount to more than several percent of the total welding co
st.[57]
In recent years, in order to minimize labor costs in high production manufacturi
ng, industrial welding has become increasingly more automated, most notably with
the use of robots in resistance spot welding (especially in the automotive indu
stry) and in arc welding. In robot welding, mechanized devices both hold the mat
erial and perform the weld[58] and at first, spot welding was its most common ap
plication, but robotic arc welding increases in popularity as technology advance
s. Other key areas of research and development include the welding of dissimilar
materials (such as steel and aluminum, for example) and new welding processes,
such as friction stir, magnetic pulse, conductive heat seam, and laser-hybrid we
lding. Furthermore, progress is desired in making more specialized methods like
laser beam welding practical for more applications, such as in the aerospace and
automotive industries. Researchers also hope to better understand the often unp
redictable properties of welds, especially microstructure, residual stresses, an
d a weld's tendency to crack or deform.[59]
The trend of accelerating the speed at which welds are performed in the steel er
ection industry comes at a risk to the integrity of the connection. Without prop
er fusion to the base materials provided by sufficient arc time on the weld, a p
roject inspector cannot ensure the effective diameter of the puddle weld therefo
re he or she cannot guarantee the published load capacities unless they witness
the actual installation.[60] This method of puddle welding is common in the Unit
ed States and Canada for attaching steel sheets to bar joist and structural stee
l members. Regional agencies are responsible for ensuring the proper installatio
n of puddle welding on steel construction sites. Currently there is no standard
or weld procedure which can ensure the published holding capacity of any unwitne
ssed connection, but this is under review by the American Welding Society.
Glass and plastic welding
The welding together of two tubes made from lead glass.
A bowl made from cast-glass. The two halves are joined together by the weld seam
, running down the middle.
Glasses and certain types of plastics are commonly welded materials. Unlike meta
ls, which have a specific melting point, glasses and plastics have a melting ran
ge, called the glass transition. When heating the solid material into this range
, it will generally become softer and more pliable. When it crosses through the
glass transition, it will become a very thick, sluggish, viscous liquid. Typical
ly, this viscous liquid will have very little surface tension, becoming a sticky
, honey-like consistency, so welding can usually take place by simply pressing t
wo melted surfaces together. The two liquids will generally mix and join as one.
Upon cooling through the glass transition, the welded piece will solidify as on
e solid piece of amorphous material.
Glass welding
Main article: Glassblowing
Glass welding is a common practice during glassblowing. It is used very often in

the construction of lighting, neon signs, flashtubes, scientific equipment, and

the manufacture of dishes and other glassware. It is also used during glass cas
ting for joining the halves of glass molds, making items such as bottles and jar
s. Welding glass is accomplished by heating the glass through the glass transiti
on, turning it into a thick, formable, liquid mass. Heating is usually done with
a gas or oxy-gas torch, or a furnace, because the temperatures for melting glas
s are often quite high. This temperature may vary, depending on the type of glas
s. For example, lead glass becomes a weldable liquid at around 1,600 F (870 C), wh
ereas quartz glass (fused silica) must be heated to over 3,000 F (1,650 C). Someti
mes a tube may be attached to the glass, allowing it to be blown into various sh
apes, such as bulbs, bottles, or tubes. When two pieces of liquid glass are pres
sed together, they will usually weld very readily. Welding a handle onto a pitch
er can usually be done with relative ease. However, when welding a tube to anoth
er tube, a combination of blowing and suction, and pressing and pulling is used
to ensure a good seal, and to shape the glass. Sometimes a filler rod may be use
d, but usually not.
Because glass is very brittle in its solid state, it is often prone to cracking
upon heating and cooling, especially if the heating and cooling are uneven. This
is because the brittleness of the glass does not allow for uneven thermal expan
sion. Glass that has been welded will usually need to be cooled very slowly and
evenly through the glass transition, in a process called annealing, to relieve a
ny internal stresses created by a temperature gradient.
There are many types of glass, and it is most common to weld using the same type
s. Different glasses often have different rates of thermal expansion, which can
cause them to crack upon cooling when they contract differently. For instance, q
uartz has very low thermal expansion, while soda-lime glass has very high therma
l expansion. When welding different glasses to each other, it is usually importa
nt to closely match their coefficients of thermal expansion, to ensure that crac
king does not occur. Also, some glasses will simply not mix with others, so weld
ing between certain types may not be possible.
Glass can also be welded to metals and ceramics, although with metals the proces
s is usually more adhesion to the surface of the metal rather than a commingling
of the two materials. However, certain glasses will typically bond only to cert
ain metals. For example, lead glass bonds readily to copper or molybdenum, but n
ot to aluminum. Tungsten electrodes are often used in lighting but will not bond
to quartz glass, so the tungsten is often wetted with molten borosilicate glass
, which bonds to both tungsten and quartz. However, care must be taken to ensure
that all materials have similar coefficients of thermal expansion to prevent cr
acking both when the object cools and when it is heated again. Special alloys ar
e often used for this purpose, ensuring that the coefficients of expansion match
, and sometimes thin, metallic coatings may be applied to a metal to create a go
od bond with the glass.[61][62][63]
Plastic welding
Main article: Plastic welding
Plastics are generally divided into two categories, which are "thermosets" and "
thermoplastics." A thermoset is a plastic in which a chemical reaction sets the
molecular bonds after first forming the plastic, and then the bonds cannot be br
oken again without degrading the plastic. Thermosets cannot be melted, therefore
, once a thermoset has set it is impossible to weld it. Examples of thermosets i
nclude epoxies, silicone, vulcanized rubber, polyester, and polyurethane.
Thermoplastics, by contrast, form long molecular chains, which are often coiled
or intertwined, forming an amorphous structure without any long-range, crystalli
ne order. Some thermoplastics may be fully amorphous, while others have a partia
lly crystalline/partially amorphous structure. Both amorphous and semicrystallin
e thermoplastics have a glass transition, above which welding can occur, but sem

icrystallines also have a specific melting point which is above the glass transi
tion. Above this melting point, the viscous liquid will become a free-flowing li
quid (see rheological weldability for thermoplastics). Examples of thermoplastic
s include polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinylchloride (PVC), and
fluoroplastics like Teflon and Spectralon.
Welding thermoplastic is very similar to welding glass. The plastic first must b
e cleaned and then heated through the glass transition, turning the weld-interfa
ce into a thick, viscous liquid. Two heated interfaces can then be pressed toget
her, allowing the molecules to mix through intermolecular diffusion, joining the
m as one. Then the plastic is cooled through the glass transition, allowing the
weld to solidify. A filler rod may often be used for certain types of joints. Th
e main differences between welding glass and plastic are the types of heating me
thods, the much lower melting temperatures, and the fact that plastics will burn
if overheated. Many different methods have been devised for heating plastic to
a weldable temperature without burning it. Ovens or electric heating tools can b
e used to melt the plastic. Ultrasonic, laser, or friction heating are other met
hods. Resistive metals may be implanted in the plastic, which respond to inducti
on heating. Some plastics will begin to burn at temperatures lower than their gl
ass transition, so welding can be performed by blowing a heated, inert gas onto
the plastic, melting it while, at the same time, shielding it from oxygen.[64]
Many thermoplastics can also be welded using chemical solvents. When placed in c
ontact with the plastic, the solvent will begin to soften it, bringing the surfa
ce into a thick, liquid solution. When two melted surfaces are pressed together,
the molecules in the solution mix, joining them as one. Because the solvent can
permeate the plastic, the solvent evaporates out through the surface of the pla
stic, causing the weld to drop out of solution and solidify. A common use for so
lvent welding is for joining PVC or ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) pipes
during plumbing, or for welding styrene and polystyrene plastics in the construc
tion of models. Solvent welding is especially effective on plastics like PVC whi
ch burn at or below their glass transition, but may be ineffective on plastics t
hat are resistant to chemical decomposition.[65]
See also
List of welding codes
List of welding processes
Regulated Metal Deposition
Welding Procedure Specification
Welder certification
Notes
Herodotus. The Histories. Trans. R. Waterfield. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Book One, 25.
Cary & Helzer 2005, p. 4
Lincoln Electric, p. 1.1-1
Lincoln Electric, The Procedure Handbook Of Arc Welding 14th ed., page 1.1-1
Hertha Ayrton. The Electric Arc, pp. 20, 24 and 94. D. Van Nostrand Co., New Yor
k, 1902.
Anders, A. (2003). "Tracking down the origin of arc plasma science-II. early con
tinuous discharges". IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science 31 (5): 10609. doi:10.11
09/TPS.2003.815477.
Great Soviet Encyclopedia, Article " " (eng. electric arc)
Lazarev, P.P. (December 1999), "Historical essay on the 200 years of the develop
ment of natural sciences in Russia" (Russian), Physics-Uspekhi 42 (1247): 1351136
1, doi:10.1070/PU1999v042n12ABEH000750, archived from the original on 2009-12-04
.
"Encyclopedia.com. Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography". Charles Scribne
r's Sons. 2008. Retrieved 9 October 2014.

Nikoaj Benardos, Stanisaw Olszewski, "Process of and apparatus for working metals
by the direct application of the electric current" patent nr 363 320, Washington
, United States Patent Office, 17 may 1887.
Cary & Helzer 2005, pp. 56
Cary & Helzer 2005, p. 6
Weman, p. 26
http://www.weldinghistory.org/whfolder/folder/wh1900.html
The Engineer of 6th Feb 1920 p142 and others http://www.gracesguide.co.uk/The_En
gineer
Lincoln Electric, p. 1.15
Sapp, Mark E. (February 22, 2008). "Welding Timeline 19001950". WeldingHistory.or
g. Retrieved 2008-04-29.
Cary & Helzer 2005, p. 7
Lincoln Electric, p. 1.16
Cary & Helzer 2005, p. 9
Kazakov, N.F (1985). "Diffusion Bonding of Materials". University of Cambridge.
Retrieved 2011-01-13.
Mel Schwartz (2011). Innovations in Materials Manufacturing, Fabrication, and En
vironmental Safety. CRC Press. pp. 300. ISBN 978-1-4200-8215-9. Retrieved 10 July
2012.
Lincoln Electric, pp. 1.110
Cary & Helzer 2005, pp. 246249
Kalpakjian and Schmid, p. 780
Lincoln Electric, p. 5.45
Weman, p. 16
Weman, p. 63
Cary & Helzer 2005, p. 103
Lincoln Electric, p. 5.4-3
Weman, p. 53
Weman, p. 31
Weman, pp. 3738
Weman, p. 68
Weman, pp. 9394
Weman, pp. 8084
Jernberg, John (1919), Forging, American Technical society, p. 26.
Weman, pp. 95101
AWS A3.0:2001, Standard Welding Terms and Definitions Including Terms for Adhesi
ve Bonding, Brazing, Soldering, Thermal Cutting, and Thermal Spraying, American
Welding Society (2001), p. 117. ISBN 0-87171-624-0
Weman, pp. 8990
Stephan Kallee: NZ Fabricators begin to use Friction Stir Welding to produce alu
minium components and panels, Paper published in New Zealand Engineering News, A
ugust 2006.
Stephan Kallee et al: Industrialisation of Electromagnetic Pulse Technology (EMP
T) in India 38th Anniversary Issue of PURCHASE India, 2010.
Hicks, pp. 5255
Cary & Helzer 2005, pp. 19, 103, 206
Cary & Helzer 2005, pp. 401404
Weman, pp. 6062
Lincoln Electric, pp. 6.1-56.16
Kalpakjian and Schmid, pp. 82122
Weman, p. 5
Lancaster, J.F. (1999). Metallurgy of welding (6th ed. ed.). Abington, Cambridge
: Abington Pub. ISBN 1-85573-428-1.
Cary & Helzer 2005, pp. 677683
ANSI/AWS Z49.1: "Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes" (2005)
Cary & Helzer 2005, pp. 42, 4951
Cary & Helzer 2005, pp. 5262
Welding and Manganese: Potential Neurologic Effects. The inhalation of nano part
icles National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. March 30, 2009.

James D Byrne; John A Baugh (2008). "The significance of nano particles in parti
cle-induced pulmonary fibrosis". McGill Journal of Medicine 11 (1): 4350. PMC 232
2933. PMID 18523535.
Weman, pp. 18489
Lincoln Electric, p. 4.5-1
ASM, pp. 9951005
Gregory L. Snow and W. Samuel Easterling Strength of Arc Spot Welds Made in Sing
le and Multiple Steel Sheets, Proceedings of the 19th International Specialty Co
nference on Cold-Formed Steel Structures, Missouri University of Science and Tec
hnology, October 2008
Challenging Glass: Conference on Architectural and Structural Applications By Fr
eek Bos, Christian Louter, Fred Veer -- JOS Press 2008 Page 194
Scientific glassblowing By E. L. Wheeler -- Interscience 1958
A handbook of laboratory glassblowing By Bernard D Bolas -- London, G. Routledge
and sons 2012
Plastics and Composites: Welding Handbook By David A. Grewell, A. Benatar, Joon
Bu Park -- Hanser Gardener 2003
Handbook of Plastics Joining: A Practical Guide By Plastics Design Library PDL 1997 Page 137, 146
References
ASM International (2003). Trends in Welding Research. Materials Park, Ohio:
ASM International. ISBN 0-87170-780-2.
Cary, Howard B; Helzer, Scott C. (2005). Modern Welding Technology. Upper Sa
ddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education. ISBN 0-13-113029-3.
Hicks, John (1999). Welded Joint Design. New York: Industrial Press. ISBN 08311-3130-6.
Kalpakjian, Serope; Steven R. Schmid (2001). Manufacturing Engineering and T
echnology. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-201-36131-0.
Lincoln Electric (1994). The Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding. Cleveland: L
incoln Electric. ISBN 99949-25-82-2.
Weman, Klas (2003). Welding processes handbook. New York, NY: CRC Press LLC.
ISBN 0-8493-1773-8.