The Reading

Environment
There are many things which can interfere with effective reading. Some of these involve
common sense, and can be easily changed. Others are more subtle, and may require
long and patient effort if they are to be overcome. Obviously, we should make the simple
changes first, since these will give the greatest improvement with the least effort.
Something which most people can control rather easily is their reading environment. A
poor physical setting can make reading far more difficult than it has to be, and yet a little
planning can get around most of the harmful elements you may find. It is a question of
motivation. We usually can do what we really want to do!

Lighting. Often it is helpful to do your reading- the bulk of it, at least- in the same
place. Check the lighting there. Is it adequate? You should be able to see the page
without strain. Does the light create a glare, or are you in the habit of reading in the
direct sunlight? Either extreme-too much light or too little- can cause strain and
fatigue, and lower your reading efficiency.

Ventilation. Stuffy rooms put you to sleep. You should have plenty of fresh air(but not a
draft) and the temperature should be fairly cool. Otherwise, you'll find yourself going
to sleep over the most exciting books.

Reading Position. Your position should be neither too comfortable nor too
uncomfortable. The first condition puts you right back to sleep again. In fact, some
people "read themselves to sleep" in bed every night- which is fine if sleep, rather
than reading, is what you're after. An uncomfortable position can create a strain,
however subtle, which results in fatigue.

Focal Distance. Hold your book at an angle and keep it about 18 inches from your
eyes. Remember: Long arms are not a substitute for corrective lenses. If you need
glasses, wear them while you read. Persistent fatigue while studying or reading might
be Nature's way of telling you that glasses are needed. Have an optometrist check
your close-range vision.

Distractions. Most important, what about distractions you can see and hear? No
matter what you think, tests show that you can only pay attention to one thing at a
time. If you sit near a door or window, every movement will claim your attention. If you
have a radio or record player going, your concentration may continually wander

from book to sound. And reading with the television going combines the worst of all
possible distractions.
Give yourself every break. If you are going to read, prepare things so you can read
unhindered. If there is something more important, put the book aside. There are times to
read and, just as definitely, there are times when reading must give way to other
considerations.

AcademicSkillsCenter,DartmouthCollege2001

TYPES OF READING
RECREATIONAL
NOVELS

FACTUAL

MYSTERY
ADVENTURE
SPY
WAR

BIOGRAPHY
HISTORY
SCIENCE

KEEPING UP
NEWSPAPERS
LOCAL
NY TIMES
TRADE
WALL STREET

MAGAZINES
TIME
NEWSWEEK
NAT'L GEO

STUDY

JOURNALS
ENGINEERING
PSYCHOLOGY
MANAGEMENT

TEXTBOOKS
COLLEGE
GRADUATE
PROFESSIONAL

PURPOSES OF THE READER

PASS TIME
GATHER INFORMATION
MASTER A SUBJECT
AcademicSkillsCenter,DartmouthCollege2001

Parents know that children's learning doesn't have to stop at the end of the school
day. One way to keep children learning outside of school is to get them interested in
reading, and having a good reading environment is an important step in this process.
Below are a few simple things parents can do to create the optimal reading
environment in their home:
1. Make a place for reading.
Set aside a place in your home for a family library. You don't need much space; a
corner of a room with a bookshelf, comfortable furniture, and adequate lighting are
all that's needed.
2. Make a variety of reading material available.
Always have a good supply of various reading material on hand. In addition to
paperback and hardcover books, include newspapers, magazines for parents and
kids, songbooks, catalogs, dictionaries, encyclopedias, and an atlas. It doesn't
matter if the material is owned or borrowed, or new or used. Just make sure your
family's library includes something for everyone at every reading level.
3. Eliminate distractions.
Despite what many people believe, a noisy and busy environment doesn't help one
concentrate. Create a place where your family members can go to read without the
distractions caused by television, radio, computers, or video games. If dedicating a
separate place is not possible, pick a time during the week for family members to
enjoy some quiet time reading.

4. Set an example.
Let you children see you reading books, newspapers, and magazines on a regular
basis. If they see you reading daily -both for function and for pleasure - they will
more likely become readers themselves. When children see their parents going to
libraries and checking out books, buying books, and giving and receiving books as
gifts, they know that their parents place a high value on reading. And they will too.
5. Have adequate lighting.
Either extreme-too much light or too little- can cause eye strain and fatigue, and
lower one's reading efficiency. Your child should be able to see what s/he is reading
without strain. If there is adequate lighting, and your child is constantly experiencing
fatigue when reading or studying, s/he may need corrective lenses.
6. Keep room temperature at a comfortable level.
Stuffy and warm rooms put people to sleep, even over the most exciting and
interesting books. The room where you and your family read should have plenty of
fresh air and have a fairly cool temperature.
7. Establish personal libraries.
Children often want their own place to keep their books. Here are some tips for
helping children set up collections: find a special place for books. If your child's room
doesn't have a bookshelf or bookcase, use a box, basket, or some other container;
let your children choose the books they want to add to their collection whenever
possible. A weekend book-buying trip to a bookstore would be a fun ritual; take your
children to the library regularly. Even a child with a well-stocked bookshelf needs a
fresh supply of books. Encourage children to treat library books with the same care
they show their own; and give your children books or magazine subscriptions as
gifts.
Creating a good home reading environment doesn't have to be expensive. Just put a
few things together and happy reading!

WhyDoTeachersNeedtoKnowMore
AboutLanguage?
Wedistinguishfivefunctionsforwhichtheprospectiveeducatorneeds
toknowmoreaboutlanguagethanmostteachereducationprograms
provide.

1.TeacherasCommunicator

Clearly,communicationwithstudentsisessentialineffectiveteaching.
Tocommunicatesuccessfully,teachersmustknowhowtostructuretheir
ownlanguageoutputformaximumclarityandhavestrategiesfor
understandingwhatstudentsaresayingsinceunderstandingstudenttalkis

keytoanalysisofwhatstudentsknow,howtheyunderstand,andwhat
teachingmoveswouldbeuseful.Inasocietythatiscreatingincreasingly
diverseclassrooms,teachersaremoreandmorelikelytoencounterstudents
withwhomtheydonotshareafirstlanguageordialectandanativeculture.
Anunderstandingoflinguisticscanhelpteachersseethatthediscourse
patternstheyvalueareaspectsoftheirownculturesandbackgrounds;they
areneitheruniversalnorinherentlymorevalidthanotherpossiblepatterns.
Withoutsuchanunderstanding,teacherssometimesassumethatthereis
somethingwrongwithstudentswhosewaysofusinglanguagearenotwhat
theyexpect.GenevaSmitherman(1977)relatesapoignantexampleofhow
teacherswhodonotrecognizethevalidityofotherwaysofspeakingcan
underminetheirstudentsconfidenceintheirowncommunicativeabilities:
Student(excitedly):MizJones,yourememberthatshowyoutoleus
about?Well,meandmymommanem
Teacher(interruptingwithawarmsmile):Bernadette,startagain.Im
sorry,butIcantunderstandyou.
Student(confused):Well,itwasthatshow,meandmymomma
Teacher(interruptingagain,stillwiththatwarmsmile):Sorry,Istill
cantunderstandyou.
(Student,nowsilent,evenmoreconfusedthanever,looksatfloor,says
nothing.)
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6
Teacher:NowBernadette,firstofall,itsMrs.Jones,notMizJones.And
youknowitwasanexhibit,notashow.Now,haventIexplainedto
theclassoverandoveragainthatyoualwaysputyourselflastwhen
youaretalkingaboutagroupofpeopleandyourselfdoingsomething?
So,therefore,youshouldsaywhat?
Student:Mymommaandme
Teacher(exasperated):No!MymotherandI.Nowstartagain,thistime
right.
Student:Aw,thatsokay,itwasntnothin.
(Smitherman,1977,pp.217218)

StudiesofdiscoursepatternsinAmericanIndian(Philips,1993),
NativeHawaiian(Boggs,1972),PuertoRican(Zentella,1997),andAfrican
American(Heath,1983)homesandcommunitieshaveshownthatthe
speechpatternsthatchildrenbringtoschoolfromtheirhomescanbequite
differentfromtheonesthatarevaluedatschool.Thesespeechpatternsare
nonethelessessentialtofunctioningeffectivelyintheirhomecommunities.
Acquiringtheacademicdiscoursepatternsofschoolisanimportantpartof
theeducationaldevelopmentofallstudents,butitisneithernecessarynor

desirabletopromoteitattheexpenseofthelanguagepatternschildren
alreadyhave.Infact,Mrs.Jonespedagogicalapproachtolanguage
developmentismorelikelytosourchildrenlikeBernadettetothewhole
experienceofschoolingthanitistoinstructthem.
Inasdiverseasocietyasours,teachersmustbepreparedtoworkwith
childrenfrommanydifferentcultural,social,andlinguisticbackgrounds.
ManystudentsintheaverageschoolarelearningEnglishasasecond
language,andunderstandingthecourseofsecondlanguageacquisition
(includingsuchmattersaswhatsortsofmistakestheyarelikelytomake
andhowmuchprogresscanbeexpectedinaunitoftime)helpsteachers
communicatewiththemmoreeffectively.Evenadvancedspeakersof
Englishasasecondlanguagemayuseconversationalpatternsornarrative
organizationthatdifferfromthoseofthemainstream.Understandinghow
theirlanguageusemightdiferfromthatofthenativeEuropeanAmerican
Englishspeakeriscrucialforeffectiveteaching.Intheirfunctionas
interlocuter,teachersneedtoknowsomethingabouteducationallinguistics.
Page 7

2.TeacherasEducator

Teachersareresponsibleforselectingeducationalmaterialsand
activitiesattherightlevelandoftherighttypeforallofthechildrenintheir
classes.Thisrequiresareasonablebasisforassessmentofstudent
accomplishmentsandthecapacitytodistinguishbetweenimperfect
knowledgeofEnglishandcognitiveobstaclestolearning.Inordertoteach
effectively,teachersneedtoknowwhichlanguageproblemswillresolve
themselveswithtimeandwhichneedattentionandintervention.Inother
words,theyneedtoknowagreatdealaboutlanguagedevelopment.
Languageisavitaldevelopmentaldomainthroughouttheyearsof
schooling,whateverthechildslinguistic,cultural,orsocialbackground.
Textbooksonchilddevelopmentoftenclaimthatbyagefiveorsixchildren
havealreadymasteredthegrammaroftheirnativelanguage,andthat
althoughtheyexpandtheirvocabulariesinschoolandaddliteracyskills,for
themostpartchildrenhaveacquiredlanguagebeforetheygotoschool.
Suchacharacterizationoflanguagedevelopmentisfarfromaccurate.All
childrenhavealongwaytogodevelopmentallybeforetheycanfunctionas
maturemembersoftheirspeechcommunities(Hoyle&Adger,1998).As
theyprogressthroughthegrades,childrenwillacquirethegrammatical
structuresandstrategiesforthemoresophisticatedandprecisewaysof
usinglanguagethatareassociatedwithmaturity,withformallanguageuse,

andwithdiscussingchallengingtopics.
Teachersplayacriticalroleinsupportinglanguagedevelopment.
Beyondteachingchildrentoreadandwriteinschool,theyneedtohelp
childrenlearnanduseaspectsoflanguageassociatedwiththeacademic
discourseofthevariousschoolsubjects.Theyneedtohelpthembecome
moreawareofhowlanguagefunctionsinvariousmodesofcommunication
acrossthecurriculum.Theyneedtounderstandhowlanguageworkswell
enoughtoselectmaterialsthatwillhelpexpandtheirstudentslinguistic
horizonsandtoplaninstructionalactivitiesthatgivestudentsopportunities
tousethenewformsandmodesofexpressiontowhichtheyarebeing
exposed.Teachersneedtounderstandhowtodesigntheclassroomlanguage
environmentsoastooptimizelanguageandliteracylearningandtoavoid
linguisticobstaclestocontentarealearning.Abasicknowledgeof
educationallinguisticsisprerequisitetopromotinglanguagedevelopment
withthefullarrayofstudentsintodaysclassrooms.
Page 8

3.TeacherasEvaluator
Teachersjudgmentscanhaveenormousconsequencesforchildrens
livesfromthedailyjudgmentsandresponsesthataffectstudentssenseof
themselvesaslearnerstothemoreweightydecisionsaboutreadinggroup
placement,promotion,orreferralforevaluation.Americanschoolcultureis
greatlyconcernedwithindividualdifferencesinlearningability,and
judgmentsaboutabilityareoftenbasedonteacherevaluationsofchildrens
languagebehaviors.Americaneducatorstakeseriouslytheideathatpeople
differinabilitiesandaptitudes,andtheybelievethatsuchdifferences
requiredifferenttreatmentinschool.[1]
Alotofattentionisgiventosorting
childrenbyabilityasearlyaspossible.Childrenenteringkindergartenare
givenreadinessteststodeterminewhichofthemmeetthedevelopmental
expectationsofschoolandwhichdonot.Someschoolshavejunior
kindergartensforchildrenwhoarenotquitereadyforschoolaccordingto
theirperformanceonthesereadinesstests.Inmanykindergartens,children
aregroupedforinstructionbyabilityonthebasisofsuchtests.Iftheyare
notgroupedinthiswayinkindergarten,theycertainlyarebyfirstgrade
(Michaels,1981).Thus,wellbeforechildrenhavehadachancetofindout
whatschoolisabout,theycanbedeclaredtobefast,middling,orslow
learners(Oakes,1985).Suchgroupingisperniciousifitsortschildren
globallyintodifferentiatedgroups.Oncesortedthisway,childrentypically
receivesubstantiallydifferentinstructionaltreatmentandmaterials,

reinforcinganyinitialdifferencesamongtheminspeedoflearningand
eagernesstolearn.Lateron,studentswhohavebeeninclassesfor
academicallytalentedchildrenbehavelikegiftedandtalentedchildren:
Theyarebright,verbal,andenthusiasticaboutschool.Thosewhohavebeen
inlowgroupclassesbehavepreciselyasonewouldexpectlowability
studentstobehave:Theyarepoorlymotivated,lowachieving,andless
enthusiasticaboutschoolthantheyshouldbe.
Wedonotmeantosuggestherethatchildrenshouldneverbesortedfor
anypurpose.Itisveryeffectiveforteacherstoformsmallgroupsof
childrenwhoneedmoretimewithparticularinstructionalfoci(e.g.,
digraphsorvocabularyenrichmentorlongvowelspellings).Itcanalsobe
helpfultogroupchildrenwhoreadatasimilarlevelsotheycandiscuss
theirbookswithoneanother.Butthekeytosuchgroupingisthatitis
targeted(i.e.,usedforparticularinstructionalpurpose),flexible(i.e.,as
soonasindividualchildrenhaveacquiredthetargetedskilltheyleavethat
group),andobjective(i.e.,basedonwellspecifiedcriteriadirectlyrelated
totheinstructionaltarget,notonglobalmeasuresofreadiness).
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9
Aseriousworryaboutglobaltrackingdecisionsisthequestionable
validityoftheoriginalassessmentsonwhichtheseplacementdecisions
weremade.Judgmentsofchildrenslanguageandsocialbehaviorsweigh
heavilyintheseassessments(Oller,1992).Guidedbyareadinesschecklist,
kindergartenandfirstgradeteachersanswerquestionslikethefollowing
aboutthechildrenintheirclasses:Dotheyknowtheirfirstandlastname?
Cantheyfollowsimpleinstructions?Cantheyaskquestions?Canthey
answerthem?Dotheyknowthenamesofthecolorsintheircrayonboxes?
Cantheyproduceshortnarratives?Dotheyknowtheirmothersname?[2]
Cantheycounttoten?Theassumptionisthatallchildrenatagefiveorsix
shouldhavetheabilitiesthatareassessed,andanyonewhodoesnotisnot
readyforschool.Inreality,suchabilitiesandskillsarehardlyuniversalnor
aretheyindicativeoflearningability.Therearerathergreatdifferences
acrossculturesinthekindsoflinguisticbehaviorsbelievedtobe
appropriateforchildrenatanyage.Thekindsofskillsthatchildrenbring
fromhomereflectthosedifferencesinbelief.Insomecultures,forexample,
childrenareencouragedtolistenratherthantoaskquestionsofadults.Only
rudeandpoorlyrearedchildrenwouldchatterawayinthepresenceofan
authorityfigureliketheteacher.Whenchildrendonotperformasrequested
onatest,itdoesnotnecessarilymeanthattheyarelackinginability
particularlysoiftheydonotknowthelanguageinwhichthequestionswere

asked.Giventhediversityinoursociety,itisimperativetorecognizethat
youngchildrenmaydifferconsiderablyintheirinventoryofskillsand
abilities,andthesedifferencesshouldnotbetreatedasreflecting
deficienciesinability.
Tomakevalidjudgmentsaboutstudentsabilities,teachersalsoneedto
understandthedifferentsourcesofvariationinlanguageusewhethera
particularpatternsignalsmembershipinalanguagecommunitythatspeaks
avernacularvarietyofEnglish,normalprogressforasecondlanguage
learnerofEnglish,normaldeviationsfromtheadultstandardthatare
associatedwithearlierstagesofdevelopment,ordevelopmentaldelayor
disorder.TheoverrepresentationofAfricanAmerican,NativeAmerican,
andLatinochildreninspecialeducationplacementssuggeststhatuseofa
vernacularvarietyofEnglishornormalsecondlanguagelearnerfeaturesis
oftenmisinterpretedasindicatingdevelopmentaldelay(Ortiz,1992).[3]
Consideringthepotentialharmofmisconstruingchildrenslanguage
use,investingineducationallinguisticsseemsawiseuseofteacher
preparationresources.
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4.TeacherasEducatedHumanBeing
Teachersneedtohaveaccesstobasicinformationaboutlanguagefor
thesamereasonsthatanyeducatedmemberofsocietyshouldknow
somethingaboutlanguage.Understandingthebasicsofhowonesown
languageworkscontributestoskillfulreadingandwriting.Recognizingthe
differencebetweennounsandverbs,consonantsandvowels,oraland
literateformsisasbasicfortheliberallyeducatedhumanbeingasis
knowledgeaboutadditionandsubtraction,evolution,orthesolarsystem.
ForstudentseducatedintheUnitedStates,basicknowledgeshouldinclude
knowingsomethingaboutdifferencesbetweenthestructureofEnglishand
thatofotherlanguagesjustassurelyasknowingaboutthetripartite
organizationoftheU.S.government.ItusedtobethecasethatEnglish
grammarandatleastoneforeignlanguagewereincludedinthecore
curriculumofmiddleandhighschool.Thathaschangedoverthelastfew
decades.Notonlyaresuchsubjectsnolongerrequired;insomeplacesthey
arenottaughtatall.
Bynowseveralgenerationsofteachershavegonethroughthepublic
schoolshavinghadlittleopportunitytostudythestructureofEnglishorto
learnanotherlanguage,andasaresult,theydonotfeelveryconfident
talkingaboutlanguage.Englishisthelanguageofthesociety;itisthe

languagemostteachersuseexclusivelyintheirteaching;anditisthe
languagethatmanyteachersteachabouttosomeextent.Buthowmuchdo
theyknowaboutit?Dotheyknowitshistory?Dotheyknowwhat
languagesarerelatedtoit?Dotheyknowhowithaschangedovertime,
especiallysincetheadventoftheprintingpress?Dotheyknowwhythere
aresomanypeculiarspellingsinEnglish?Dotheyknowhowregional
dialectsdevelop?Teachershavepractical,professionalreasonstoknow
thesethings,butwesuggestthattheattentiontogrammarandrhetoricthat
wascharacteristicofthetrivium(thelowerlevelofaclassicaleducation)
wasneitherprematurenorexaggerated.Everyoneshouldunderstandsuch
matters,andtheywillnotlearnthemunlessteachersunderstandthem.
ThroughouttheUnitedStates,thereisarealneedforresearch
knowledgeaboutlanguageteachingandlearningandaboutotherissuesof
languageineducation,andforeducationalleadershiptoensurethatthis
knowledgeiswidelyshared.Severalrecenteventsinvolvedpublic
discussions(withparticipationbyteachersandothereducators)thatwere
largelyuninformedanduninsightfulaboutlanguageissues.Theseevents
includethepassageofProposition227inCaliforniaandsubsequent
attemptsinotherstatestolimitoreliminatebilingualeducation.Discussion
ofProposition227revealedadismayinglackofunderstandingaboutthe
factsofsecondlanguagelearningandthenatureofbilingualeducation.
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Similarly,theEbonicscontroversyraisedissuesthatmostpeoplewereill
preparedtodiscussinaninformedway.Finally,thewillingnessofschool
districtsandparentgroupstoembraceinappropriatemethodsforteaching
reading,inresponsetolowperformanceonreadingtests,andtoabandon
theoreticallysoundmethodsforteachingEnglishinthefaceof
disappointinglanguageachievementscoresremindsusthattoofewpeople
knowenoughofthebasicsaboutlanguageandliteracytoengagein
reasonablediscussionandtomakeinformeddecisions.

5.TeacherasAgentofSocialization
Teachersplayauniqueroleasagentsofsocializationtheprocessby
whichindividualslearntheeverydaypractices,thesystemofvaluesand
beliefs,andthemeansandmannersofcommunicationoftheircultural
communities.Socializationbeginsinthehomeandcontinuesatschool.
Whentheculturesofhomeandschoolmatch,theprocessisgenerally
continuous:Buildingonwhattheyacquiredathomefromfamilymembers,
childrenbecomesocializedintothewaysofthinkingandbehavingthat

characterizeeducatedindividuals.Theylearntothinkcriticallyaboutideas,
phenomena,andexperiences;andtheyaddthemodesandstructuresof
academicdiscoursetotheirlanguageskills.Butwhenthereisamismatch
betweentheculturesofhomeandschool,theprocesscanbedisrupted.We
havediscussedsomewaysinwhichmismatchesbetweenteachers
expectationsofhowchildrenshouldbehavecommunicativelyandhowthey
actuallydobehavecanaffectteachersabilitytounderstandchildren,assess
theirabilities,andteachthemeffectively.Infact,whatteacherssayanddo
candeterminehowsuccessfullychildrenmakethecrucialtransitionfrom
hometoschool.Itcandeterminewhetherchildrenmovesuccessfullyinto
theworldoftheschoolandlargersocietyasfullyparticipatingmembersor
getshuntedontosidetracksthatdistancethemfromfamily,society,andthe
worldoflearning.
Formanychildren,teachersarethefirstcontactwiththecultureofthe
socialworldoutsideofthehome.Fromassociationswithfamilymembers,
childrenhaveacquiredasenseofwhotheyare,whattheycando,whatthey
shouldvalue,howtheyshouldrelatetotheworldaroundthem,andhow
theyshouldcommunicate.Theseunderstandingsareculturaltheydiffer
fromgrouptogroupandevenwithingroups.Childrenofimmigrantsand
nativebornAmericanchildrenfromnonmajoritybackgroundsmay
encounterastarkdisjunctionbetweentheirculturalunderstandingsand
thoseoftheschool.Forexample,Mexicanchildren,generallyhaveasure
senseofselfwithintheworldofthehome.Thecenterofthisuniverseisnot
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theindividualbutthefamilyitself.Eachmemberisresponsiblefor
maintaining,supporting,andstrengtheningthefamily;itsneedscome
beforetheneedsofanyindividual(Valds,1996).ForPuebloIndian
children,thecentralunitisthecommunity,anditsneedsandrequirements
takeprecedenceoverthoseoftheindividual(PopoviDa,1969).[4]
Whenchildrenfromtheseculturesbeginschool,theyencountera
culturethathasaverydifferentfocus,onethatemphasizestheprimacyof
theindividualandconsidersfamily,group,andcommunityneedssubsidiary
toindividualneeds.Theysoondiscoverthattheschoolculturetakes
precedenceoverthehomeculture.Administratorsandteachersdonot
acceptasexcusesforschoolabsencetheneedtocareforyoungersiblings
whenthemotherissickortoparticipateinareligiousritualinthe
community.Childrenlearnthatatschool,workandprogressareregardedas
individualendeavors,andtheyarerewardedfortheabilitytowork
independently,withouthelpandsupportfromothers.

Intheareaoflanguageandcommunication,childrenwhoenterschool
withnoEnglishareexpectedtolearntheschoolslanguageofinstructionas
quicklyaspossible,oftenwithminimalhelp.Childrendiscoververy
quicklythattheonlywaytheycanhaveaccesstothesocialoracademic
worldofschoolisbylearningthelanguagespokenthere.Themessagesthat
areconveyedtochildrenandtheirparentsarethatthehomelanguagehas
novalueorroleinschoolifitisnotEnglish,andthatparentswhowantto
helptheirchildrenlearnEnglishshouldswitchtoEnglishfor
communicationathome.ForparentswhoknowandspeakEnglish,this
wouldnotbedifficult;forparentswhodonotknowEnglishwelloratall,it
istantamounttotellingthemtheyhavenothingtocontributetothe
educationoftheirchildren.[5]
Theprocessofsocializationintothecultureoftheschoolneednotbe
detrimentaleithertothechildortothefamily,evenwhenthereare
substantialdifferencesbetweentheculturesofthehomeandschool.When
teachersrealizejusthowtraumatictheassimilationprocesscanbefor
immigrantandnativebornchildrenfromnonmajoritybackgrounds,given
theadjustmentsandaccommodationstheymustmakeastheymovefrom
theworldofthehometotheoneatschool,theycaneasetheprocess
considerably.Teacherswhorespecttheirstudentshomelanguagesand
cultures,andwhounderstandthecrucialroletheyplayinthelivesofthe
childrenandtheirfamilies,canhelpchildrenmakethenecessarytransitions
inwaysthatdonotundercuttherolethatparentsandfamiliesmustcontinue
toplayintheireducationanddevelopment.[6]
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WhatShouldClassroomTeachersKnow
AboutLanguage?
Inthissection,weoutlineasetofquestionsthattheaverageclassroom
teachershouldbeabletoanswer,andweidentifytopicsthatteachersand
othereducatorsshouldhaveknowledgeof.Wefocusfirstonquestions
aboutorallanguageandthenonquestionsaboutwrittenlanguage.These
questionsandtopicsarenotarcaneorhighlytechnical.Wearecertainlynot
proposingthatalleducatorsneedtounderstandUniversalGrammar,
GovernmentandBindingTheory,MinimalistPhonology,orothertopicsof
interesttotheprofessionallinguist.Rather,weareidentifyingissuesof
languageuseindailylife,issuesthatrequireonlyabasicunderstandingof
thedescriptiveworkthatlinguistsengageinandtheconceptsthattheyuse.

Nordoweproposeasystematicwayofpreparingteacherswiththerequisite
linguisticknowledge:Decisionsabouthowtosegmenttheinformationwe
callforhowtodistributeitoverpreservicecoursesandinservice
learningandhowtoensurethatitwillbeacquiredgowellbeyondour
brief.Wesimplyprovidea(nodoubtincomplete)listingofissues,anda
briefjustificationfortherelevancetoclassroompracticeofeach,inthe
hopethatthosewithgreaterexpertiseinteachereducationcanthinkabout
howtomakethisknowledgeavailabletoclassroompractitioners.
Attentiontoeducationallinguisticsmightbeassumedtobeof
particularimportancetotheeducatorspecializedindealingwithlanguage
learnersthebilingualorEnglishasasecondlanguage(ESL)teacher.We
certainlyagreethatprospectiveESLandbilingualteacherswouldbenefit
frombetter,moreintensive,andmorecoherentpreparationineducational
linguistics.Butwecontendthatsuchpreparationisequallyimportantforall
classroompractitionersand,indeed,foradministratorsandeducational
researchersthoughofcoursethespecificsofmoreadvancedpreparation
willvaryforthesegroups.Expertiseonlanguageissuesrelatedtoteaching
andlearningisimportantforalleducators,increasinglysoasthepercentage
ofEnglishlanguagelearnersandspeakersofvernaculardialectsincreases
amongAmericanstudents.
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OralLanguage

Webeginbyattendingtoorallanguagesincechildrendeveloporal
proficiencyfirstintheirnativelanguage(andoftenalsoinasecond
language).Orallanguagefunctionsasafoundationforliteracyandasthe
meansoflearninginschoolandout.However,despiteitsimportancefor
learning,manyteachersknowmuchlessaboutorallanguagethantheyneed
toknow.
1.Whatarethebasicunitsoflanguage?Teachersneedtoknowthat
spokenlanguageiscomposedofunitsofdifferentsizessounds(called
phonemesiftheyfunctiontosignaldifferentmeaningsinthelanguage),
morphemes(sequencesofsoundsthatformthesmallestunitsofmeaningin
alanguage),words(consistingofoneormoremorphemes),phrases(oneor
morewords),sentences,anddiscourses.Crucialtoanunderstandingofhow
languageworksistheideaofarbitrariness.Sequencesofsoundshaveno
meaningbythemselvesitisonlybyconventionthatmeaningsare
attachedtosound.Inanotherlanguageasequenceofsoundsthatis
meaningfulinEnglishmaymeannothingatall,orsomethingquite

different.
Furthermore,eachlanguagehasaninventoryofphonemesthatmay
differfromthatofotherlanguages.Phonemescanbeidentifiedbyvirtueof
whetherachangeinsoundmakesadifferenceinmeaning.Thus,inEnglish
banandvanconstitutetwodifferentwords,showingthat[b]and[v]are
differentphonemes.Similarly,hitandheataretwodifferentwords,showing
thattheshortvowelsound[I]ofhitisdifferentfromthelongvowelsound
[i]ofheat.InSpanish,ofcourse,thedifferencebetween[b]and[v]and
between[I]and[i]doesnotmakeadifferenceinmeaning.NativeSpanish
speakersmaybeinfluencedbythephonemicinventoryofSpanishwhen
theyarespeakingEnglish.Theymightsayeitherverygoodorberygoodto
meanthesamething.Similarly,itislittleandeeteezleetlehavethesame
meaning.DialectsofEnglishshowdifferentphonemicpatternsaswell.In
southernU.S.varieties,forexample,thevowelsinpinandpensoundthe
same,butinnorthernvarietiestheyaredifferent.Itisclearthatsuch
contrastingphonemicpatternsacrosslanguagesanddialectscanhavean
impactonwhatwordschildrenunderstand,howtheypronouncewords,and
alsohowtheymightbeinclinedtospellthem.
Thenextlanguageunitisthemorpheme.Themorpheme,thesmallest
unitthatexpressesadistinctmeaning,canbeanindependentorfreeunit,
likejump,dog,orhappy,oritcanbeaprefixorsuffixattachedtoanother
morphemetomodifyitsmeaning,suchasedoringforverbs(jumped,
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jumping),pluralsorpossessivesfornouns(dogs,dogs),orlyorness
addedtoadjectivestoturnthemintoadverbsornouns(happily,happiness).
Theseunitsarecalledboundmorphemesbecausetheydonotoccuralone.
Therelevanceofboundmorphemestoteachersunderstandingemerges
moststronglyinthedomainofspelling,discussedbelow.Butitisworth
notingherethatEnglish,reflectingitsoriginasaGermaniclanguage,
featuresmanyirregularforms(seePinker,1999)thatcancauseproblems.
Childrenmayproduceungrammaticalformsusingregularmorpheme
combinations,suchaspasttensebringedandpluralmans.Andjustasitis
informativetostudycontrastsinphonemepatternsacrossdialects,teachers
shouldalsobeawareofdialectvariationinmorphemecombinations.For
example,inAfricanAmericanVernacularEnglish,thepluralformofman
canbemens.
Teachersneedtounderstandthatgrammaticalunitssuchasboundand
freemorphemes,words,phrases,andclausesoperatequitedifferently
acrosslanguages.Thelocativemeaningsexpressedbyprepositionssuchas

in,on,andbetweeninEnglishareexpressedbynounendings(bound
morphemes)inHungarian,buttheyareoftenincorporatedintothestructure
oftheverbinKorean.InChinese,pluralityandpasttensearetypically
expressedbyseparatewordssuchasseveralandalreadyratherthanbound
morphemes(sanded),butthesewordsmaybeomittedifthesemeanings
areobviousincontext.ThenativeChinesespeakerwhotreatspluralsand
pasttensesasoptionalratherthanobligatoryinEnglishisreflectingthe
rulesofChinese.Ofcoursesuchalearnerneedstolearnhowtoproduce
grammaticalEnglishsentences.Butunderstandingthevarietyofstructures
thatdifferentlanguagesanddialectsusetoshowmeaning,including
grammaticalmeaningsuchaspluralityorpasttense,canhelpteacherssee
thelogicbehindtheerrorsoftheirstudentswhoarelearningEnglish.
Finally,teachersneedknowledgeaboutlargerunitsoflanguageuse
sentenceanddiscoursestructurethatisfundamentaltounderstandingthe
uniquefeaturesofacademiclanguage.Wehavepointedoutthatteachers
expectationsforstudentsparticipationinclassroomtalkmaybebasedon
theirownculturalpatterns.Suchsimplerhetoricaltasksasrespondingto
questionsrequiremakingahypothesisaboutwhythequestionisbeing
askedandhowitfitsintoasetofsocialrelationshipsthatmaybespecificto
aculture.Canyouopenthedoor?mightbeaquestionaboutphysical
strengthoraboutpsychologicalwillingness,oritmightbearequest.Ifa
childgivesapuzzlingresponsetoaquestion,theteacherwhoknows
somethingaboutcrosslinguisticdifferencesintherulesforasking
questionsandmakingrequestsmightwellbeabletoanalyzeitssource.Itis
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criticalthatinterpretationsoflanguageuseintermsofpoliteness,
intelligence,orotherjudgmentsaboutthestudentbeinformedbythis
understandingoflanguagedifferences.
Troublecanoccuratthediscourselevelwhenstudentsdonot
understandteachersexpectationsaboutacademicdiscoursepatternsthat
theythemselveslearnedinschool.Forexample,intheinteractivestructure
typicalofdirectinstruction,theteacherinitiates,oftenbyaskingaquestion;
astudentresponds;andtheteacherevaluatestheresponse.Askinga
questionintheresponseslotcanriskteachercensure(Zuengler&Cole,
2000).Itisunlikelythatteachersareawareoftheirexpectationsfor
studentsparticipationinclassroomdiscourse.Implicitnormsforlanguage
usearepartofwhatitmeanstoknowalanguagewell.Whenteachershave
explicitknowledgeofrhetoricalstructures,theyhavethetoolsforhelping
childrenunderstandtheexpectationsassociatedwithschoolEnglish.

2.Whatsregularandwhatisnt?Howdoformsrelatetoeach
other?ByvirtueofbeingproficientEnglishspeakersandeffortlessreaders,
mostadultstakeforgrantedlanguageirregularitiesthatcanbeenormously
puzzlingtoyoungerandlessfluentlearners.Isthereanydifferencebetween
divedanddove?Canonesimilarlysaybothweavedandwove?Whydowe
sayembarrassment,shyness,likeliness,andlikelihood,notembarrassness
orembarrasshood,shyment,shyhood,orlikeliment?Suchquestionsmay
seemanomalous,buttheyarisenaturallyduringchildrenslanguage
development.Answerslieinprinciplesofwordformationrootedinthe
historyofEnglish.
Animportantpartofacquiringavocabularysuitableforacademic
contextsislearninghowtoparsenewlyencounteredwordsintotheir
componentparts,ratherthansimplytreatingcomplexwordsaslong
words.Inmanycases,thecontextinwhichawordisusedandthe
recognitionoffamiliarmorphemesassistininterpretingandremembering
words.Thereareprobablythousandsofwordsthatmostpeoplelearnin
contextwithouthelpforexample,disinherit,preestablished,and
decaffeinated.Thekeyhereisthatthereareregularpatternsforhowword
parts(morphemes)canbecombinedintolongerwords.
Teachersshouldbeawareoftheprinciplesofwordformationin
Englishsincesuchknowledgecanaidtheirstudentsinvocabulary
acquisition.Theyshouldbeaware,forexample,ofsuchpatternsastheD/S
alternationinpairsofrelatedwordslikeevadeandevasive,concludeand
conclusive:Whentheyknowthisprinciple,studentscanlearntwonew
wordsatonce.Teachersshouldbeawareofcertainaccentplacement
regularitiesinvolvingthesuffixeswrittenyandic,sothattheycanhelp
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studentslearngroupsofwordstogether:forexample,SYNonym,
syNONymy,synoNYMic;PHOtograph,phoTOGraphy,photoGRAPHic;
ANalog,aNALogy,anaLOGic,andsoon.Amasteryoftheconnections
betweenthepatternsofwordformationandtherhythmsofEnglishspeech
shouldequipteacherstopointoutsuchpatternsinacademiclanguageand
enhancestudentsvocabularygrowth.
Spanishspeakingchildrencanbetaughttousecorrelated
morphologicalstructuresinSpanishandEnglishtounderstandsophisticated
EnglishlexicalitemsandtoexpandtheirEnglishvocabularies.Considerthe
advantagesforSpanishspeakerswhodiscoverthataSpanishnounthatends
inidadalmostalwayshasanEnglishcognatethatendsinity(natividad

andnativity,pomposidadandpomposity,curiosidadandcuriosity)orthat
nounsendinginidumbrerelatetonounsendinginitude(certidumbreand
certitude,servidumbreandservitude).IftheyalreadyknowtheSpanish
words,theparalleltoEnglishcanbepointedout;iftheydonotknowthe
wordineitherlanguage,theparallelSpanishandEnglishwordscanbe
taughttogether.
StudentswhocometoEnglishasnativespeakersofotherIndo
Europeanlanguagesmayfindithelpfultobeawareoftheinternational
vocabularyofscienceandtechnology(e.g.,fotosntesis,photosynthesis;
computador,computer).Thiscouldinvolvelearningbasiccorrespondences;
thenotionofcognateandhowtodistinguishcognatesfromfalsecognates
andloanwords;enoughaboutthehistoryofEnglishtobeabletojudge
whetheranEnglishwordislikelytohaveacognateinSpanish,inHindi,or
inGerman;andcrosslinguisticcomparisons.Inordertoteachthese
matters,teachersmustunderstandthemdeeplyandknowhowtosupport
theirstudentsexplorationswhentheteacherdoesnotknowtheother
languageinvolved.
3.Howisthelexiconacquiredandstructured?Almostevery
classroomteacherrecognizestheneedtoteachvocabulary(thelexicon),
andmostteachersdoso.Usually,technicalorunusualwordsusedintexts
aretargetedforinstruction.Definitionsforeachonearesolicitedfromthe
studentsoraresuppliedbytheteacherbeforethetextisreadininteractions
alongtheselines:
Teacher:Digestion:Whoknowswhatdigestionmeans?
Student:Iknow,Iknow.Whenyoueat.
Teacher:Thatsright!Whenweeat,wedigestourfood.Thatsdigestion!
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Often,thedefinitionsgivenarerathersuperficialandsometimeseven
misleading,asinthisexample.Thedefinitionofferedherewouldwork
betterforingestionthanfordigestion.Presumablythetextitselfandthe
ensuingclassdiscussionwouldclarifythemeaningofdigestion,butthe
initialinstructionaleffortprobablyaddedlittletothechildrens
understanding.Ittakesmanyencounterswithawordinmeaningfulcontexts
forstudentstoacquireit.
Whatdoesitmeantoacquireaword?Whatdoweknowwhenwe
knowaword?Knowingawordinvolvesknowingsomethingofitscore
meaning.Inthecaseofdigestion,thecoremeaningistheprocessbywhich
thefoodoneeatsisconvertedintosimplerformsthatthebodycanusefor
energy.Butfewwordsareunidimensionalinmeaningoruse,soknowinga

wordgoeswellbeyondknowingadefinitionofit.Knowingawordrequires
alsoanunderstandingofhowitrelatestosimilarforms(e.g.,digestion,
digest,ingest,digestive,indigestion),howitcanbeusedgrammatically
(i.e.,itswordclassandthegrammaticalconstructionsitcanbeusedin),and
howitrelatestootherwordsandconcepts(e.g.,food,nutrient,stomach,
digestivejuices,esophagus,intestines,digestingfacts,ReadersDigest).
Vocabularyinstructioncouldbemoreeffectiveifteachersunderstoodhow
wordsarelearnedinnoninstructionalcontexts,throughconversational
interactions,andthroughencounterswithwrittenlanguage.Knowing
individualwordsmoredeeplyisasimportantasknowingmorewords.
ForchildrengrowingupinEnglishspeakingfamilies,rapidEnglish
vocabularyacquisitionistherule:AccordingtoGeorgeMiller(1976;1987),
betweenages1and17childrenadd13wordsperdaytotheirgrowing
vocabulary,addinguptoaround80,000wordsbythetimetheyare17,and
verylittleofthisisachievedwiththehelpofteachersordictionaries.
Vocabularyacquisitionhappensmosteasilyincontextandrelatedtotopics
thatchildrencareabout.Theteachersresponsibilityliesmainlyinsetting
upexposuretolanguageinavividwayandencouragingreadingofmaterial
thatchildrencareabout.
Forsecondlanguagelearners,itisperhapsmostvaluabletostage
exposuretonewvocabularyitemsinrelatedgroups,sincemanywordsare
moremeaningfulwhentheyareunderstoodinconnectionwithotherwords
relatedtothesamegeneraltopic(foranaccessiblediscussionofhowthe
mentallexiconisthoughttobeorganized,seeAitchison,1994;fora
discussionofhowbilingualsandmonolingualsdifferintheirtreatmentof
words,seeMerriman&Kutlesic,1993).Thustalkaboutmothersand
fathersshouldincludetalkaboutbrothersandsisters,grandfathersand
grandmothers;talkaboutbuyingshouldincludetalkaboutselling,paying,
money,andgettingchange.Someunderstandingofhowtranslationscan
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differfromoneanotherinsubtleaspectsofmeaningandusecanaidin
supportingthelexicalacquisitionofthesecondlanguagelearner.
4.ArevernaculardialectsdifferentfrombadEnglishandifso,
how?Whethertheyarepractitionersorresearchers,educatorswhoworkor
studyteachingandlearninginschoolsmusthaveasolidgroundingin
sociolinguisticsandinlanguagebehavioracrosscultures,giventhe
diversityinsocialandculturalbackgroundsofthestudentstheyserve.Like
otherlanguages,Englishhasdialectsassociatedwithgeographicalregions
andsocialclasses,anddistinguishedbycontrastsintheirsoundsystem,

grammar,andlexicon.Standarddialectsareconsideredmoreprestigious
thanvernaculardialects,butthisevaluationisamatterofsocialconvention
alone.Vernaculardialectsareasregularasstandarddialectsandasuseful.
Thesefactsaboutnormallanguagevariationarenotwidelyknown,as
demonstratedbythemisunderstandingsaboutlanguage,languagebehavior,
andlanguagelearningbehindthenationalresponsetotheOakland,
California,SchoolBoardsEbonicsproposal.TheSchoolBoardsproposal
amountedtoadeclarationthatthelanguagespokeninthehomesofmanyof
itsAfricanAmericanstudentsshouldberegardedasalanguageinitsown
right,andshouldnotbedenigratedbyteachersandadministratorsasslang,
streettalk,orbadEnglish.Itfurtherdeclareditssupportoftheschool
districtseffortstoseekfundsfortheStandardEnglishProficiencyProgram,
whichuseschildrenshomelanguagetoteachschoolEnglish.Thisideawas
certainlynotradical,buttheEbonicsstorycontinuedtobenewsfornearly
twomonths.Itwasthefocusoftalkshowsonradioandtelevision.Itwas
featuredinfrontpagenewspaperstoriesfornearlyamonth,andeven
longerineditorialpages,politicalcartoons,andnewsmagazines.TheU.S.
Senateheldspecialhearings.TheOaklandSchoolBoardsproposalwas
denounced,rippedapart,andridiculed.Whywasitcontroversial?AsLisa
Delpit(1997)putit,whenasked,WhatdoyouthinkaboutEbonics?Are
youforitoragainstit?:
Myanswermustbeneither.IcanbeneitherforEbonicsnoragainst
EbonicsanymorethanIcanbefororagainstair.Itexists.Itisthe
languagespokenbymanyofourAfricanAmericanchildren.Itisthe
languagetheyheardastheirmothersnursedthemandchangedtheir
diapersandplayedpeekaboowiththem.Itisthelanguagethrough
whichtheyfirstencounteredlove,nurturanceandjoy.Ontheother
hand,mostteachersofthoseAfricanAmericanchildrenwhohave
beenleastwellservedbyeducationalsystemsbelievethattheir
studentslifechanceswillbefurtherhamperediftheydonotlearn
StandardEnglish.Inthestratifiedsocietyinwhichwelive,theyare
absolutelycorrect.(p.6)
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Schoolsmustprovidechildrenwhospeakvernacularvarietiesof
EnglishthesupporttheyneedtomastertheEnglishrequiredforacademic
developmentandforjobswhentheyhavecompletedschool.Theprocess
doesnotworkwhenthelanguagespokenbythechildrenthelanguageof
theirfamiliesandprimarycommunitiesisdisrespectedinschool.Thisis
astrueforavernacularvarietyofEnglishasitisforanotherlanguagesuch

asNavaho,Yupik,Cantonese,orSpanish.Arecognitionofhowlanguage
figuresinadultsperceptionsofchildrenandhowadultsrelatetochildren
throughlanguageiscrucialtounderstandingwhathappensinschoolsand
howchildrenultimatelyviewschoolsandlearning.
Howdodialectdifferencesaffectlanguagelearningandliteracy
development?Evenifpractitionershaveenoughknowledgetokeep
speakersofvernaculardialectsfrombeingmisdiagnosedandmisplacedin
schoolprograms,theyneedagoodunderstandingaboutlanguagevariability
inordertomakeeducationaldecisionsthatensureeffectiveinstruction.
Knowledgeofthenaturalcourseoflanguageacquisitionandofthecapacity
oftheindividualtomaintainmorethanonedialectiscrucialinmakingsuch
choices.
5.WhatisacademicEnglish?Althoughthereisalotofdiscussion
abouttheneedforallchildrentodeveloptheEnglishlanguageskills
requiredforacademiclearninganddevelopment,fewpeoplecanidentify
exactlywhatthoseskillsconsistofordistinguishthemfromgeneral
StandardEnglishskills.Totheextentthatthismatterisexaminedatall,
observershaveusuallypointedtodifferencesbetweenwrittenandspoken
language.However,academicEnglishentailsabroadrangeoflanguage
proficiency.Wemustaskwhatlinguisticproficienciesarerequiredfor
subjectmatterlearning.Isacademiclanguageproficiencyjustamatterof
vocabularylearning,orisitmore?Cummins(1981b,1984)hasdescribed
academiclanguageascognitivelydemanding,itsmostobviousfeature
beingthatitisrelativelydecontextualized.Itreliesonbroadknowledgeof
words,phraseology,grammar,andpragmaticconventionsforexpression,
understanding,andinterpretation.
Arecentstudyofprototypetestitemsforahighschoolgraduation
examinationforoneofthe26statesthatrequireanexamforgraduation
revealedthatwhateverelsewasbeingassessed,competenceintheregister
thatwerefertoasacademicEnglishisnecessarytopass(WongFillmore,
1999).Thelanguageusedinthistestwasthelanguageordinarilyusedin
textbooksanddiscussionsaboutscience,mathematics,literature,orsocial
studies.Topassthistest,studentshavetobeabletodothefollowing:
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Summarizetexts,usinglinguisticcuestointerpretandinferthe
writersintentionsandmessages;

Analyzetexts,assessingthewritersuseoflanguageforrhetorical

andaestheticpurposesandtoexpressperspectiveandmood;

Extractmeaningfromtextsandrelateittootherideasand
information;

Evaluateevidenceandargumentspresentedintextsandcritiquethe
logicofargumentsmadeinthem;

Recognizeandanalyzetextualconventionsusedinvariousgenres
forspecialeffecttotriggerbackgroundknowledgeorfor
perlocutionaryeffect;

Recognizeungrammaticalandinfelicitoususageinwrittenlanguage
andmakenecessarycorrectionstogrammar,punctuation,and
capitalization;

Usegrammaticaldevicesforcombiningsentencesintoconciseand
moreeffectivenewones,andusevariousdevicestocombine
sentencesintocoherentandcohesivetexts;

Composeandwriteanextended,reasonedtextthatiswelldeveloped
andsupportedwithevidenceanddetails;

Interpretwordproblemsrecognizingthatinsuchtexts,ordinary
wordsmayhavespecializedmeanings(e.g.,thatshareequally
amongthemmeanstodivideawholeintoequalparts);and

Extractpreciseinformationfromawrittentextanddevisean
appropriatestrategyforsolvingtheproblembasedoninformation
providedinthetext.
ProductionandunderstandingofacademicEnglishisanissuefor
EnglishlanguagelearnersandfornativespeakersofEnglishalike.Few
childrenarriveatschoolfullycompetentinthelanguagerequiredfortext
interpretationandforthekindofreasoneddiscourseweassumeisakeyto
becominganeducatedperson.Possibleexceptionsarethechildrenof
academicsandotherhighlyeducatedprofessionalswhousethisregister
evenathome,readalottotheirchildren,andengagethemindiscussions
aboutawiderangeoftopics.Forthemostpart,however,academicEnglish
islearnedatschoolfromteachersandfromtextbooks.Writtentextsarea
reliablesourceofacademicEnglish,buttheyserveasthebasisforlanguage
developmentonlywithinstructionalhelp.Teachersprovidethehelpthat

studentsneedtoacquirethisregisterwhentheygobeyonddiscussionsof
contenttodiscussionsofthelanguageusedintextsforrhetoricaland
aestheticeffect.
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Whatdoteachershavetoknowanddotoprovidesuchinstructional
support?Theyneedtoknowsomethingabouthowlanguagefiguresin
academiclearningandtorecognizethatallstudentsrequireinstructional
supportandattentiontoacquiretheformsandstructuresassociatedwithit.
ThisisespeciallytrueforEnglishlanguagelearners.Oftenexplicitteaching
oflanguagestructuresandusesisthemosteffectivewaytohelplearners.
Teachersmustrecognizethatafocusonlanguagenomatterwhatsubject
theyareteachingiscrucial.Theymustengagechildreninclassroom
discussionsofsubjectmatterthataremoreandmoresophisticatedinform
andcontent.Andtheymustknowenoughaboutlanguagetodiscussitand
tosupportitsdevelopmentintheirstudents.Academiclanguageislearned
throughfrequentexposureandpracticeoveralongperiodoftimefrom
thetimechildrenenterschooltothetimetheyleaveit.
6.WhyhastheacquisitionofEnglishbynonEnglishspeaking
childrennotbeenmoreuniversallysuccessful?Itappearsthatnon
Englishspeakingstudentsmaybehavingaharderandhardertimelearning
English.Althoughitusedtotakethemfromfivetosevenyearstolearn
English(Cummins1981a;Klesmer,1994),recentstudiessuggestitisnow
takingseventotenyears(Ramrez,Pasta,Yuen,Billings,&Ramey,1991).
Therearestudentswhobeginschoolinkindergartenclassifiedbytheir
schooldistrictaslimitedEnglishproficient(LEP)andwholeaveitasLEP
students13yearslater.Evenhighlymotivatedstudentscanhave
considerabledifficultymasteringEnglish.Thepublic,thepress,andmany
educatorshaveblamedbilingualeducationfortheslowrateofEnglish
learningbyLEPstudents,buttheproblemexistsirrespectiveofthetypeof
programthestudentsareenrolledin.
California,withitscurrent1.4millionLEPstudents(CaliforniaState
DepartmentofEducation,2000),hasthehighestconcentrationofsuch
studentsinthenation.OneoutofeveryfourstudentsisclassifiedasLEP.
Theycomprise41%ofthetotalLEPstudentsinthecountry.[7]
Manyof
thesestudentshavehaddifficultylearningEnglishatschool,andasa
consequencehavedifficultymakingacademicprogress.In1998,
CaliforniasvoterspassedProposition227,essentiallybanningbilingual
educationinthatstate.Manypeoplewhovotedforthisinitiativebelieved

thatbilingualeducationmadeitpossibleforLEPstudentstoavoidlearning
English(Fillmore,inpress).However,thereisnoevidencetosupportthat
belief.Severalstudies(e.g.,Collier,1992;Collier&Thomas,1989;
Ramrezetal.,1991)havefoundthatstudentsinwelldesignedbilingual
programsmasterEnglishmorerapidly(5to7years)thandostudentsin
Englishonlyprograms(7to10years).In1997,slightlylessthan30%of
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the1.4millionLEPstudentsinCaliforniawerereceivinganyformofnative
languagesupportintheschools.
ItisoftenassumedthatstudentswhodonotlearnEnglishrapidlyor
wellaremostlySpanishspeakers,whoseeverydayinteractions,evenin
school,arewithotherSpanishspeakers.Thesestudentsdonotthrive
academically,wearetold,becausetheyarenotmotivatedtolearnEnglish
ortodotheworkthatschoolrequires.Acloselookatthesestudents
suggeststhatthisassumptionisnotvalid.ThereareasmanynonSpanish
speakersamongthegroupthatdoesnotlearnEnglishwellasthereare
Spanishspeakers.ManyareAsianswhohavebeeninEnglishonlyclasses
sincethetimetheyenteredschool.Manyofthesestudentsnolongerspeak
theirfirstlanguagesevenathomewithfamilymembers,whomayspeak
littleEnglish(Schmida,inpreparation;Schmida&Chiang,1999).
ThesestudentsarehighlymotivatedtolearnEnglish,andsome,infact,
havedonewellenoughinsecondaryschooltobeadmittedtouniversity.
However,oncetheyarethere,itsoonbecomesclearthattheirEnglish
proficiencydoesnotallowthemtohandlethelanguagedemandsof
universitywork.RobinScarcella,whodirectstheEnglishasaSecond
LanguageProgramattheIrvinecampusoftheUniversityofCalifornia,
reportsthatin1997,60%ofthefreshmenwhotooktheSubjectAExam,a
competencytestofEnglishcomposition,faileditathirdofthembecause
ofmajorproblemswithEnglishlanguageskills.Some90%oftheseESL
studentswereAsianAmericanswhohadattendedAmericanschoolsfor
morethaneightyears,nearlyalwaysinEnglishonlyprograms.Despite
ratherseriousproblemswithEnglish,mostofthemhaddoneextremelywell
inschoolbeforeenteringtheuniversity.Thesewerestudentswhohad
earnedhonorsinhighschool,rankingamongthetop12%oftheirhigh
schoolgraduatingclasses;65%ofthemhadtakenHonorsandAdvanced
PlacementEnglishcourses.Nevertheless,theirEnglishwritingindicated
thattheydidnothaveasuresenseofhowEnglishworks,andconsequently
theyhadseriousproblemsinmeetingthelanguagedemandsofuniversity
levelwork(Scarcella,n.d).Whatwastheproblem?

Itappearsthatthesestudentsandotherslikethemwhoenteredschool
speakinglittleornoEnglishhavenotbeenreceivingtheinstructionthey
requiretomasterEnglishlanguagestructuresandpatternsofuse.Some
managetoperformwellenoughacademicallytogettotheuniversity.Most
donot.Theylanguishacademically,andmanydropoutofschoolorare
pushedoutwellbeforegraduation(Olsen,Jaramillo,McCallPerez,&
White,1999).
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WhetherornotLEPstudentsmanagetosurviveinschool,fewcan
learnEnglishatthelevelsrequiredforsuccessinhighereducationorthe
workplacewithoutinstructionalintervention.Butformanyyears,teachers
whoworkwiththesestudentshavebeenunclearaboutwhatinstructional
roletheyshouldplayinsecondlanguagelearning.Overthepasttwo
decades,someteachereducationprogramsandinserviceworkshopshave
suggestedthatthereisnoneedtoteachEnglishdirectly.Insteadteachers
havebeentoldbyexpertsthattheyshouldspeaktochildreninwaysthat
helpthemunderstand,andteachthemsubjectmatterusingsimplified
English.Theyshouldusepictures,gestures,demonstrationsandtheliketo
allowchildrentoacquireEnglishnaturallyandautomatically,andavoid
indicatingthattheynoticestudentsEnglishlanguageerrorssothatlearners
willnotbeselfconsciousandimmobilizedinusingthelanguage.The
messageisthis:Directinstructioncandonothingtochangethecourseof
languagedevelopment,whichisdeterminedbyinternallanguage
acquisitionmechanismsthatallowlearnerstosortthingsouteventually.
Aretheseapproacheseffective?Examininghowchildrenacquire
Englishinavarietyofsettings,Fillmore(1982;1991)foundthatcertain
conditionsmustbemetifchildrenaretobesuccessful.Theymustinteract
directlyandfrequentlywithpeoplewhoknowthelanguagewellenoughto
revealhowitworksandhowitcanbeused.Duringinteractionswith
Englishlearners,expertspeakersnotonlyprovideaccesstothelanguageat
anappropriatelevel;theyalsoprovideamplecluesastowhattheunitsin
thelanguageareandhowtheycombinetocommunicateideas,information,
andintentions.Learnersreceivecorrectivefeedbackastheynegotiateand
clarifycommunicativeintentions(Long,1985;Pica,1996).Theacquisition
processcangoawrywhentheconditionsforlanguagelearningarenotmet,
especiallywhenlearnersgreatlyoutnumberpeoplewhoknowthelanguage
wellenoughtosupportacquisition,asinschoolsandclassroomswithhigh
populationsofEnglishlanguagelearners.
Whenthereisnodirectinstructioninsuchsituations,childrencan

eithermakelittleprogresslearningEnglish,ortheycanlearnitfromone
another(Fillmore,1992).TheoutcomeisLearnereseaninterlanguage
pidgin(Schmida,1996)thatcandeviateconsiderablyfromStandard
English.Studentswhospeakthisvariety,sometimescalledESLLifers,
havesettledintoavarietyofEnglishthatisfairlystableandthatmanyof
themspeakfluentlyandwithconfidence.Theyarenolongerlanguage
learners,becausetheyarenolongerworkingoutthedetailsofEnglish.The
followingtext,producedinanexchangebetweenSchmidaandastudentshe
callsTiSang,exemplifiesLearnerese.TiSanghadsaidthatshedoesnot
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finditeasytocommunicatewithherparentsbecauseshecanhardlyspeak
KhmerandtheydonotspeakEnglish.Askedabouthercousinswhohad
immigratednotlongbeforefromCambodia,TiSangresponded,
Hmm...theythey,like,speakCambodianmorebecausetheymore
comfortableinit.TheydontwanttotalkEnglishsometimebecause
whentheygotoschooltheydont,like,reallytalking,right?Butwhen
athometheychattertalk.Causetheykindofshy,youknow,like,
whentheteachercallonthemandtheydontknowtheanswer,
sometimetheyknowtheanswerbuttheyshytoanswer.Ifyouask
them,askthemsoquietly,theyanswer.

Atage12,TiSanghadbeeninEnglishonlyclassesforeightyears,
fromthetimesheenteredschool.
Educatorsmustknowenoughaboutlanguagelearningandlanguage
itselftoevaluatetheappropriatenessofvariousmethods,materials,and
approachesforhelpingstudentsmakeprogressinlearningEnglish.

WrittenLanguage
Writtenlanguageisnotmerelyorallanguagewrittendown.Teachers
needtoknowhowwrittenlanguagecontrastswithspeechsothattheycan
helptheirstudentsacquireliteracy.Herewediscussquestionsaboutwritten
languagethatteachersshouldbeabletoanswer.
7.WhyisEnglishspellingsocomplicated?Sincethefirstsoundin
sureandsugarisdifferentfromthefirstsoundinsunorsoup,whyarent
thesewordsspelleddifferently?Whydontwespellthe/s/soundin
electricitywithanS?Whyaretheresomanypeculiarspellingsamong
highlyfrequentwordslikehave,said,mightandcould?HowcanOOspell
threedifferentvowelsounds,asinthevampiresfavoritelinethat
mosquitoessaywhentheysitdowntodine,Bloodisgoodfood!?
TheseandotherpeculiaritiesofEnglishspellingreflecttwofactsabout
Englishorthography:


UnlikeFrench,Spanish,Dutch,andmanyotherlanguages,English
hasneverhadalanguageacademychargedwithregularreviewand
reformofspellingtoeliminateinconsistenciesandreflectlanguage
change;

Englishgenerallyretainsthespellingofmorphologicalunits,even
whentherulesofpronunciationmeanthatphonemeswithinthese
morphologicalunitsvary(e.g.,electric,electricity,electrician)
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Thesetwoforceshaveledtowhatiscalledadeeporthographyfor
Englishanorthographyinwhichthematchofsoundandspellingis
complexanddependentonmanyfactors.ThisisnottosaythatEnglish
spellingisillogical,irrational,orimpossibletoteach.However,some
insightintotheforcesthathavegeneratedEnglishspellingpatternscanhelp
teachersteachmoreeffectivelyandunderstandchildrenserrors.
Itishelpfultoconsiderthewidearrayofwritingsystemsthatexistin
theworldslanguages(seeDaniels&Bright,1996).Somelanguages,such
asChinese,representmorphemesorsemanticallymeaningfulunitswith
theirgraphemicsymbols.Others,suchastheJapanesekatakanasystem,
representsyllablesinstead.Bothofthesesystems(morphemicandsyllabic)
havetheadvantageofbeingrathereasyforyoungchildren,since
morphemesandsyllablesarepsychologicallymoreaccessibleunitsthan
phonemes,whicharesimplysoundsandoftenaredifficulttosegment.In
alphabeticwritingsystems,letterstypicallyrepresentphonemes.
Representingsoundsalphabeticallyisfairlystraightforwardinlanguages
thathaveexperiencedspellingreform,suchasSpanish,andthosethathave
adoptedwritingratherrecently,suchasHmong.English,though,like
DanishandGermantosomeextent,oftenignoresphonemeidentityto
preservethespellingidentityofmorphemes.Forexample,inEnglishthe
spellingSisusedforpluralmorphemeswhethertheyarepronounced/s/or
/z/eventhoughinothercontexts,suchasatthebeginningofwords,the
/s/and/z/soundsarespelleddistinctively.Comparethespellingand
pronunciationofdogsandcatstothatofzooandSue.Similarly,theroot
formelectricisretainedeveninformswherethefinalCrepresentsquitea
differentsoundfromthe/k/inelectric,includingthe/s/ofelectricityand
the//ofelectrician.
Thefactthatthespellingelectricisretainedinallrelatedwordforms
actuallymakesreadingandinferringwordmeaningseasier.Similarly,there

isanadvantagetowritingTinbothcompleteandcompletion,orinboth
activityandaction,eventhoughthesoundsthatitstandsforvary.The
spellingmakesiteasiertoseethatthetwowordsaremorphologically
related.Forthesamereason,itisprobablygoodthatweusethesameletter
forthethreedifferentvowelsoundsbetweenPandTinthewordscompete,
competitiveandcompetition.
OtheraspectsofEnglishspellingarelesshelpful.Forexample,GHin
wordslikenight,through,andthoughtisleftoverfromasoundthathas
longsincedisappearedfromEnglish.Suchspellingssignaletymological
relationshipswithwordsinotherGermaniclanguages.Englishalsotendsto
retainspellingsthatindicatethesourceofborrowedwords,e.g.,PHfor/f/
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27
andYfor/ai/inGreekoriginwords(phone,hypothesis).Suchpatterns
increasetheinformationavailabletothereader,buttheydoexacerbatethe
problemsofdecodingandofspelling.
SomeunderstandingofsuchcomplexitiesinEnglishorthographycan
helpteacherstakesensibleapproachestoteachingthealphabeticprinciple
inEnglish.TeachersshouldknowaboutthesoundsystemofEnglishand
thehistoryoflanguagecontactanddevelopmentthathasaffectedour
writingsystem,becausethesefactorscanmakesimplisticphonics
approachesinadvisableinteachingEnglishreading.
ErrorsinspellingEnglishcanresultfromwritersinclinationtowrite
whattheyhear.Secondlanguagespeakersspellingerrorscanreflect
inadequateexposuretowrittenEnglishforms,lackofadequateinstruction
inthenatureoftheEnglishorthographicsystem,ortransferofgeneral
spellingstrategiesfromanotherlanguage.Somelanguageswithalphabetic
systems,suchasArabicorTigrinya,arebasicallysyllabicintheirwritten
representation:Theyfocusonspellingtheconsonantsinsyllables,
designatingthevowelssketchilyoromittingthementirely.Somelanguages,
suchasSpanish,withspellingsystemsthatarequitephonemic,adjust
spellingstoreflectpronunciationevenincloselyrelatedwords(compare,
forexample,therelatedformssacoandsaqu).Otherlanguagesrepresent
historicalfactsintheirspelling,retaininginformationaboutthesource
languageofborrowedlexicalitems.Japaneseisoneofthese.Knowinghow
theorthographiesofdifferentlanguagesareorganizedcanhelpteachers
figureoutwhyEnglishspellingissocomplex,preciselywhatishardabout
Englishspellingforlearners,andwhystudentsmakecertaintypesoferrors.
Understandingthattherecanbesubstantialdifferencesinhowsymbolsare
usedtorepresentsoundsindifferentlanguageswillhelpteachersbemore

effectiveinworkingwithstudentswhohavehadsomepriorliteracy
instructionintheirnativelanguagesstudentswhohavelearnedtoreadin
Spanish,Vietnamese,French,etc.,beforeenteringanEnglishreading
program.Therelationshipbetweensoundsandsymbolscanberelatively
simpleandstraightforwardinonelanguageandmuchmorecomplexin
another.
Knowledgeaboutlanguageiscrucialinhelpingteachersdoabetterjob
ofteachinginitialreadingaswell(Snow,Burns,&Griffin,1998).Effective
readinginstructionrequiresintegratingattentiontothesystemofphoneme
graphememappingswithattentiontomeaning.Childrenmayencounter
difficultiesbecausetheydonotunderstandthebasicprincipleofalphabetic
writingthatlettersrepresentsoundsorbecausetheycannotsegmentthe
soundsreliably,orbecausetheydontknowthewordstheyareexpectedto
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28
bereading.Secondlanguagelearnersareparticularlylikelytofind
difficultiesinproducing,remembering,anddistinguishingthetarget
phonemesandtolacktheknowledgeofhowwordsarepronouncedthat
wouldhelpthemindecoding(Ruddell&Unrau,1997).
Anadditionalproblemariseswhenteacherswhodonotunderstandthe
complexitiesofEnglishorthographygivetutorsorteacheraidesthe
responsibilityforteachingreadingtochildrenwhoneedthemosthelp(i.e.,
thoseinthelowestreadinggroups).Theseindividualsarefarlessqualified
toteachreadingthanareteachers.Evenmoreproblematic,teachersmay
assignLEPchildrentopeertutorsforhelpwithreadingonthegroundsthat
childrencancommunicatemoreeffectivelywithotherchildrenthanadults
can.Ittakesasolidunderstandingoflanguagetoteachreadingeffectively,
especiallytochildrenwhoarehavingthegreatestdifficultygraspingthe
abstractandcomplexrelationshipsbetweensoundandprint,andtheideas
theyrepresent.TeacherscannotmakethelearningofEnglishorthography
effortless,buttheyshouldbeclearlyawareofwhereandwhythe
difficultiesexist.
8.Whydostudentshavetroublewithstructuringnarrativeand
expositorywriting?Allstudentsneedtolearntherhetoricalstructures
associatedwithstorytellingandthevariouskindsofexpositorywritingin
English.However,somestudentsbringtothistaskculturallybasedtext
structuresthatcontrastwiththoseexpectedatschools.Theemphasisin
mainstreamEnglishstoriesisongettingtheorderofeventscorrectand
clear.Thisemphasiscanseemsoobviouslyrighttoanuninformed
monolingualspeakerofEnglishthatthenarrativeoftheLatinochild,which

emphasizespersonalrelationshipsmorethanplot,oroftheJapanesechild,
whomayprovideverytersestoriesratherthanrecountingalloftheevents,
canbedismissedasincomprehensible(McCabe,1995).Differentcultures
focusondifferentaspectsofanepisode.Understandingachildsstory
requiresknowingwhatinformationthechildconsidersmostimportant;such
knowledgecanhelpteachersguidestudentsinacquiringthestorystructure
valuedatschool.
Similarlywithexpositorywriting,argumentstructuresvary
considerablyacrosscultures.Thereisnobestwaytomakeapoint:
Differentwaysmakesenseindifferentcultures.Thetopicsentences,
paragraphs,andcompareandcontrastessaysthatarestaplesofEnglish
prosemaybemoredifficulttolearnforstudentswhoselanguageexperience
includesotherstructures.Understandingtheabsenceofsomeofthese
conceptsinliteracytraditionsassociatedwithotherlanguages,orthe
extremelydifferingconceptionsofhowanyofthemshouldbestructured,
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29
canpreventteachersfrommistakenlyattributinglanguageorcognitive
disorderstostudentswhohavetransferredanativelanguagerhetoricalstyle
toEnglish.
9.Howshouldonejudgethequalityandcorrectnessofapieceof
writing?Educatorsmusthaveasolidenoughknowledgeofgrammarto
supportchildrenswritingdevelopment.Englishgrammarusedtobetaught
tostudentsbeginninginaboutthe5thgradeandcontinuingthrough8
th

grade(inwhatwasthencalledgrammarschool).Suchinstructionwas
largelydiscontinuedinthe1960s(exceptinCatholicschools).Hence,we
havehadthreegenerationsofteacherswhoasstudentshadlittleexposureto
thestudyofgrammar.Thisdoesnotnecessarilymeanthattodaysteachers
knownothingaboutgrammar,butfewareabletoteachstudents
informationaboutlanguagestructurethattheycoulddrawonintheir
writing.Norcanteachersmakeuseofthisinformationtopinpointthe
problemsmanystudentshaveinwritingorininterpretingtext.Together
withlexicalknowledge,grammaticalunderstandingisacrucialfactorin
understandingtext.Everyteacheroughttoknowenoughaboutthestructure
ofEnglishandthewaysthatwordscancombineinsentencestobeableto
helpstudentsacquiresuchknowledge.
Partlybecauseteachersfeelinsecureabouttheirownknowledgeof
grammar,andpartlybecauseteachersofwritingaresometimesreluctantto
correctstudentswriting,studentsmaynotgetthekindofinformative

feedbacktheymusthaveinordertobecomemoreeffectivewriters.The
problemisparticularlyacuteforlearnersofEnglishasasecondlanguage.
Wehavediscussedabovetheproblemsencounteredbymanystudents
learningEnglishattheIrvinecampusoftheUniversityofCalifornia.Some
ofthesestudentsreportedthattheyhadnotpreviouslyreceivedanyofthe
explicithelpwithEnglishorwritingtheyweregettingintheuniversity.
Fewhadanyideathattheycouldnotwriteingrammaticallyorstylistically
appropriateEnglish.Itwasshockingforthosewhohadbeenhonorstudents
tofindthemselvesinremedialEnglishcourses,learningsomeofthe
fundamentalsofEnglishgrammarandcomposition.
ThisstateofaffairsisnotconfinedtoUCIrvineortostudentslearning
English.Acrossthe22campusesoftheCaliforniaStateUniversitySystem,
allenteringfreshmentakeaplacementtestinEnglishandmath.Thefailure
rateontheEnglishPlacementTestacrossthecampusesin1998was47%;at
onecampus,itwas80%(CaliforniaStateUniversity,2000).Studentswho
failthetestarerequiredtotakeandpassremedialEnglishcoursesthatfocus
onhelpingthemacquirethelanguageandliteracyskillsrequiredfor
universitylevelwork.
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30
ObservationsinhighschoolEnglishclassesverifythatmanystudents
donotreceivethecritiqueandhelptheyneedtobecomeskillfulwriters.
Thefollowingessaywaswrittenbyahighschoolfreshmanforanhonors
Englishclass.Theassignmentwastowriteanessayaboutthemetaphoric
languageusedinWilliamBlakespoem,PoisonTree.Thestudentauthor,
ahardworkingimmigrant,wasnotanativespeakerofEnglish.
MymetaphorforApoisontreeiswrathisliketheseedwashiding
intoanapple,nobodycanseeit.
Wrathmeansveryangry,veryangrytosomebody.Itmayhappenon
youfriendoryourival.Butyoucantseethatjustfromtheoutlooking
becauseitwashidinginyourheartandjustyouknowthat.soIuse
theseedwashidingintoanapple,nobodycanseeit.
Firstofall,Imadethiscomparisonbecauseitisthegoodwaytoshow
andmakepeopletounderstandthewordofwrath.Besides,thenI
canspendthismetaphortoexpressmyinternalworld.Inmyheart
therehasmanywraths.Somethingisabouttheteacher;somethingis
aboutmyrelative;andsomethingisaboutlove.ButIalmostforgetit,
expectonethingwashappenedinXYZHighSchool.

ThisessaywasreturnedtothestudentwithGreatwork!writtenat
thetop,andjustoneothermarkindicatingthatitwaslessthanperfect:The
wordsointhesentencebeginningsoIusewascircled,indicatingthatit

shouldhavebeencapitalized.Doesthisstudenthaveanyreasontothink
thatheisnotoncourseanddoingwell?Toprovidethekindoffeedback
thatstudentsneedforpolishingtheirwriting,teachersneedtounderstand
Englishstructure,discussstructuralfeaturesofwrittenlanguagewiththeir
students,andexplicitlyteachthemhowtowriteeffectively.
10.Whatmakesasentenceoratexteasyordifficultto
understand?Manyeducatorsassociatesimple,shortsentenceswitheasein
understandingandinterpretation.Forthatreason,textsthatarepreparedand
selectedforEnglishlanguagelearnersandotherstudentswhohavetrouble
readingareoftencomposedofshort,choppysentences.Theresultis
unnatural,incoherenttextconveyinglesssubstancethanregulartexts.One
teacherdescribedthematerialsbeingusedwithfourthgradeESLstudents
asfirstgradematerials,verybasicitisntseeSpotrun,butitsclose
(Gebhard,2000).Dogreatlysimplifiedmaterialshelporhurt
comprehension?Examinationoftextsthathadbeenmodifiedaccordingto
thereadabilityformulasusedbytextbookpublishersfoundthatsuchtexts
areoftenmoredifficulttointerpret(Davison&Kantor,1982).Thesetexts
requirethereadertoinfermeaningrelationsbetweensentencesbecause,to
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31
makesentencesshort,wordsandgrammaticalstructuresthatshow
rhetoricalornarrativeconnectionsbetweenideasareofteneliminated.
Thefollowingtextexemplifiesthemodificationsfoundinsimplified
textbooksforlowachievingandESLstudents:
TheTeaActof1773
InMay1773Parliamentpassedalaw.ItwascalledtheTeaAct.King
GeorgewantedtohelptheBritishEastIndiaCompany.TheEastIndia
Companyhad17millionpounds(7.65millionkilograms)ofunsold
tea.ItwasstoredinEnglishwarehouses.
TheTeaActsaidtheEastIndiaCompanycouldselltheteato
Americancolonists.Theteawastaxedtwotimes.Itwastaxedin
England.Thenitwastaxedagaininthecolonies.
TheEastIndiaCompanysent1,700chestsofteatothecolonies.The
colonistswerenotpleased.Theydidnotlikethetax.Theydidnot
wanttobuythetea.Manypeoplethoughtthekingwantedtocrushthe
colonists.
TheBostonTeaParty
TheshipsfilledwithteasailedintoBostonHarboronNovember27.
Thecolonistswereangry.Theywouldnotlettheteabebrought
ashore.Ithadtostayontheships.OnDecember16,some
townspeopledisguisedthemselvesasMohawks.Atnight,theyboarded

threeships.Theydumpedtheteachestsintotheharbor.Theteawas
worth15,000.ThepeoplecalledthistheBostonTeaParty.

Textsimplificationisachievedbyrestrictingthenumberofwordsused.
Thistextcontainsjust195words,distributedamong25sentences,including
theheadings.Theaveragenumberofwordspersentenceforthistextis7.8
words.Whentextsarepreparedwithtightconstraintsonlength,that
becomesagreaterconcernthananyothercriteriathatmightguidethe
preparationofsuchatextsuchasinformativeness,relevance,coherence,
naturalness,andgrace.Theendresultisthatsuchtextsarenotonly
uninspiringandinsultingtothereader,butoftenlessreadablethanthe
normaltextsforthatgradelevel.
Becausesimplifiedtextsareoftenunnatural,theycannotserveas
exemplarsofwrittenacademicEnglish.Wellwrittentextswithgradelevel
appropriatelanguagecangivestudentsaccesstotheregisterofEnglishthat
isusedinacademicwriting.Withteachershelp,studentscanusethesetexts
tolearnthevocabulary,grammaticalstructures,phraseology,andrhetorical
devicesthatareassociatedwiththatregister.Learningtounderstandand
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32
produceacademicEnglishisagoalnotonlyforLEPstudentsbutfornative
speakersofEnglishtoo.Butteachersmustcallstudentsattentiontohow
languageisusedintextinordertosupporttheirlanguagedevelopmentin
thisdomain.
Teachersandschooladministratorsplayanontrivialrolein
determininghowtextbooksarewritten.Becausetextbookpublisherscan
stayinbusinessonlyifstatesandschooldistrictsadopttheirmaterials,they
tendtobeattunedtowhateducatorswant.Intheprocessofdesigninga
seriesoranindividualtextbook,publishersproduceprototypematerialsthat
theymarkettestonschooladministratorswhomtheyhopewillpurchasethe
texts,andonteacherswhomtheyhopewillselectthem.Educatorsneedto
developasuresenseaboutwhatisappropriateforstudentsatdifferent
gradelevelssothattheycanmakewisedecisionsinselectingandusingtext
materials.Todothat,theyneedtoknowenoughaboutlanguagetoassess
theappropriatenessofthelanguageusedthere,particularlyforstudentswho
arelearningEnglishorwhoarehavingdifficultylearningtoread.

CoursesTeachersNeedtoTake
Althoughwearenotproposinganyspecificcurriculumforteacher
education,weofferherealistingofpossiblecoursesorcoursecomponents
thattogethercoverfundamentalissuesintheeducationofEnglishlanguage

learnersandallstudentsforwhomliteracyandlanguagelearninginschool
contextsmightbeproblematic.

LanguageandLinguistics

Thiscoursewouldprovideanintroductiontolinguisticsmotivatedby
sucheducationalconsiderationsaswehavementionedlanguagestructure,
languageinliteracydevelopment,languageuseineducationalsettings,the
historyofEnglish,andthebasicsoflinguisticanalysis.Weenvisiona
LanguageandLinguisticscourseforeducatorsasdifferentinfocusfroman
introductorycourseforstudentsoflinguistics.Eachareaoflinguisticstudy
wouldbeintroducedbyeducationalsituationsinwhichlanguageisanissue.
Forexample,thestudyofphonologycouldbeginwithanexaminationof
interferenceproblemsthatEnglishlanguagelearnersmighthavewiththe
Englishsoundsystem.Itmightincludeinvestigationoftopicssuchaswhy
speakersofCantoneseorSpanishhaveproblemswithconsonantclustersat
theendsofEnglishwordslikefivesixths,whichcontainsfourconsonantsin
arow/sIks s/.
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33

LanguageandCulturalDiversity
Thiscoursewouldfocusonculturalcontrastsinlanguageuse,
particularlyinteachingandlearning.Itwouldaddresssuchquestionsas
whatchildrenlearnwhentheyacquirealanguageandculture,whysome
groupsofchildrenappearreluctanttoparticipateinclassroomdiscussions,
andhowdifferencesindiscoursestylescanbeaccommodatedinthe
classroom.Thiscoursewouldalsoexaminedifferenttypesof
communicationsystems,includingthelanguageofdeafcommunities.

SociolinguisticsforEducatorsin
aLinguisticallyDiverseSociety
Asociolinguisticcourseforeducatorswouldfocusonlanguage
policiesandpoliticsthataffectschools,includinglanguageattitudesin
intergrouprelationsthataffectstudentsandlanguagevalues.Itwouldalso
addresslanguagecontact;languageshiftandlossorisolation;andtherole
andthehistoryofdialectsandbilingualisminschoolsandsociety.

LanguageDevelopment
Thiscoursewouldintroduceissuesinlanguagedevelopment,witha
specialfocusonacademiclanguagedevelopmentinschoolagedchildren.It
wouldaddresslanguagedevelopmentinnativespeakersofvernacularand
standardEnglishdialects,aswellasthosewhospeakotherlanguages.The

coursewouldaddresstheroleofliteracyinthedevelopmentoflanguage
skillsandtheacquisitionofthestructuresandvocabularyrequiredfor
literacydevelopment.

SecondLanguageLearningandTeaching

Focusingontheoreticalandpracticalknowledgeabouthowsecond
languageacquisitionproceedsandthefactorsthataffectit,thiscourse
wouldcomparesecondlanguagelearningtofirstlanguagelearningand
examinetheroleoftheprimarylanguageinsecondlanguagelearning.It
wouldaddresssecondlanguageinstructionandsubjectmatterinstruction
inthelanguagethatstudentsareacquiring.Thecoursewouldaddressthe
questionofhowproficientchildrenmustbeinasecondlanguagebefore
theycanlearntoreadandwriteinthatlanguage.
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TheLanguageofAcademicDiscourse

Thiscoursewouldfocusonthelanguageusedinteachingand
learningschoolsubjects,especiallythestructureofacademicdiscourse,and
howthisregistercontrastswiththatofinformalcommunication.This
coursewouldshowhowlanguageproductionandlanguageunderstanding
interactwithcontentlearningscience,socialscience,math,andsoon
andhowchildrenslanguagedevelopmentispromotedornotbasedonhow
languageisusedininstructionalactivities.

TextAnalysisandLanguageUnderstanding
inEducationalSettings

Acourselikethiswouldexaminehowlanguagestructuresandstylein
writtentextsaffectcomprehensibility.Itwouldguideteachersindeciding
whataspectsoftexttotargetforinstructionalattention.Specialattentionin
thiscoursewouldbegiventotheneedsofEnglishlanguagelearnersand
vernaculardialectspeakersinprocessingtext.

Conclusion
Wehavesketchedherethereasonsthateducatorsneedtoknowabout
language,thekindsofknowledgeaboutlanguagethattheyneed,andan
inventoryofcoursesorcoursetopicsthatwouldcoverthiscrucialcoreof
knowledge.Thisproposalmaystrikesomereadersasutopian.We
acknowledgethatwehaveformulateditwithoutthinkingaboutthe
structuresandconstraintsoftraditionalteachereducationprograms.
Nonetheless,weareenergizedbythecurrentpoliticalsituationsurrounding
debatesaboutbilingualeducationandtheratherfranticsearchforbetter

methodsofteachingreading.Thesubstanceofthesedebatesgivesstriking
testimonytothehistoricalabsenceofrelevantexpertiseonlanguageamong
thosewhoareinthebestpositiontoimprovepublicknowledge
educationalpractitioners(see,forexample,Pressley,1998;Snow,Burns,&
Griffin,1998).Wemustnowtakestepstoprovidethispreparation.
Itisclearthatmanyofthechallengeswefaceineducationstemfrom
thefactthatoursisadiversesociety.Studentsinourschoolscomefrom
virtuallyeverycorneroftheplanet,andtheybringtoschooldiverse
outlooks,languages,culturalbeliefsandbehaviors,andbackground
experiences.Teachersinourschoolshavenotalwaysknownwhattodo
withthedifferencestheyencounterintheirclassrooms.Asasociety,we
expectteacherstoeducatewhoevershowsupattheschoolhouse,toprovide
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35
theirstudentsthelanguageandliteracyskillstosurviveinschoolandlater
oninjobs,toteachthemalloftheschoolsubjectsthattheywillneedto
knowaboutasadults,andtopreparetheminotherwaysforhigher
educationandforjobs.Whatdoesittakeforteacherstohandlethis
challenge?Wemustbeclearaboutwhatteachershavetounderstandabout
languagelearningandteachinginordertoworkeffectivelywiththeir
students.Wehavearguedthatbasiccourseworkineducationallinguisticsis
essentialthebareminimumforpreparingteachersfortodaysschools.We
mustnowtakestepstoprovidethispreparation.

Glossary
Cognate
Awordthathassimilarformsinrelatedlanguages
Dialect
Alanguagevarietyinwhichsounds,grammar,and
vocabularyidentifyspeakersaccordingtoregionorsocial
class
Digraph
Alettercombinationthatsignalsonesound,e.g.TH
Discourse
Alanguagestructurelongerthanasentence
Etymology
Thehistoryofwords
Grapheme
Thesmallestunitofawrittenlanguage,e.g.T
IndoEuropean

languages
Afamilyofrelatedlanguagesthoughttohaveoriginated
intheCaucasus,includingEnglish
Interlocuter
Participantinadiscourse
Lexicon
Thevocabularyofalanguage
Locative
Atermthatexpresseslocation
Morpheme
Thesmallestmeaningbearinglanguagestructure,e.g.,
dog,ly
Orthography
Conventionsforspelling
Perlocutionary
effect
Intendedeffectsofastretchoflanguage,e.g.,persuasion
Phoneme
Thesmallestmeaningdistinguishingstructureofthe
soundsystem,e.g.forEnglish,[s][],see,she
Phonology
Thesoundsofalanguage
Phraseology
Typicalorganizationofwordsinaparticularlanguage
intophrasesandlongerexpressions
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36

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40

Notes
Theauthorsaregratefultocolleagueswhocontributedcommentsonanearlier
versionofthispaperandsuppliedexamples:CarolynTempleAdger,EveAgee,
KathleenBrown,MariaCarlo,DonnaChristian,CharlesJ.Fillmore,PegGriffin,
MaritaHopmann,JoyKreeftPeyton,NicolasZavala,andtheparticipantsinLily

WongFillmoresfall1998LanguageStudiesforEducatorscourse,especially
NathanKeene,LauraAlamillo,LauraRuthJohnson,MarcoBravo,Maren
Aukerman,andBettyPazmio.
1Thisiswheretheproblemlies.Mostpeoplerecognizethattherecanbe
considerabledifferencesacrossindividualsinability,butnotallculturestreat
themdifferentlyinschool.InmostAsiansocieties,forexample,childrenare
placedinheterogeneousclassroomsandareexpectedtolearnthesamecurricu
lum,irrespectiveofanydifferencesinability.Thosewhoneedmorehelpdealing
withthematerialsgetmorehelpratherthananentirelydifferentcurriculum.
[back]
2Therearecultures(WongFillmoresforone)inwhichchildrenarenot
toldwhattheirmothersnameis,andifachildweresomehowtolearnit,she
wouldneverspeakitoracknowledgeeventhatshehadsuchinformation.[back]
3ThehighpercentageofsuchreferralsforEnglishlanguagelearnersand
vernaculardialectspeakersmaysimplyreflectteachersstrategiesforgetting
thesechildrenextrahelp,oftenfromaspeechlanguagepathologistwhoisrela
tivelywelltrainedinlanguagedevelopmentissues.Unfortunately,labelingand
subjectingchildrentopulloutprogramstoreceivehelpmaybecounterproduc
tive.Ifteachersknewmoreaboutlanguagetheycouldinstituteinstructional
processesintheclassroomtoaddressthesechildrensneeds.[back]
4WearegratefultoMaryEuniceRomeroforthisreference.PopoviDa,a
Puebloleader,commentingontherelationshipbetweentheindividualandthe
community,wrote:EachpersoninIndian[Pueblo]societyisbornintohisplace
inthecommunity,whichbringswithitdutiesandresponsibilitieswhichhemust
performthroughouthislife.Eachmember,oldaswellasyoung,hasanimportant
parttoplayintheorganizationofthetribe....Toworkcloselywiththecommu
nitygivesstrengthandcontinuitytoourcultureandshowsitselfbytheindividual
puttinghimselfintothegroup,andputtingthegoodofthegroupabovehisown
desires(1969).[back]
5RichardRodriguez(1982)offersarevealingaccountofwhathappens
whenparentsareadvisedtoswitchtoalanguagetheydonotspeakeasilyorwell,
forthesakeoftheirchildren.Hedescribeshowthelivelychatteratdinnertime
wastransformedintosilenceandhowthesilencesinhishomegrewastheparents
withdrewfromparticipationinthelivesofthechildrenafterteacherstoldthem
thatthecontinueduseofSpanishinthehomewaspreventingthechildrenfrom
learningEnglish.[back]
Page 41

41
6Inherremarkableautobiography,firstpublishedin1945,JadeSnow
Wong(1989)describeshowteachersfromelementaryschoolthroughcollege
helpedherfindherwayandhervoiceasanAmericanscholar,writer,andartist
withoutforfeitingherChineselanguageandculture.[back]

7NationalstatisticsforLEPstudentsarehardtoobtainandrarelyupto
date(see,forexample,HopstockandBucaro,1993).Stateeducationagencies
reportnumbersofLEPstudents,butthecriteriausedtoidentifythemvaryacross
states,makingcomparisonsdifficult.ThemostrecentnationalanalysisofLEP
studentdatareportedbySEAs(Macias,etal.,1998)reportsatotalenrollmentof
3,378,861LEPstudents,with1,381,393reportedforCalifornia(41%ofthe
nationaltotal).CaliforniasStateDepartmentofEducationreportedatotalof
1,406,166LEPstudentsinCaliforniaoutofatotalnationalLEPstudentenroll
mentof5,727,303(24.6%)forschoolyear199798(CaliforniaDepartmentof
Education,EducationalDemographicsUnit).[back]

Ads by OffersWizardAds by OffersWizard

unlike adults, children are able to keep information from their senses separate and
may therefore perceive the visual world differently, according to new research.
Scientists at UCL (University College London) and Birkbeck, University of London have found that
children younger than 12 do not combine different sensory information to make sense of the world
as adults do. This does not only apply to combining different senses, such as vision and sound,
but also to the different information the brain receives when looking at a scene with one eye
compared to both eyes.
The results, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, imply that
children's experience of the visual world is very different to that of adults.
Dr Marko Nardini, UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, and lead author said, "To make sense of the
world we rely on many different kinds of information. A benefit of combining information across
different senses is that we can determine what is out there more accurately than by using any
single sense."
He added: "The same is true for different kinds of information within a single sense. Within vision
there are several ways to perceive depth. In a normal film, depth is apparent from perspective, for
example in an image of a long corridor. This kind of depth can be seen even with one eye shut. In
a 3D film, and in real life, there is also binocular depth information given by differences between
the two eyes."

The study looked at how children and adults combine perspective and binocular depth
information. Results show that being able to use the two kinds of depth information together does
not happen until very late in childhood -- around the age of 12.
Scientists asked children and adults wearing 3D glasses to compare two slanted surfaces and
judge which is the "flattest," given perspective and binocular information separately, or both
together. It was not until 12 years that children combined perspective and binocular information to
improve the accuracy in their judgements, as adults do. This implies that adults combine different
kinds of visual information into a single unified estimate, whereas children do not.
However, combining sensory information can result in an inability to separate the individual pieces
of information feeding into the overall percept. This is known as "sensory fusion," an effect that
has been documented in adults.
In a second study scientists asked whether children might be able to avoid sensory fusion by
keeping visual information separate. Researchers used special 3D discs in which perspective and
binocular information sometimes disagreed. Because adults tended to take an average of the
perspective and the binocular information, they were poor at determining whether the slant of
some discs was the same or different as a comparison disc. By contrast, 6-year-olds had no
trouble in spotting differences between discs of this kind. This shows that 6-year-olds can "see"
separate kinds of visual information that adults cannot.
Professor Denis Mareschal, from the Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development at Birkbeck,
who co-authored the study explained: "Babies have to learn how different senses relate to each
other and to the outside world. While children are still developing, the brain must determine the
relationships between different kinds of sensory information to know which kinds go together and
how. It may be adaptive for children not to integrate information while they are still learning such
relationships -.those between vision and sound, or between perspective and binocular visual
cues."
A future aim is to use functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to determine the brain
changes that underlie children's abilities to combine visual information in an adult-like way.

The Four Language Systems

There are four language systems that children use to process, understand, and use
language. While each system is distinct, they are all equally important. In fact, the
degree to which these systems function in synergy determines, to some extent, the
childs facility with language-based tasks. These systems are often called cueing
systems, because they cue the reader as to the meaning of text when the reading
process becomes difficult.

The Phonological System

The phonological system is often called the sound system of language. This system is
responsible for recognizing the distinct speech sounds heard in language. For
example, when one hears the word dog, he or she is actually hearing the blending of

three separate sounds: /d/ /aw/ /g/. Because pronunciation of these sounds varies
according to culture and geography, children learn specific pronunciations of such
sounds as voiced by their families and older peers.
The phonological system is important as children learn to read and write. Skill in the
phonetic system allows young readers to decode phonetically regular words. Of
course, English is not a strictly phonetic language. Before children become aware of
these exceptions to phonetic rules, they often rely on invented spelling when writing.
A child who spells the word butterfly as butrfli demonstrates a strictly phonetic
understanding of spelling because each sound in the word is represented by a single
letter. While such spelling should not replace lessons in conventional spelling, it is
useful in that it gives the teacher insight into the childs development and use of the
phonological system.

The Syntactic System

The syntactic system of language relates to the structure of language. This involves
word order, sentence structure, and grammar usage. This system controls the way in
which words are used in sentences. The syntactic system is unique to the language
upon which it is based. For example, in Standard English, adjectives precede vowels.
However, in Spanish, the opposite is true. For this reason, the following sentences are
syntactically correct in each language respectively:
English: Edward gave the princess a red rose.
Spanish: Edward dio a princesa a se levant el rojo
(Edward gave the princess a rose red.)
Because the syntactic system is based upon the use and order of words, instruction
about word parts is processed by this language system. The smallest meaningful unit
of language is called a morpheme, and morphemes can be added to a word to
change its meaning, as in adding un to unlikely.
The syntactic system is important to novice readers who often rely on this system to
predict the words that will come next in a sentence. Often, such readers will use the
context of the sentence to guess an unfamiliar word. Even when he or she guesses
incorrectly, the reader will often come up with a word that makes sense and fits the
same part of speech as the unfamiliar word. For example:
Actual Text: The student will board the school bus.
Reader Guess: The student will ride the school bus.
Because the word ride does not begin with the same phoneme as the word board, the
student clearly did not apply the phonological system of language to guess the word.
Instead, he or she may have used the syntactic system to guess that the word had to
be a verb. It is also likely that he or she used the semantic system in tandem with the
syntactic system.

The Semantic System

The semantic system is sometimes referred to as the meaning system because it
emphasizes the meaning of speech. As children accumulate increasing stores of
vocabulary, their semantic systems increase in utility and flexibility. This is

particularly true as children learn multiple meanings for certain words. The greatest
rate of vocabulary accumulation occurs between the ages of two and five. This is
often called the vocabulary explosion (Berk, 2004). At the beginning of this
explosion, children frequently ask the question, Whats that? Attentive adults
usually answer the question with a simple answer which emphasizes a subject. This
means that most words learned during the vocabulary explosion are nouns. As
children progress to school age, they learn a greater number of words, though not at
the same rate. Even so, the sheer number of words they learn is staggering. Studies
have concluded that by the time children enter school, they possess a vocabulary of
5,000 words. This is the result of the language explosion. During the school years,
children learn an average of 3,000 words each year. This means that during the
elementary school years, children learn between 7 to 10 new words each day (Nagy,
1988). Most of these words come from textbooks and subject specific lessons.
The semantic system is an important aspect of language because it allows an
individual to understand or express nuances of meaning by using specific words. For
example, a child may express degrees of hunger by using the terms hungry,
starving, or famished. In order to support the development of the semantic system
and to assist with an increase in vocabulary, teachers should teach synonyms and
antonyms for the words that a child already knows. Teachers should also engage in
wordplay with children by introducing idioms and clichs.

The Pragmatic System

The pragmatic system deals with the practical use of language. This use is often
directed by the culture of the individual or the context in which he or she is using
language. For example, eleven year-old Max may use slang with his friends, but a
more formal speech pattern with his teacher. Linguists call these different patterns
speech codes. Most people switch between speech codes effortlessly and without
much thought. Young children, however, are less likely to have a variety of speech
codes as they generally do not recognize differences in social contexts.
There is some disagreement among experts in the reading field about the extent to
which children use these systems. While some claim that the phonological system
contains the least useful information, others contend that this system is most
frequently used by novice readers. In fact, some researchers argue that the semantic
and syntactic systems are rarely, if ever, used by good readers.
Learning disabilities associated with reading may manifest in the inability to access
one or more of these systems. For example, dyslexic readers rarely use the
phonological system while reading. Instead, they tend to rely more on their visual
memory for words and the context of the sentence to determine what the word might
be.
While the debate continues, it is important to note that an understanding of these
systems supports focused reading instruction because those same systems are the
basis for the strategies readers use when they struggle to identify unfamiliar words
and maintain comprehension. Look at the examples of these teacher prompts and
their correlation to one of the cueing systems in the table below:
Sound it out
Get your mouth ready to say the first sound.
What would make sense here?

Phonological
System
Semantic System

Does that make sense?

What kind of word belongs here?
Syntactic System
Does this sentence sound right?
When would you say, Hey, man. Sup?
When would you say, Good morning. Glad to see Pragmatic System
you?
- See more at: http://www.elearnportal.com/courses/education/methods-of-teachinglanguage-arts-in-public-schools/methods-of-teaching-language-arts-in-public-schoolsfour-language-systems#sthash.TT4VSD1U.dpuf