Aggression

Dr.Wagner Paulon
10/2009

In psychoanalysis, as well as other social and behavioral sciences,

aggression refers to behavior between members of the same species that
is intended to cause pain or damage.

Predatory or defensive behavior between members of different species is

not normally considered "aggression".

The assault led to a variety of forms among humans and can be physical,
mental or verbal.

Aggression should not be confused with assertiveness, although the terms

are often used interchangeably among the laity, for example, an investor
in the stock market aggressively.

There are two broad categories of aggression.

1. Hostile aggression, affective or retaliation;

2. Instrumental aggression, predatory, or goal-oriented aggression.

Empirical research indicates that there is a fundamental difference

between the two, both psychologically and physiologically.

Some research indicates that people with tendencies toward affective

aggression have lower IQs than those with a tendency to predatory
aggression.

In many different human cultures, men are more likely than women to
express aggression through direct physical violence.

Women are more likely to express aggression, by indirect means or non-

physical. One explanation for this difference is that, on average, women
tend to be physically weaker than men, and thus need to resort to other
means.

Evolution of aggression

Like most behaviors, aggression can be analyzed in terms of its ability to

help an animal to reproduce and survive. Animals may use force to win
and secure territories and other resources, including food, water and
mating opportunities. The researchers theorized that aggression and the
ability to murder are products of our evolutionary past.

Aggression against outsiders

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The most apparent of aggression is observed in the interaction between a
predator and its prey.

An animal to defend itself against a predator becomes aggressive to

survive and to ensure the survival of their offspring.

Due to the aggression against an enemy much larger group of enemies or

lead to the death of an animal, the animals developed a good sense when
they are at a disadvantage. This ability to measure the strength of other
animals gives a "fight or response" to escape predators, depending on
how hard to evaluate, for the predator.

The need to survive and the viability of cooperative behavior as a survival

strategy leads to a phenomenon known as altruism. An example of a
selfless act is the cry of alarm is given when a predator approaches.
Although this call will inform the community of the presence of a predator,
but will also inform the predator of the whereabouts of the animal that
gave the alarm. While this seems to sound the alarm of a caller
evolutionary disadvantage, would facilitate the continuation of the genes
of this animal, because their relatives and descendants would be able to
avoid predators.

According to several researchers, predation is not aggression. Cats purr

down and arch your back when in search of a mouse, and areas in their
hypothalamus are more similar to those that reflect hunger than those
that reflect aggression.

Aggression within a species

Aggression against conspecifics offers a variety of effects that has to do

with reproduction. One of the most common of these effects is to establish
a dominance hierarchy.

When certain types of animals are first placed in a common environment,

the first thing they do is fight to assert its role in the dominance hierarchy.
In general, the more dominant animals are more aggressive than their
subordinates. There are many theories that attempt to explain how men
and women developed these different aggressive tendencies. One theory
states that in species where one sex makes a higher parental investment
than the other, sex is the biggest investment of resources to the opposite
sex it is in most species, women are the major investors in sex. Further
maintains that reproductive success is cardinal to the perpetuation of the
lineage of an organism and the hereditary characteristics.

For men, it is crucial to establish domination and exploitation of

opportunities for reproduction in order to pass their genetics. Unlike
females, whose reproductive success is limited by the long gestation and
lactation periods, the male reproductive success is limited by the number
of partners that could come across them. As a result, men use physical

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aggression more often than females, they take more risks in order to
compete with other males and gain a high status.

Males can go so far as to kill one another, although this is rare. Males show
less concern for their physical well-being in such competitions. In contrast,
women compete for resources, which can be converted to offspring.

The establishment of a dominant position is more costly for females than

for males and females have more to gain from the completion status.

The female presence is more critical to the survival of offspring and thus
their reproductive success is greater than the father.

It is logical then that the health and well being of females is associated
with less aggressive, low risk and indirect strategies to acquire resources.
As a result, most women female conflict, rarely cause serious damage to
one another over resources. When translated to human health, these facts
suggest that women should be expected to show less evidence of
dominance hierarchies and that of men.

In society, aggression among boys is becoming more motivated by social

status and self-esteem, which are usually determined by varying degrees
of aggressive reaction of personal challenge. The aggression in girls is
mainly concentrated in the acquisition of resources rather than a state,
and is more likely to be physically less dangerous and more covert form of
indirect aggression. There are, however, ample criticism of the use of
animal behavior to explain human behavior and the application of
evolutionary explanations of human behavior contemporary.

Aggression in humans

Aggression in humans differs in almost all aspects of the non-humans

(animals) in the complexity of their aggression because of factors such as
culture, customs and social situations. A variety of studies have been done
about these situations.
Aggression and culture

Culture is a distinctly human factor, which plays a role in aggression. Kung

Bushmen and people were described as "harmless" by Elizabeth Marshall
Thomas (1958). Other researchers, however, have countered this view,
calculating the rate of homicides among the Bushmen is actually higher
than that of most modern industrial societies (Keeley, 1996). Lawrence
Keeley argues that the savages "peaceful" is a myth that is not supported
by most archaeological and anthropological evidence. Hunter Gatherers do
not fight for possessions, but they can still get the conflict over the status
and mating opportunities.

Research based on cultural experience has found differences in the level

of aggression between cultures.

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In one study, American men resorted to physical violence more easily than
men Japanese or Spanish, while Japanese men preferred the direct conflict
(verbal) more than their American counterparts and Spanish (Andreu et al.
1998).
Within American culture, Southerners were more excited and to respond
more aggressively than the northerners when affronted (Bowdle et al.
1996).

There is also a higher rate of homicides among young people than among
white men and Southern white men of the northern United States (Nisbett,
1993).

Changes in dominant behavior or social status cause changes in

testosterone levels. Reports of changes in testosterone in young men
during sporting events, involving face to face competition with a winner
and a loser, show that testosterone increases just before their departure,
as if in anticipation of the competition. In addition, one to two hours after
the game competitive, testosterone levels of winners are high relative to
levels of losers.

Aggression in the media

Behaviors such as aggression can be learned by observing and imitating

the behavior of others. A considerable amount of evidence suggests that
violence on television are assisted in the short term increases the
likelihood of aggression in children (Aronson, Wilson & Akert, 2005),
although at a different point of view, see Freedman (2002). Individuals
may differ in how they respond to violence. The biggest impact is on those
who are already prone to violent behavior.

Adults can be influenced by media violence as well.

Studies show increased aggressiveness or exposure to violence in the

media and is associated with risk of short-term, and none of these studies
provide definitive evidence of a causal mechanism. Instead, media
violence may be one of many factors that may play a role in maintenance
of such violent means which tend to be selected by people who are prone
to violence.

Aggression and Situational Factors

* Alcoholic beverages

Alcohol impairs insight, making people much less cautious than they
usually are (MacDonald et al. 1996). Alcohol also disrupts the way
information is processed (Bushman 1993, 1997, Bushman & Cooper,
1990). A drunk person is far more likely to see an accidental event in a
purposeful and therefore act more aggressively.

* The aggressiveness increases with the pain and discomfort.

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Even the simple act of putting your hands in cold water can cause an
aggressive response.

Temperatures have been implicated as a factor in a number of studies. A

study completed in the middle of the civil rights movement found that
riots were more likely in warmer weather than cooler (Carlsmith &
Anderson 1979). Students, after the monthly test in the classroom hot
became more aggressive, as well as drivers in cars without air
conditioning used their horns more often (Anderson et al. 1996, Rule et al.
1987), (Kenrick & MacFarlane 1986).

* One of the main fuses of aggression and frustration.

Aggression is increased by the frustration when a person feels he or she is

being prevented from achieving a goal (Aronson et al. 2005).

Frustration can be another unexpected factor.

There is some evidence to suggest that the presence of objects of

violence, as a weapon can cause aggression. It is possible that a stimulus-
related violence increases the likelihood of aggressive cognitions by
activating the net.

Aggression and gender

Gender is a factor that plays a role both in human aggression and animal.

Males are historically more physically aggressive than females (Coie &
Dodge 1997, Maccoby & Jacklin 1974), and men commit the majority of
murders (Buss 2005). This is one of the most robust and reliable
differences in sexual behavior, and has been found in many groups of
different ages and cultures. There is evidence that males are quicker to
express physical aggression than females (Frey et al. 2003), (Bjorkqvist et
al. 1994). However, within the family, these old beliefs have been recently
reassessed (Richardson, 2005). When considering indirect forms of
aggression, such as the influence of power or a change in the environment
that can change mood and relational aggression and social rejection,
females and males are equally aggressive (Archer, 2004; Card, Stucky,
Sawalani , & Little, 2008).

Although females are less likely to initiate physical violence, they can
express aggression, using a variety of non-physical means to inflict
damage on others.

The methods used by women to express aggression is something that

varies from culture to culture.

On Bellona Island, a culture based on male dominance and physical

violence, women tend to conflict with other women more often than men.

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When in conflict with men, instead of using physical means, they make up
songs mocking the man, which spreads throughout the island to humiliate
him.

If a woman wants to kill a man, she tries to convince her male relatives to
kill him or hire an assassin. Although these two methods involve physical
violence, both are indirect forms of aggression, as the aggressor would not
be drawn directly or put yourself in immediate physical danger.

Aggression in children

It has been observed frequently assaults committed by children around 2-

3 years of age. Then gradually decreases on average. These observations
suggest that physical aggression is not primarily a learned behavior and
that the development offers opportunities for learning self-regulation.
However, a small group of children can not acquire the necessary self-
regulation skills and tend to show atypical levels of physical aggression in
development. These may be at risk for more violent behavior.

Children and assertiveness

Children need to prepare to enter the children to develop social skills, be

assertive.

Examples of assertive: ask for information, start a conversation, or be able

to respond to peer pressure.
However, some children use aggressive behavior, like hitting or biting, as
a form of communication.

Aggressive behavior can impede learning as a skills gap, while assertive

behavior can facilitate learning.

At school age, children should learn more socially appropriate ways to

communicate, and express themselves through verbal or written, if they
do not, this behavior can mean a disability or developmental delay.

* Generators of aggression in children

Physical fear of others, family difficulties, learning, neurological processes

or behavior, behavioral disorders, emotional trauma, sexual assault.

Bandura found that children in contact with adults of aggressive behavior

become much more aggressive than those in contact with adults
not aggressive.

Biology of aggression

The aggression is directed and often comes from external stimuli, but has
a character very different procedure. Using various techniques and

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experiments, scientists were able to explore the relationships between the
various body parts and aggression.

Aggression in the brain

Many researchers have focused on the brain to explain aggression.

The areas involved in aggression in mammals include the amygdala,

hypothalamus, prefrontal cortex, cingulate cortex, hippocampus, septal
nuclei, and midbrain periaqueductal gray.

Because of the difficulties in determining the intentions of animals,

aggression is defined in neuroscience research as behavior directed
toward an object or animal that results in harm or damage to the object or
animal.
The hypothalamus and periaqueductal gray of the midbrain are the most
critical areas to control aggression in mammals, as demonstrated by
studies in cats, rats and monkeys. These areas of the brain that control
the expression of all the behavioral and autonomic components of
aggression in these species, including vocalization. They have direct links
with the two nuclei in the brainstem and control these functions and areas
such as the amygdala and prefrontal cortex.

Electrical stimulation of the hypothalamus causes aggressive behavior, the

hypothalamus express receptors that help determine the levels of
aggression based on their interactions with the neurotransmitters
serotonin and vasopressin.

The prefrontal cortex (PFC) has been implicated in the psychopathology

aggressive. Reduction of the activity of the prefrontal cortex, especially its
medial and orbitofrontal cortex has been associated with violence /
aggression antisocial. Specifically, regulation of levels of the
neurotransmitter serotonin in the CPF has been linked with a specific type
of pathological aggression, undergoing induced type mice genetically
predisposed, aggressive, wild, to gain experience repeated, the male rats
selected from aggressive lines had lower levels of serotonin in the tissue
of the PFC low aggressive lines in this study.

The neurotransmitters and hormones

Several neurotransmitters and hormones have been shown to correlate

with aggressive behavior. The most cited hormone is testosterone. In one
source, it was found that the concentration of testosterone is more clearly
correlated with aggressive responses involving provocation.

In adulthood, it is clear that testosterone is not related to the

measurement methods consistent aggression in personality scales, but
several studies on the concentration of testosterone in the blood of
criminals convicted men who committed violent crimes than men, no
criminal record or who has committed violent crime in most cases

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revealed that men who were deemed aggressive / dominant had higher
concentrations of testosterone in their blood than those without criminal
records. However, a correlation between testosterone levels and
aggression does not prove a causal role for testosterone.

Studies of testosterone levels in male athletes before and after

competition showed that testosterone levels rose just before their
departure, as if in anticipation of competition, and are dependent on the
outcome of the event: the testosterone levels of winners are high relative
to the losers.

Interestingly, levels of testosterone in criminal female versus female, no

criminal mirror of men testosterone levels are higher in women who
commit crimes and are considered aggressive.

Studies indicate that the use of anabolic steroids causes increased

aggression, coming then to anger.

Another line of research has focused more on the effects of testosterone

circulating in the nervous system mediated by local metabolism within the
brain. Testosterone can be metabolized to 17b-estradiol by aromatase, an
enzyme or 5a-dihydrotestosterone by 5a-reductase. Aromatase is highly
expressed in regions involved in the regulation of aggressive behavior,
such as the amygdala and hypothalamus.

In studies using techniques of genetic knock out mice in inbred mice males
who lacked a functional aromatase enzyme displayed a marked reduction
of aggression. The long-term treatment of rats with estradiol partially
restores aggressive behavior, suggesting that neural conversion of
circulating testosterone to estradiol and its effect on estrogen receptors
affects interagressão male. In addition, two types of estrogen receptors,
ERA and ERb, have been identified as having the ability to exert different
effects on aggression.

Glucocorticoids also play an important role in the regulation of aggressive

behavior. In adult rats, acute injections of corticosterone promote
aggressive behavior and reduced acute corticosterone decreases
aggressiveness, however, a chronic reduction in the levels of
corticosterone can produce an abnormally aggressive behavior. In
addition, glucocorticoids affect the development of aggression and the
establishment of social hierarchies. Adult mice with low basal levels of
corticosterone are more likely to become dominant than the rats with high
baseline levels of corticosterone.

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is the most abundant androgen in

circulation and can be rapidly metabolized in the tissues clear potent
androgens and estrogens.

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Gonadal steroids generally regulate aggression during the breeding
season, but non-gonadal steroids may regulate aggression during the non-
breeding season.

Castration of various species during the breeding season has no effect on

territorial aggression.

DHEA levels have also been studied in humans and may play a role in
human aggression. Circulating DHEAS (sulfate esters) levels rise during
adrenarche (~ 7 years old), while plasma testosterone levels are relatively
low. This implies that aggression in prepubertal children with aggressive
conduct disorder can be correlated with DHEAS plasma instead of plasma
testosterone, suggesting an important link between DHEAS and human
aggressive behavior.

Another chemical messenger, with implications for aggression is the

neurotransmitter serotonin. In many experiments, the action of serotonin
was correlated negatively with aggression (Delville it al. 1997). This
correlation with aggression helps to explain the reduction of aggression
and the effects of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors such as
fluoxetine (Delville et al. 1997), also known as Prozac (antidepressant
medication).

The two (2) chemical messengers investigated further with respect to

aggression were serotonin and testosterone, other neurotransmitters and
hormones have been shown to relate to aggressive behavior as well.
Vasopressin neurotransmitter that causes an increase in aggressive
behavior when present in large amounts in the anterior hypothalamus
(Delville et al. 1997). The effects of norepinephrine, cortisol and other
neurotransmitters are still being studied.

Genetics and Aggression

The study was conducted by Terry Moffitt, the Institute of Psychiatry,

University of London. He had access to data collected by the University of
Dunedin, New Zealand, which since 1972 came from the birth, 1 037
persons, men and women. Violence among young people may be linked to
the presence of an enzyme called MAO-A, which regulates the amount of
serotonin in the brain, in turn connected to the control of aggression.

In addition to all the external environmental factors, genetics may be

behind the aggressive youth. Research on the subject was done by
Juergen Hennig and published in Behavioral Neuroscience. In it, pointed to
the relationship of specific components of aggression related to a gene
called TPH.

A study conducted by Juergen Hennig, PhD, contributes to increasing

evidence that the type of aggressive behavior that we consider to
psychopathic or sociopathic has some genetic basis that may involve

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abnormally low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin. Again, gene
polymorphisms appear to influence individual differences.

Specific components of aggression in 58 participants appeared related to

the U allele (variation) of a gene called TPH, a marker that should be
linked to another yet unknown gene. Henning says, “connection means
that both genes are transmitted together, as they are close together on
the same chromosome”.

The researchers measured genotypes dubbed AA, AC and CC. The

genotype AA was associated with higher rates of aggression, while the
genotype "CC" was associated with lower rates.

Using another sample of 48 men, the authors also validated the distinction
between "neurotic hostility" and "aggressive hostility", the latter more
violent and without guilt. The authors say their findings emphasize the
value of distinguishing between different aspects of aggression.

Finally, only men "aggressively hostile" released high levels of cortisol, a

key stress hormone, after taking an antidepressant drug that makes
serotonin more available in the brain.

The authors speculate that, after being deprived of serotonin, the neural
receptors of these men were sensitive and responsive than normal, partly
by producing extra cortisol.

Joining the three discoveries, Henning concludes that, “We found that
gene polymorphisms contribute to the variation that can be found in
neuro-endocrine and personality questionnaires in healthy subjects. This
demonstrates that certain aspects of behavior relate to systems biological,
such as the neurotransmitter systems”.

A rare genetic variant that causes MAO-A deficiency has been associated
with violent behavior in men.

In 2002, a study published by researchers from King's College London

found a link between a genetic variant that causes low levels of MAO-A
and increased levels of antisocial behavior of people who had been abused
as children.

In 2004 an American studying monkeys have found the so-called MAO-A, a

gene "warrior." A 2008 study found a similar result involving the variant of
the MAO-A and the DAT1 and DRD2 genes.

In all three cases, the variants of these genes were associated with a high
risk of violent behavior and criminal, but only in people who have
experienced certain stresses during childhood.

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