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qristine giorgaZe
maia rusia
Qqimiis Sesavali
qimiis Sesavlis mokle kursi gankuTvnilia saxelmZRvanelod zusti da sabunebismetyvelo fakultetis bakalavriatis I kursis studentebisaTvis. masSi warmodgenilia qimiis sawyisebi, romelTa Seswavlis safuZvelze studenti
SeZlebs gaecnos qimiis speckursebs: zogadi qimia, araorganuli qimia, organuli qimia, fizikuri qimia, analizuri qimia. wigni warmoadgens qimiis skolis kursSi Seswavlili
masalis gameorebis da garkveuli gaRrmavebis mcdelobas.
redaqtori
recenzenti
prof. n. l e k i S v i l i
prof. r. k u b l a S v i l i
S i n a a r s i
1.
1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
1.4.
1.5.
1.6.
1.7.
1.8.
1.10.
1.11.
1.12.
2.
2.1.
2.2.
2.3.
2.4.
2.5.
2.6.
2.7.
2.8.
3.
3.1.
3.2.
3.3.
3.4.
3.5.
3.6.
zogadi qimia -------------------------------------------------qimiis sagani -------------------------------------------------qimiis ZiriTadi cnebebi ------------------------------steqiometriis ZiriTadi kanonebi --------------araorganuli naerTebis ZiriTadi klasebi
qimiuri reaqciebi da maTi mimdinareobis
sakvanZo sakiTxebi ---------------------------------------atomis aRnagoba -------------------------------------------periodulobis kanoni da qimiur elementTa perioduli sistema -------------------------------qimiuri bmebi ------------------------------------------------Jangva-aRdgeniTi reaqciebi -------------------------xsnarebi --------------------------------------------------------eleqtrolituri disociaciis Teoria ------reaqciis ionuri da Sekvecili ionuri
gantolebebi -------------------------------------------------qimiuri elementebi da maTi naerTebi --------wyalbadi -------------------------------------------------------qlori -----------------------------------------------------------Jangbadi --------------------------------------------------------gogirdi --------------------------------------------------------azoti ------------------------------------------------------------natriumi -------------------------------------------------------alumini ---------------------------------------------------------kalciumi -------------------------------------------------------organuli naerTebi --------------------------------------organul naerTTa aRnagobis Teoria da
izomerebi ------------------------------------------------------alkanebi --------------------------------------------------------alkenebi --------------------------------------------------------alkinebi --------------------------------------------------------arenebi ----------------------------------------------------------alkanolebi ---------------------------------------------------
5
5
6
11
12
24
32
41
44
52
59
60
62
65
65
68
71
73
77
81
83
85
87
89
91
93
95
97
100
3
101
103
105
I. zogadi qimia
2.
3.
gaxda 1912 wels samxreT polusze ingliseli mogzauris skotis eqspediciis daRupvis mizezi. Txevadi sawvavi, romelic eqspediciam Tan waiRo, kaliT mirCilul
WurWelSi iyo Casxmuli. Zlieri yinvis gavleniT TeTri
kala rux kalad gardaiqmna, WurWeli daiSala da sawvavi daiRvara.
molekulis Sedgenilobas, Cawerils elementis simboloebiT da indeqsebiT, qimiuri formula ewodeba.
qimiuri formulebis saSualebiT Caweril qimiur
reaqcias ki qimiuri toloba. zogjer martivi nivTierebis molekulas elementis simboloTi aRvniSnavT: fosfori aRiniSneba P-simboloTi (ase aRiniSneba TeTri
fosfori P4 da alotropuli polimeruli modifikaciac Pn). zemoaRniSnuli exeba agreTve ionur kristalur naerTebs: ar arsebobs KCl, Na2SO4 _ myar mdgomareobaSi isini erTiani kristalebia, xsnarebSi solvatirebuli ionebi.
ricxvs, romelic gviCvenebs Tu ramdenjer metia mocemuli elementis atomis saSualo masa naxSirbadis
12
C izotopis atomis masis 1/12 nawilze, fardobiTi
atomuri masa (Ar) ewodeba. am erTeuls zogjer daltons uwodeben.
ricxvs, romelic gviCvenebs Tu ramdenjer metia mocemuli nivTierebis molekulis saSualo masa naxSirbadis 12C izotopis atomis masis 1/12 nawilze, fardobiTi molekuluri masa (Mr) ewodeba.
masuri wili : H2SO4,
Mr(H2SO4) = 98 = 21(H) +32(S) + 416(O)
(H) = 2/98; (s)= 32/98; (O)= 64/98
moli SI sistemis
erT-erTi
ZiriTadi
erTeulia.
mocemuli
nivTierebis
imdensave
struqturul
nawi-
V II
VII II
P2O5, Cl2O7
VA =
VB X
;
Y
VB =
VA Y
;
X
25
5
2
aris gamonaklisi SemTxvevebic, mag.:
8
2
Fe3O4 VFe 2 , rac ararealuria.
3
3
sinamdvileSi, Fe3O4 = FeOFe2O3
N 2O 5
VN =
III
Fe
II
Fe
III
Fe
O
O
O
O
IV
II
Ca
C
IV
e. i. zogjer saWiro xdeba grafikuli formulis
dawera, romelic warmoaCens atomTa SeerTebis mimdevrobas molekulaSi da, aqedan gamomdinare, elementebis
valentobas.
struqturuli formulebi
struqturuli formula gadmoscems molekulis realur geometrias (sivrcul aRnagobas).
Fe(CO)5 rkinis pentakarbonili warmoadgens bipiramidas:
O
C
OC
Fe
OC
CO
C
O
cxrili 1
zogierTi qimiuri elementis rigobrivi nomeri,
fardobiTi atomuri masa, valentoba
ele-
Ar
Val
menti
ele-
Ar
Val
menti
Si
14
28
Cl
17
35,5
1,3,5,7
Na
11
23
16
19
39
16
32
2,4,6
Ca
20
40
14
2,3,4,5
Al
13
27
15
31
3,5
Fe
26
56
2,3
12
diametris sferoebia, magram maTi masa mzis masaze metia. am nivTierebis 1 sm3 iwonis 15 miliard tonas.
avogadros kanoni
sxvadasxva airis toli moculobebi erTnair fizikur pirobebSi (temperatura, wneva) molekulaTa Tanabar ricxvs Seicavs. avogadros kanoni samarTliania
mxolod airebisaTvis, radgan airis moculobas gan-
11
nivTiereba
martivi
metalebi
arametalebi
rTuli
oqsidebi
hidroqsidebi
(fuZeebi)
mJavebi
marilebi
RnOm
M(OH)n
HnX
MnXm
oqsidebi
ori elementis (binarul) naerTs, romelTagan erTerTi Jangbadia oqsidi ewodeba.
12
CO2
Na
O O
Na
Ca
P2O5
Al2O3
CaO
O
Al
O
P
O
O
Al
P
O
O
miReba
1) martivi nivTierebis urTierTqmedebiT JangbadTan
C O 2
arametali
CO 2
mJava oqsidi
2Cu O 2 2CuO
fuZe oqsidi
metali
t
CaCO3
CaO + CO2
marili
0
t
Cu2(OH)2CO3
2CuO + CO2 + H2O
fuZe marili
0
t
Cu(OH)2
CuO + H2O
fuZe
0
t
H2SiO3
SiO2 + H2O
mJava
13
fuZe oqsidebi
oqsids, romelic urTierTqmedebs mJavasTan marilis da wylis warmoqmniT, fuZe oqsidi ewodeba. fuZe
oqsidebs mxolod metalebi warmoqmnis.
Tvisebebi:
mJava oqsidebi
oqsids, romelic urTierTqmedebs tutesTan, marilisa da wylis warmoqmniT, mJava oqsidi ewodeba. mJava
oqsidebs ZiriTadad arametalebi warmoqmnis.
Tvisebebi: 1) yvela mJava oqsidi moqmedebs tutesTan
CO2 + 2NaOH Na2CO3 +H2O
SO2 + Ca(OH)2 CaSO3 + H2O
2) mJava oqsidebi moqmedeben fuZe oqsidebTan
P2O5+3H2O 2H3PO4
SO3 + H2O H2SO4
amfoteruli oqsidebi
oqsidebs, romlebic avlenen rogorc fuZe, ise mJava
oqsidebis Tvisebebs, amfoteruli oqsidebi ewodeba. amfoterul oqsidebs zogierTi metali warmoqmnis. amfoteruli oqsidebia: BeO, ZnO, Al2O3, Cr2O3 da sxv.
1) ZnO + 2HCl ZnCl 2 + H2O
0
t
ZnO + 2NaOH
Na2ZnO2 + H2O
2) Al2O3 + 3H2SO4 Al2(SO4)3 + 3H2O
0
t
Al2O3 + 2NaOH
2NaAlO2 + H2O
hidroqsidebi (fuZeebi)
rTul nivTierebas, romelic Sedgeba metalis atomisa da hidroqsilis erTi an ramodenime jgufisagan
fuZe ewodeba.
M(OH)n, n naturaluri ricxvia da tolia metalis
valentobis.
MOH --- NaOH, KOH
M(OH)2 ---- Ca(OH)2, Mg(OH)2
M(OH)3 ---- Al(OH)3, Fe(OH)3
grafikuli formulebi
NaOH, Ca(OH)2, Al(OH)3
Na O H
Ca
O
O
H
H
Al
O
O
O
H
H
H
15
hidroqsidebi iyofa or jgufad: wyalSi xsnadi (tuteebi) da wyalSi uxsnadi (fuZeebi). tuteebia tute da
tutemiwaTa metalebis hidroqsidebi da amoniumis tute
NH4OH, romelic sxva tuteebisgan gansxvavebiT susti
fuZea.
miReba
tuteebis:
1) tute da tutemiwaTa metalebis wyalTan moqmedebiT
2NaOH + H2 + Cl2
2NaCl + 2H2O
eleqtrolizi
fuZeebis:
Tvisebebi:
16
t
Cu(OH)2
CuO + H2O
0
t
Fe(OH)2
FeO + H2O
mJavebi
rTul nivTierebas, romelic Sedgeba metalis atomiT Canacvlebis unaris mqone erTi an ramdenime wyalbadatomisa da mJavuri naSTisagan mJava ewodeba.
Sedgenilobis mixedviT mJavebi iyofa Jangbadian
(HNO3, H2SO4) da uJangbado (HCl, H2S) mJavebad.
grafikuli formulebi
HNO3, H2SO4, H3PO4, H2S
O
H
N
O
H
H
O
S
O
H
H
H
O
O
O
H
P
miReba
1) uJangbado mJavebi miiReba arametalTan wyalbadis
urTierTqmedebiT:
H2 + Cl2 2HCl
H 2 + S H 2S
2) Jangbadiani mJavebi miiReba wyalTan mJava oqsidis
urTierTqmedebiT:
SO2 + H2O H2SO3
P2O5 + 3H2O 2H3PO4
3) rogorc uJangbado, ise Jangbadiani mJavebi miiReba Sesabamis marilze mJavas urTierTqmedebiT:
2NaCl + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2HCl
krist. K konc.
18
konc.
Tvisebebi
1) fuZeebTan moqmedeba (neitralizaciis reaqcia)
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
H2SO4 + Ca(OH)2 CaSO4 + 2H2O
2) wyalbadamde moTavsebuli metalebi ganzavebuli
mJavebidan (garda azotmJavisa) aZeveben wyalbads:
2HCl + Zn ZnCl2 + H2
H2SO4 + Mg MgSO4 + H2
3) fuZe oqsidebTan moqmedeba
2HCl + CaO CaCl2 + H2O
H2SO4 + CuO CuSO4 + H2O
4) mJava reaqciaSi Sedis marilTan Tu miRebul
nivTierebaTagan erTerTi naleqia an warmoiqmneba airi:
CO2
2HCl + CaCO3
CaCl2 + H2CO3
H2O
2HCl + MgSO3 MgCl2 + H2O+SO2
5) mJavas daSla
0
t
H2SiO3
H2O + SiO2
19
Mmarilebi
rTul nivTierebas, romelic Sedgeba metalis atomebisa da mJavuri naSTebisagan marili ewodeba (es
aris saSualo anu sruli marilis ganmarteba). garda
amisa arsebobs: mJava marili (NaHCO3), fuZe marili
Mg(OH)Cl da sxv.
cxrili 2
fTorwyalbadmJava
qlorwyalbadJava
NaF
fToridi
NaCl
qloridi
(marilmJava)
HBr
bromwyalbadmJava
NaBr
bromidi
HI
iodwyalbadmJava
NaI
iodidi
H2S
gogirdwyalbadmJava
Na2S
sulfidi
H2SO3
gogirdovani mJava
Na2SO3
sulfiti
H2SO4
gogirdmJava
Na2SO4
sulfati
HNO2
azotovani mJava
NaNO2
nitriti
HNO3
azotmJava
NaNO3
nitrati
H2CO3
naxSirmJava
Na2CO3
karbonati
H2SiO3
siliciummJava
Na2SiO3
silikati
H3PO4
fosformJava
Na3PO4
fosfati
20
grafikuli formulebi:
NaCl
MX
II
M X2
III
M X3
II.
CaCl2
AlCl3
NaNO3
Ca(NO3)2
Al(NO3)3
II
M2 X
II II
Na2S
Na2SO4
CaS
CaSO4
Al2S3
Al2(SO4)3
MX
III
II
M 2 X3
21
III
M3 X
II
III
M3 X2
III III
MX
Na3PO4
Ca3(PO4)2
AlPO4
2HCl + CaCO3
CaCl2 + H2CO3
H2O
CaSiO3 + CO2.
9. marilebis urTierTqmedeba. aRebuli marilebidan
orive xsnadi unda iyos, miRebuli marilebidan
_ erT-erTi mainc uxsnadi.
NaCl + AgNO3 AgCl + NaNO3.
10. marilisa da metalis moqmedeba:
CuSO4 + Fe FeSO4 + Cu.
11. zogierTi marilis daSla:
2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2.
12. metalisa da arametalis moqmedeba:
Fe +S FeS .
S
+
Ca
metali
mJava oqsidi
SO2
+
CaO
fuZe oqsidi
mJava
H2SO3
+
Ca(OH)2
fuZe
CaS
CaSO3
CaSO3
marili
marili
marili
23
daSlis ewodeba reaqciebs, rodesac erTi nivTierebisagan miiReba ori an meti axali nivTiereba:
0
t
2HgO
2Hg + O2
0
t
2KClO3
2KCl + 3O2
0
t
CaCO3
CaO + CO2
rTuli
2HCl + Mg MgCl 2+ H2
Fe + CuSO4 FeSO4 + Cu
2KI + Cl2 2KCl + I2
24
A B
C C1 C
V 2
t 2 t1
t
c
c2
c1
t1
V
t2
C 2 C1
C
t 2 t1
t
c1
c
c21
c2
t1
t2
v lim
t 0
C dC
t
dt
26
koncentracia
A1 + A2 + A3 + . . . B
v= k [A1] [A2][A3] . . .
k- reaqciis siCqaris mudmivaa.
moqmed masaTa kanoni: qimiuri reaqciis siCqare moreagire nivTierebaTa koncentraciebis namravlis proporciulia.
temperatura
vant-hofis wesi: temperaturis yoveli 10 gradusiT
gazrdisas reaqciis siCqare izrdeba 2-4-jer.
-temperaturuli koeficienti tolia: 2 4.
27
Vt 2 Vt 1
t 2 - t1
10
Tu t2 - t1 = 10,
Vt 2
Vt1
e. i. temperaturuli koeficienti _ gviCvenebs, ramdenjer izrdeba reaqciis siCqare temperaturis yoveli 100-iT gadidebisas.
vant-hofis wesi arauniversaluria da temperaturis
SezRudul intervalSia samarTliani. ufro zogadia
areniusis gantoleba:
k=Aexp(-Ea/RT)
sadac: A _ eqsponentaswina mamravlia, Ea _ aqtivaciis
energia.
katalizatorebi
nivTierebebs, romlebic cvlian qimiuri reaqciis
siCqares, TviTon ki reaqciis Sedegad ucvlelni rCebian, katalizatorebi ewodebaT. katalizatorebs, romlebic aCqareben qimiur reaqciebs, dadebiTi katalizatorebi (eqsibitorebi) ewodebaT, xolo katalizatorebs, romlebic aneleben qimiur reaqciebs uaryofiTi katalizatorebi (inhibitorebi).
katalizis sqema:
dadebiTi katalizatoris roli mdgomareobs reaqciis aqtivaciis energiis SemcirebaSi, ris gamoc xdeba
reaqciis siCqaris gazrda. katalizatoris monawileobiT mimdinare reaqciis sqema SeiZleba ase warmovadginoT:
28
A + B AB
(I)
A+ K AK
(II)
AK + B AB + K
(III)
(II) da (III) reaqciebis aqtivaciebis energiebi ufro
dabalia, vidre I reaqciisa, rac aCqarebs process:
Ea
A+B
AB
reaqciis gza
dadebiTi katalizatori
reaqciis gza
29
nivTierebebs, romlebic Tavad ar warmoadgenen reaqciis katalizatorebs, magram maTi Tanaobisas katalizatorebis aqtiuroba izrdeba, promotorebi ewodebaT.
nivTierebebs, romlebic aqveiTeben katalizatorebis aqtiurobas, katalizuri Sxamebi ewodebaT, process ki katalizatoris mowamvla.
k1 [D]d [E]e
.
k 2 [A]a [B]b
[NH 3 ]2
k1
.
k 2 [N 2 ] [H 2 ]3
amiakis gamosavlis gazrdisaTvis optimaluria maRali wneva (oTxi moculoba airi gadadis orSi) da
dabali temperatura (reaqcia marcxnidan marjvniv
egzoTermulia).
Ea
E
N2+3H2
a
2NH3
+Q
reaqciis gza
atomis struqturis fundamenturi Seswavla SesaZlebeli gaxda mikrosamyaros meqanikis kvanturi meqanikis saSualebiT. kvanturi meqanika emyareba or ZiriTad princips: 1. Mmikronawilakis orbunebovnebas. mikronawilakebs da maT Soris, eleqtrons orgvari buneba aqvT nawilakis da talRis. 2. Mmikronawilakis
da maT Soris, eleqtronis mdebareobis zusti gansazRvra SeuZlebelia, swored amitom kvanturi meqanikis
mier Semotanil iqna atomuri orbitalis cneba. atomuri orbitali warmoadgens eleqtronis moZraobis samganzomilebian traeqtorias atomgulis garSemo sivrcis nawils, sadac eleqtronis yofnis albaToba maqsimaluria. radgan eleqtrons nawilakTan erTad talRuri bunebac aqvs, amitom atomSi eleqtronis mdgomareobas aRweren talRuri gantolebiT, romelic kvanturi meqanikis ZiriTadi gantolebaa da cnobilia Sredingeris gantolebis saxelwodebiT:
H = E
misi amoxsnis Sedegad miRebul maTematikur gamosaxulebebSi figurireben garkveuli parametrebi e. w. kvanturi ricxvebi, romlebic gansazRvraven eleqtronis
sxvadasxva SesaZlo mdgomareobas atomSi. kvanturi
ricxvebi axasiaTeben eleqtronebis orbitalebs e. w.
atomur orbitalebs.
arsebobs oTxi kvanturi ricxvi: n mTavari, l Tanauri, ml magnituri da ms spinuri.
n mTavari kvanturi ricxvi axasiaTebs orbitalis
energias (eleqtronis energias mocemul orbitalze).
igi iRebs mniSvnelobebs naturalur ricxvTa simravlidan:
33
K L M N O P Q
n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 . . .
l Tanauri (orbitaluri) kvanturi ricxvi axasiaTebs orbitalis formas. igi iRebs mniSvnelobebs
nulidan (n-1)-mde:
l = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . ., (n-1)
s p d f
s-orbitali sferulia, p-orbitali hanteliseburi
(moculobiTi rvianis formis), d- da f-orbitalebs SedarebiT rTuli aRnagoba aqvT.
Z
S
X
pZ
pY
px
X
Y
ml-magnituri kvanturi ricxvi axasiaTebs orbitalis orientacias sivrceSi. igi iRebs mniSvnelobebs -ldan +l-mde. mag.: l= 2; ml= -2;-1; 0; +1; +2.
34
n=1
n=1
n=2
n=2
n=2
n=2
n=2
n=2
n=2
n=2
l=0
l=0
l=0
l=0
l=1
l=1
l=1
l=1
l=1
l=1
ml = 0
ml = 0
ml = 0
ml = 0
ml = +1
ml = +1
ml = 0
ml = 0
ml = -1
ml = -1
ms = +
ms = -
ms = +
ms = -
ms = +
ms = -
ms = +
ms = -
ms = +
ms = -
1s2 (He)
2s22p6 (Ne)
35
H
+1
n=1
1e
He
1s2
+2
s
n=1
2e
s
Li
n=2
s
1s22s1
+3
n=1
2e 1e
s
Be
n=2
s
1s22s2
+4
n=1
2e
2e
36
B
C
s p 2p
n=2 s 2s
1s 2s 2p
n=2
n=2
2e 3e
s
s 1s
n=1
2 22
3
N +6 +7 1s22s1s22p
2s 2p
n=1
n=1
2e 2e
4e 5e
2e 4e
2e 5e
p
s
+5
s
+6
n=2
s
n=1
s
1s22s22p2
2e 4e
s
+7
s
2
1s 2s 2p
2e 4e
n=2
s
n=1
p
s
O
+8
1s22s22p4
2e 6e
n=2
s
n=1
37
p
s
F
n=2
s
n=1
1s22s22p5
+9
2e 7e
p
Ne
1s22s22p6
+10
n=1
2e 8e
n=2
valentobis spinuri Teoriis Tanaxmad, elementis valentoba misi gauwyvilebeli spinebis ricxvis tolia. am
TvalsazrisiT, He da Ne nulvalentiania (yvela spini gawyvilebulia), H, Li da F erTvalentiania, N samvalentiania, O orvalentiani. miRebuli daskvna sruliad eTanxmeba arsebul eqsperimentul monacemebs. rac Seexeba Be, B
da C-s, am SemTxvevaSi xdeba 2s gawyvilebuli eleqtronebidan erT-erTis vakantur 2p-ze gadasvla da warmoiqmneba e. w. elementis savalento (aRgznebuli) konfiguracia, ris gamoc, maTi valentobebic gaizrdeba da, Sesabamisad, 2-is, 3-is da 4-is toli gaxdeba, rac eTanxmeba
realobas:
Be
s2 p
1s22s2 2
Be* 1s22s12p1
1s 2s 2p
B* 1s 2s 2p
2s2 p
2s2 p
1s 2s 2p
C* 1s 2s 2p
1
Val 0 V al 2
Val 1 V al 3
Val 2 V al 4
38
mesame periodis elementebs gaaCniaT vakanturi 3dorbitalebi, rac maT saSualebas aZlevT ufro maRali
(meore periodis elementebTan SedarebiT) valentoba
gamoavlinon. ase magaliTad, gogirdi garda oris toli valentobisa, avlens oTx da eqvs valentobas:
d
p
n=3
n=1
n=3
Val=2
n=1
n=2
p
n=2
p
n=3
Val=4
s
p
n=2
s
n=1
s
Val=6
39
xazgasmiT unda aRiniSnos, rom eleqtronebis gadasvlis xarjze elementis valentobis gazrda SeiZleba
mxolod mTavari kvanturi ricxvis (n-is) Secvlis gareSe (erTi da igive n-is farglebSi).
atombirTvis aRnagoba
atombirTvi Sedgeba protonebisa da neitronebisagan. protonis muxtia +1, neitrons muxti ar gaaCnia
igi eleqtroneitraluri nawilakia.
arsebobs ori formula, romlebic atomis struqturas akavSirebs elementis rigobriv nomerTan (Z) da masur ricxvTan (A). masuri ricxvi ewodeba elementis
atomur masasTan yvelaze axlos mdgom mTel ricxvs
da misi dadgena SeiZleba ricxvis damrgvalebis
kanonebis gaTvaliswinebiT.
p+ = e = Z
n0 = AZ
izotopebi qimiuri elementis saxesxvaobebia, romelTac atombirTvis erTnairi muxti aqvT, magram
masebiT gansxvavdebian, rac atombirTvebSi neitronebis
ricxvis gansxvavebiT aris gamowveuli.
wyalbads gaaCnia sami izotopi: proTiumi
2
1H
1
1H
(P), de-
3
1H
iteriumi
(D) da triTiumi
(T). qvemoT moyvanilia
am izotopebis birTvebis Sedgeniloba:
1p+
1p+
1n0
1p+
2n0
16
8O
8p+
8n0
17
8O
8p+
9n0
18
8O
8p+
10n0
eleqtronebis ricxvis perioduli ganmeoreba warmoadgens. arsebobs perioduli sistemis ramdenime aseuli
varianti. ganvixiloT yvelaze farTod gamoyenebuli,
e.w. mokle varianti (danarTSi moyvanilia rogorc
mokle varianti, iseve e.w. naxevrad-grZeli varianti).
perioduli sistema Sedgeba periodebisa da jgufebisagan. periodi aris atombirTvis muxtis zrdis mixedviT
dalagebuli
elementebis
horizontaluri
mwkrivi, romelic iwyeba tute liToniT (gamonaklisia
I periodi, romelic wyalbadiT iwyeba) da mTavrdeba
inertuli airiT. sul Svidi periodia, aqedan sami aris
mcire, isini Sedgeba TiTo mwkrivisagan, oTxi ki didi
periodia, romlebic meSvides garda, or-ori mwkrivisgan Sedgeba. me-7 periodi dausrulebelia. periodis nomeri atomSi eleqtronuli Sreebis ricxvis tolia. mag.
17Cl mesame periodis elementia, e.i. misi 17 eleqtroni
sam eleqtronul Srezea ganawilebuli.
jgufi aris msgavsi elementebis vertikaluri sveti,
romelic Sedgeba ori: `a~ da `b~ nawilebisagan. `a~
jgufi aerTianebs rogorc mcire, ise didi periodis
elementebs, `b~ jgufSi ki mxolod didi periodis elementebia ganTavsebuli. `b~ jgufis yvela elementi
metalia.
periodebSi elementebis ricxvi gansxvavebulia:
pirvelSi _ 2, meore-mesameSi _ 8, me-4 da me-5-Si _ 18-18,
me-6-Si _ 32, me-7 _ dausrulebelia. periodebSi elementebis ricxvs, im eleqtronuli Sris tevadoba gansazRvravs, romlis Sevsebac am periodSi xdeba. I periodSi elementebSi xdeba pirveli eleqtronuli Sris
Sevseba, romelzec maqsimum ori eleqtroni Tavsdeba,
amitom I periodSi ori elementia. meore periodSi
ivseba meore eleqtronuli Sre (2s da 2p orbitalebi),
42
ionuri bma
ionebs Soris damyarebul qimiur kavSirs ionuri
bma ewodeba.
ganvixiloT ionuri bmis warmoqmna NaF-is SemTxvevaSi:
+11
Na
-e
2e 8e
+9
+11
1e
+e
2e
Na+
7e
2e
8e
+9
2e
8e
Na + F
Na+ F
es sqema emyareba koselis mosazrebas, rom bmis damyarebisas atomebi `cdiloben~ warmoqmnan rvaeleqtroniani bolo Sre, radgan aseTi eleqtronuli konfiguracia SedarebiT stabiluria (inertuli airebis analogiuria).
ionuri naerTebi warmoqmnian ionur kristalur mesers, romlis kvanZebSi ganlagebulia ionebi:
45
Na+
F
Na+
Na+
F
Na+
Na
+
+
F
+
+
+
dafiqsirebuli
kovalenturi bma
eleqtronuli wyvilebis saSualebiT
qimiur kavSirs kovalenturi bma ewodeba.
H +H H : H, H H
damyarebul
46
: :
: :
: F : F: , F F
: N N: , N N
......
: :
: :
: F. + . F :
.
.
. + . N:
:N
.
.
: :
: :
kovalenturi bma ori tipisaa: arapolaruli da polaruli. zemoT moyvanili magaliTebi miekuTvneba arapolarul qimiur bmas. bma arapolarulia, Tu misi warmomqmneli elementebis atomebis eleqtrouaryofiToba
erTnairia (kerZo SemTxvevaa, erTnairi atomebisagan
warmoqmnili martivi nivTierebebi). eleqtrouaryofiToba ewodeba elementis atomis unars Tavisken gadawios bmis warmomqmneli eleqtronuli wyvili.
polaruli kovalenturi bmis SemTxvevaSi, eleqtronuli wyvili gadaweulia ufro eleqtrouaryofiTi
elementis atomisaken:
.
.
H + Cl:
H : Cl:
: :
: :
2H. + . O .
H : O:
47
1s
1s
1s
+
HH
atomebs Soris Tu erTi bmaa, is aucileblad -tipisaa, radgan bmis warmomqmneli eleqtronebi pirvel
rigSi birTvebs Soris ares ikaveben.
Tu atomuri orbitalebi erTmaneTs birTvebs Soris
SemaerTebeli wrfidan orive mimarTulebiT gadafaravs
(gverdiTi gadafarva), miRebuli bma aris . am bmis warmoqmna s-is garda yvela tipis orbitals SeuZlia. Mmag.
azotis molekulaSi sammagi bmaa, aqedan erTia da
ori : : N N :
radgan kovalenturi bmis warmoqmna atomuri orbitalebis gadafarviT mimdinareobs, amitom kovalentur
bmas gaaCnia mimarTuleba. igi yovelTvis warmoiqmneba
atomuri orbitalebis maqsimaluri gadafarvis mimarTulebiT, rac Tavis mxriv molekulis geometrias gansazRvravs. molekula zogi wrfivia, zogi samkuTxa,
tetraedruli da a.S. am formebis ganmsazRvreli molekulaSi warmoqmnili kovalenturi bmebis mimarTulebaa.
molekuluri orbitalebis warmoqmnis sqema aseTia:
1s* _ gamTiSavi
1s
1s
1s
H
1s H
1s _ SemakavSirebeli
H2
48
hibridizacia
sp wrfivi, digonaluri
p
p
n=2
sp trigonaluri
n= 2
s
s
Be n=1
s
2s 2p
s
Be* n=1
1800
2s
erTi
+ erTi
ori
2p
sp
sp2 trigonaluri
p
B n=1
n=2
p
n=2
s
2s 2p
s
B* n=1
sp2
erTi
2s
+ ori
2p
sami
1200
49
p
n=2
s
C n=1
p
n=2
2s 2p
s
C* n=1
sp3
erTi
2s
2p
+ sami
oTxi
109030
A: + B
+
H
H : N H Cl_
H
H
H : N + H Cl
H
50
wyalbaduri bma
donorul-aqceptoruli tipis samcentrian sust qimiur kavSirs wyalbadsa da Zlieri eleqtrouaryofiTi
elementebis (F, O, N, Cl, S) atomebs Soris wyalbaduri bma
ewodeba.
wyalbaduri bma ori tipisaa:
molekulaTaSorisi
H
F ... H
F ... H
O... H
O... H
da Sidamolekuluri
H
C
O...
H
O
salicilis aldehidi
metaluri bma
metalur kristalur meserSi, metalis kationebs
Soris, Tavisufali eleqtronebis saSualebiT damyarebul mravalcentrian qimiur kavSirs metaluri bma
ewodeba:
51
kristaluri mesrebi
arsebobs oTxi tipis kristaluri meseri: metaluri,
ionuri, atomuri da molekuluri. Sesabamisad, maT kvanZebSi moTavsebulia: ionebi, atomebi, molekulebi.
5 2
2K N O 3 2K N O 2 O 2
5 2
2K Cl O 3 2K Cl 3 O 2
elementis
4K Cl O 3 K Cl 3K Cl O 4
1
3 Cl 2 6KOH 5K Cl K Cl O 3 3H 2 O
Jangvis ricxvi warmoadgens molekulaSi atomis pirobiT muxts, romelic gamoTvlilia im daSvebiT, rom molekula Sedgeba mxolod ionebisagan.
+1 +7 _2
KMnO4
Fe 2 O da peroqsidebi H 2 O 2 , Na 2 O 2 da a. S.
1 1
J.r.= O
1 5 2
H N O3
K Mn O 4
53
+2 -2
+3 -2
2Al + 3S Al2S3
+2
2 e
Fe Fe
0
1
1
S
-2
2
0
-2
-2
-2
S S
0
-2
O2 2O 6
+4
-2
4 e
-2
+4
S S
+4
6 e
-2
4 e
O2 2O
-2
2 e
-2
2 e
2H2S + O2 2S + 2H2O
-2
+3
3e
Al Al
-2
2 e
+5
+6
+4
2 e
S S
+4
Fe + S FeS
4 e
S
S
+6
6 e
S S
+5
1
+4
1e
N N
54
+5
+6
+2
+6
S S
+2
+2
Cu Cu
+5
3e
N N
+2
+4
1e
N
+5
+4
konc.
2 e
+2
+5
6 e
+5
+2
+2
2 e
Cu Cu 3
+5
+2
3e
N N
-1
2K Mn O 4 16H Cl 2KCl 2 Mn Cl 2 5 Cl 2 8H 2 O
konc.
5 e
Mn Mn
1
2 e
2Cl Cl 2 5
6
C 2 H 2 S O 4 C O 2 2 S O 2 2H 2 O
konc.
4 e
2 e
C C
S S
55
3 P 5H N O 3 2H 2 O 3H 3 P O 4 5 N O
ganz.
5e
P
P
5
3e
N
N
P 5H N O 3 H 3 P O 4 5 N O 2 H 2 O
konc.
5e
P
P
5
1e
N
N
organul naerTebSi
4 1
4 2
C H 4 2 O 2 2 C O 2 2H 2 O
4
+1
+1
4e
4 2
8 e
C C
0
2C 2 H 4 7 O 2 4 C O 2 6 H 2 O
O 2
2O
+1
+1
-3
-3
+1
+1
H
3
14 e
2 (C)
2C
4e
O 2
2O
4 2
C 2 H 4 3 O 2 2 C O 2 2H 2 O
+1
14
4 2
2C 2 H 2 5 O 2 4 C O 2 2H 2 O
+1
+1
-2
-2
+1
H C C H
56
12 e
2 (C)
2C
12
4e
O 2
2O
4 2
10
4 2
-2
+1
H
H
H C HO O 2 C O 2 H 2 O
2C H 3OH 3 O 2 2 C O 2 4H 2 O
+1
4e
O 2
2O
10 e
2 (C)
2C
-2
-2
+1
+1
O
+1
+1
H
2
6e
C
C
4e
C
C
4e
O 2
2O
4e
O 2
2O
4 2
2H C OOH O 2 2 C O 2 2H 2 O
-2
+1
+2
-2
+1
O
2
H
4
2e
C
C
0
4e
O 2
2O
57
-2
2K Mn O 4 5H 2 S 3H 2SO 4 5 S 2 Mn S O 4 K 2SO 4 8H 2 O
2e
H2S
S+2H+ (pirveli naxevarreaqcia, H2S-is daJangva).
5e
Mn2+ + 4H2O (meore naxevarreaqcia,
MnO 4 +8H+
5 e
+
2+
MnO 4 + 8H Mn + 4H2O 2
mJava areSi:
7
2K Mn O 4 5K 2 S O 3 3H 2SO 4 2 Mn SO 4 6K 2 S O 4 3H 2 O
7
5e
Mn
Mn
2e
S
S
neitralur areSi:
7
2K Mn O 4 3K 2 S O 3 H 2 O 2 Mn O 2 3K 2 S O 4 2KOH
7
3e
Mn
Mn
4
2e
S
S
58
tute areSi:
7
2K Mn O 4 K 2 S O 3 2KOH 2K 2 Mn O 4 K 2 S O 4 H 2 O
7
1e
Mn
Mn
4
2 e
S S
1.10. xsnarebi
cvladi Sedgenilobis mqone erTgvarovan sistemas,
romelic Sedgeba gamxsnelis, gaxsnilisa da maTi urTierTqmedebis produqtebisagan xsnari ewodeba.
gaxsnili nivTierebis masuri wili gamoiTvleba
formuliT:
(nivT.) =
mnivT.
mnivT. mgamxsn.
mnivT.
mxsnari
59
HSO 4 H+ + SO 24
H2SO4 2H+ + SO 24
H3PO4 H+ + H 2 PO 4
H 2 PO 4 H+ + HPO 24
HPO 24 H+ + PO 34
H3PO4 3H+ + PO 34
zogadad, mJavas disociacia ase SeiZleba Caiweros:
HnX nH+ + Xn-
60
HCO3 H+ + CO32
da
Mg(OH)Br Mg(OH)+ + Br
Mg(OH)+ Mg2+ + OH
61
H Cl Na OH Na Cl H 2 O
H OH H 2 O
(am Sekvecili ionuri tolobiT gamoxatulia nebismieri neitralizaciis reaqciis arsi).
2. H2SO4 + 2NaOH Na2SO4 + 2H2O
2H+ + SO 24 + 2Na+ + 2OH 2Na+ + SO 24 + 2H2O
2H+ +2OH 2H2O
wyalxsnarebSi marilebs Soris mimdinare mimocvlis
reaqciebis dawerisas, unda gaviTvaliswinoT, rom orive
reagenti xsnadi unda iyos, xolo reaqciis erT-erTi
produqti mainc _ uxsnadi (SeiZleba uxsnadi iyos orive
marili). qloridebidan uxsnadia vercxlis qloridi
AgCl, sulfatebidan bariumis sulfati Ba SO4, nitratebi
yvela xsnadia, tute metalebis da amoniumis yvela
marili xsnadia. (unda vnaxoT naerTTa xsnadobis cxrili).
3. AgNO3 + NaCl AgCl + NaNO3
Ag + NO3 + Na+ + Cl AgCl + Na+ + NO3
+
Ag+ + Cl AgCl
4. Ba(NO3)2 + K2SO4 BaSO4 + 2KNO3
62
Ca2++ CO 32 CaCO3
marilsa da metals Soris reaqciis bolomde mimdinareobisTvis
aucilebelia
wyalSi
xsnadi
marilis
SedgenilobaSi Semavali metalia da, amave dros, wyalTan reaqciaSi ar unda Sediodes:
Fe + CuSO4 FeSO4+Cu
Fe + Cu2+ + SO 24 Fe2+ + SO 24 + Cu0
0
64
2. qimiuri elementebi
da maTi naerTebi
2.1. wyalbadi
Z=1; Ar=1; Val = 1
s
1s1
+1
5
1
1H
(P) proTiumi,
n=1
1e
2
1
H (D) deiteriumi,
3
1H
(T) triTiumi
bunebaSi
wyalbadi arsebobs rogorc Tavisufali (atmosferos zeda fenebi), ise naerTebis (H2O, organuli naerTebi) saxiT.
kosmosSi yvelaze gavrcelebuli elementia (1/2 kosmosuri nivTierebis plazmur mdgomareobaSi arsebuli
wyalbadia).
miReba
laboratoriuli meTodi:
1) Zn + 2HCl ZnCl 2 + H2 (kipis aparatSi)
2) Ca + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 + H2
sawarmoo meTodi:
2NaOH + H2 + Cl2
1) 2NaCl + 2H2O
2) konversiuli meTodi
t
C + 2H2O
CO2 + 2H2
t
3) CH4 + 2H2O CO2 + 4H2
eleqtrolizi
65
4) 3Fe + 4H2O
t0
Fe3O4 + 4H2
Tvisebebi
1) arametalebTan moqmedeba
2H2 + O2 2H2O
H2 + F2 2HF (sibneleSi, Cveulebriv temperaturaze)
H2 + Cl2 2HCl (sinaTleze)
meqanizmi
h
Cl2
2Cl
Fe
3H2 + N2
t0
2NH3
t
C + 2H2
CH4
2) metalebTan moqmedeba:
t
CuO + H2
Cu + H2O
0
t
WO3 + 3H2
W + 3H2O
4) organuli naerTebis hidrireba (hidrogenizacia)
Pt
CH2=CH2 + H2
CH3CH3
eTileni
Pd
CHCH + 2H2
CH3CH3
acetileni
66
+3H2
benzoli
cikloheqsani
wyali
O
104.50
wyali
Tvisebebi
1) Termuli daSla)
0
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
C
2H2O 2000
2H2 + O2
tute da tutemiwa metalebTan moqmedeba
2H2O + 2Na 2NaOH + H2
2H2O + Ca Ca(OH) 2 + H2
tute da tutemiwa metalebis oqsidebTan moqmedeba
H2O + Na2O 2NaOH
H2O + CaO Ca(OH)2
mJavur oqsidebTan moqmedeba
SO3 + H2O H 2SO4
qlorTan moqmedeba
7) hidratacia
H2SO4
t0
CH2=CH2+H2O
CH3CH2OH
HgSO4
CH
CH+H2O
CH3CHO
t0
2.2. qlori
Z=17; Ar = 35,5; Val = 1,3,5,7
1s22s22p63s23p5
+17
p
n=3
2e 8e 7e
s
p
n=2
s
n=1
35
17 Cl
da
Cl
miReba
laboratoriuli
(konc.
HCl-ze
Zlieri
mJangavebis
moqmedeba)
1) 2KMnO4 + 16HCl 2KCl + 2MnCl 2 + 5Cl2 + 8H2O
2) MnO2 + 4HCl MnCl 2 + Cl2 + 2H2O
68
samrewvelo
2Na + Cl2
2NaCl
eleqtrolizi
nalR.
2NaOH + H2 + Cl2
2NaCl + 2H2O
eleqtrolizi
Tvisebebi
1) metalebTan moqmedeba
2Na + Cl2 2NaCl
2Fe + 3Cl2 2FeCl3
2) arametalebTan moqmedeba
Cl2 + H2 2HCl
3Cl2 + 2P 2PCl3
5Cl2 + 2P 2PCl5
S + Cl2 SCl2
3) wyalTan urTierTqmedeba
Cl2 + H2O HCl + HClO
4) organul nivTierebebTan urTierTqmedeba
CH4
+Cl2
-HCl
CH3Cl
+Cl2
-HCl
CH2Cl2
+Cl2
-HCl
CHCl3
+Cl2
-HCl
CCl4
CHCl
ClHC
CHCl
ClHC
CHCl
CHCl
+ 3Cl2
benzoli
heqsaqlorcikloheqsani
69
konc.
Tvisebebi
1) 2HCl + Zn ZnCl2 + H2
2) 2HCl + ZnO ZnCl2 + H2O
3) 2HCl + Cu(OH)2 CuCl2 + 2H2O
CO2
4) 2HCl + CaCO3
CaCl2 + H2CO3
H2 O
Ag+ + Cl AgCl
70
2.3. Jangbadi
Z=8; Ar=16; Val = 2
1s22s22p4
+8
n=2
n=1
2e 6e
16
8 O,
17
18
8 O, 8 O.
miReba
laboratoriuli
0
t
1) 2KMnO4
K2MnO4 + MnO2 + O2
0
t
2) 2KClO3
2KCl + 3O2
0
t
3) 2KNO3
2KNO2 + O2
0
t
4) 2HgO
2Hg + O2
warmoebaSi
1) wylis eleqtrolizi
2H2 + O2
2H2O
eleqtrolizi
Tvisebebi
yvela elementTan warmoqmnis oqsids garda He, Ne,
Ar. uSualod ar urTierTqmedebs halogenebTan, oqrosTan, platinis ojaxis elementebTan.
1) arametalebTan urTierTqmedeba
2H2 + O2 2H2O
S + O2 SO2
4P + 3O2 2P2O3
4P + 5O2 2P2O5
N2 + O2 2NOQ
C + O2 CO2
2) metalebTan urTierTqmedeba
2Cu + O2 2CuO
4Al + 3O2 2Al2O3
3) rTul nivTierebebTan urTierTqmedeba
2H2S + 3O2 2SO2 + 2H2O
4NH3 + 3O2 2N2 + 6 H2O
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
Jangbadis alotropiuli saxesxvaobaa ozoni _ O3
laboratoriaSi miiReba specialur xelsawyoSi _ ozonatorSi, Semdegi reaqciiT:
3O22O3
bunebaSi warmoiqmneba elWeqis dros.
72
2.4. gogirdi
Z=16; Ar=32; Val = 2,4,6
1s22s22p63s23p4
+16
2e
8e 6e
d
p
n=3
p
n=2
s
n=1
s
n=1
S
S
S
S
rombuli gogirdi
73
miReba
0
t
1) FeS2
FeS + S
2) 2H2S + SO2 3S + 2H2O
3) SO2 + C S +CO2
Tvisebebi
1) arametalebTan urTierTqmedeba (ar urTierTqmedebs
azotTan da iodTan)
S + O2 SO2
S + H2 H2S
galR.
S + 3F2 SF6
2S + C CS2
2) metalebTan urTierTqmedeba
0
t
Ca + S
CaS
Hg + S HgS
miReba
1) FeS + 2HCl FeCl2 + H2S
2) H2 + S H2S
galR.
Tvisebebi
1) 2H2S + O2 2S + 2H2O (arasruli wva)
2H2S + 3O2 2SO2 + 2H2O (sruli wva)
2) H2S H+ + HS (H 2S susti mJavaa)
HS S2- + H+ (umniSvnelod)
3) H2S + NaOH NaHS + H2O
natriumis
hidrosulfidi
natriumis sulfidi
74
miReba
1) S + O2 SO2
2) Cu + 2H2SO4 CuSO4 + SO2 + 2H2O
konc.
Tvisebebi
1) SO2 + H2O H2SO3 (H2SO3 arsebobs mxolod wyalxsnarSi)
2) SO2 + CaO CaSO3
3) SO2 + 2NaOH Na2SO3 + H2O
4) SO2 +2H2S 3S+2H2O
mJangavi
miReba
1) 2SO2 + O2 2SO3
0
t
2) Fe2(SO4)3
Fe2O3 + 3SO3 (alqimikosebis xerxi)
Tvisebebi
1) SO3 + H2O H2SO4
2) SO3 + CaO CaSO4
3) SO3 + 2NaOH Na2SO4 + H2O
H2SO4 (gogirdmJava)
warmoebaSi miiReba kontaqturi xerxiT, romelic
oTxi stadiisagan Sedgeba:
I. S + O2 SO2
2H2S + 3O2 2SO2 + 2H2O
4FeS2 + 11O2 2Fe2O3 + 8SO2
V2O5
II. 2SO2 + O2
2SO3
III. SO3 + H2SO4 H2S2O7 (pirogogirdmJava, oleumi)
IV. H2S2O7 + H2O 2H2SO4
Tvisebebi
1) disociacia
H2SO4 H+ + HSO 4 (srulad)
76
HSO 4 H+ + SO 24 (naklebad)
2) H2SO4 + Zn ZnSO4 + H2
ganz.
mJangavia:
Jangavs metalebsa da arametalebs.
Cu +2 H2SO4 CuSO4 + SO2 +2H2O
konc.
2.5. azoti
Z=7; Ar=14; Val = 2, 3, 4, 5.
p
n=2
s
+7
14
15
8 N, 8 N
1s 2s 2p
5e mdgradi izotopis
n=1
2eori
saxiT arsebobs.
2
77
(azotis molekulaSi
bunebaSi
Tavisufali saxiT haeris 78% moculobiT, 75,5%
_ masiT. gvarjilebi: NaNO3 Ciles gvarjila, KNO3 indoeTis gvarjila, organuli naerTebi.
miReba
0
t
NH4NO2
N2 + 2H2O
teqnikaSi Txevadi haeris fraqciuli gamoxdiT
(-1960C).
Tvisebebi
N2 inertulia.
30000C
1) N2 + O2
2NO Q
Fe (K2O, Al2O3)
2) N2 + 3H2
3)
to, p
2NH3 + Q
miReba
2NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 CaCl2 + 2NH3 + 2H2O
N2 + 3H2 2NH3
Tvisebebi
1) NH3 + H2O NH4OH
amoniumis hidroqsidi
(niSaduris spirti)
oqsidebi
N2O, NO, N2O3, NO2, N2O4 , N2O5
NN O
0
t
NH4NO3
N2O + H2O
3Cu + 8HNO3 3Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O
ganz.
HNO3-azotmJava
miReba
0
t
NaNO3 + H2SO4
NaHSO4 + HNO3
krist.
konc.
1) N2 + 3H2
t0, p
2NH3
Pt
2) 4NH3 + 5O2
4NO + 6H2O
3) 2NO + O2 2NO2
4) 4NO2 + O2 + 2H2O 4HNO3
Tvisebebi
h
1) 4HNO3
4NO2 + O2 + 2H2O
2) HNO3 H+ + NO3
CO2
5) 2HNO3 + CaCO3
Ca(NO3)2 + H2CO3
H2O
azotmJavaze metalebis moqmedebiT wyalbadis gamoyofa ar xdeba _ HNO3 Zlieri mJangavia da H2-s Jangavs
wylamde (Tumca, arsebobs gamonaklisic manganumze
12,5% HNO3-is moqmedebiT gamoiyofa H2 (86% H2, 13% NO
da 1% N2O).
damJangavi Tvisebebi
1. metalebis moqmedeba:
3Ag + 4HNO3 3AgNO3 + NO + 2H2O
ganz.
2. arametalebTan moqmedeba:
S + 6HNO3 6NO2 + 2H2O + H2SO4
konc.
80
NO2
+ HNO3
H2SO4
+ H2O
nitrobenzoli
CH2OH
|
CHOH + 3HNO3
|
CH2OH
CH2ONO2
|
CHONO2 + 3H2O
|
CH2ONO2
glicerini
nitroglicerini
2.6. natriumi
Z=11; Ar=23; Val = 1
n=3
p
+11
1
n=2
s
1s22s22p63s1
2 e 8e 1e
n=1
23
mononuklidia 11
Na (bunebaSi arsebobs erTi stabiluri
izotopis saxiT).
natriumi bunebaSi mxolod naerTebis saxiT arsebobs:
NaCl qvamarili, NaCl KCl silviniti, Na2SO410H2O mirabiliti da sxv.
81
miReba
2Na + Cl2
1) 2NaCl
eleqtrolizi
nalRobi
4Na + 2H2O + O2
2) 4NaOH
eleqtrolizi
nalRobi
Tvisebebi
1). 4Na + O2 2Na2O (haerze)
2Na + O2 Na2O2 (JangbadSi)
2). 2Na + Cl2 2NaCl
3). 2Na + S Na2S
0
t
4). 6Na + N2
2Na3N (nitridi)
0
t
5). 2Na + H2
2NaH (hidridi)
6). 2Na + 2H2O 2NaOH + H2
miReba
2NaOH + H2+ Cl2
2NaCl + 2H2O
eleqtrolizi
Tvisebebi
1)
2)
3)
4)
NaOH Na+ + OH
NaOH + HCl NaCl +H2O
2NaOH + CO2 Na2CO3 + H2O
FeCl2 + 2NaOH Fe(OH)2 + 2NaCl
NH4HCO3 + NaCl
NaHCO3 + NH4Cl
2NaHCO3
Na2CO3 + CO2 +H2O
t
82
2.7. alumini Al
Z=13; Ar=27; Val = 3
1s22s22p63s23p1
+13
2e 8e 3e
p
2e
8e 6e
n=3
p
n=2
s
n=1
27
alumini mononuklidia _ 13
Al .
bunebaSi yvelaze gavrcelebuli liTonia. amasTanave, arsebobs mxolod naerTebis saxiT:
boqsitebi Al2O3nH2O, korundi Al2O3 (lali qromis minareviT, safironi rkinis minareviT), krioliTi
Na3AlF6.
miReba
Al2O3 2Al + 3CO
C-s anodi
nalRobi
el. lizi
Tvisebebi
83
t
1) 4Al + 3O2
2Al2O3
2) 2Al + 3Cl2 2AlCl3
0
t
3) 2Al + 3S
Al2S3 (sulfidi)
0
t
4) 2Al + N2
2AlN (nitridi)
0
t
5) 4Al + 3C
Al4C3 (karbidi)
6) 2Al + 6HCl 2AlCl3 + 3H2
0
t
7) Al + 6HNO3(konc.)
Al(NO3)3 + 3NO2 +3H2O
8) aluminTermia (metalebis aRdgena maTi oqsidebidan
aluminis saSualebiT)
Fe2O3 +2Al Al 2O3 + 2Fe + Q
alumini gamoyenebis mxriv meore adgilzea rkinis
Semdeg.
Al2O3 amfoteruli oqsidia
t
2NaAlO2 + H2O
Al2O3 + 2NaOH
natriumis
metaaluminati
84
2.8.
kalciumi
+20
n=3
n=1
2p
2e 8e 8e 2e
n=2
n=4
ZiriTadi izotopia
42
20 Ca
44
20 Ca
,
,
bunebaSi naerTebis saxiT: CaCO3 minerali kalciti (kirqva, carci, marmarilo), CaCO3MgCO3 dolomiti, CaSO42H2O TabaSiri da sxv.
topi:
43
20 Ca
40
20 Ca . arsebobs
46
48
20 Ca , 20 Ca.
miReba
Ca + Cl2
CaCl2
umateben CaF2-s lRobis temperaturis dasawevad.
eleqtrolizi
Tvisebebi
1. arametalebTan moqmedeba
2Ca + O2 2CaO
Ca + Cl2 CaCl2
Ca + S CaS
85
3Ca + N2 Ca3N2
2. wyalTan moqmedeba
Ca + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 + H2
CaO Caumqrali kiri
miReba
0
t
CaCO3
CaO + CO2
Tvisebebi
1) CaO + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2O
2) CaO + H2O Ca(OH) 2 (kiris Caqroba)
3) CaO + CO2 CaCO3
miReba
Tvisebebi
1)
2)
3)
4)
86
3. organuli naerTebi
arsebobs organuli qimiis ramdenime ganmarteba. kekules da gmelinis mixedviT, organuli qimia element
naxSirbadis qimiaa. Sorlemeris mixedviT organuli
qimia naxSirwyalbadebisa da maTi naerTebis qimiaa.
1860 wels frangma qimikosma marselen berTlom ganacxada: `qimia Tavad qmnis Tavisi kvlevis obieqtebs.
es SemoqmedebiTi unari xelovnebis msgavsia da Zireulad ganasxvavebs qimias sxva sabunebismetyvelo mecnierebebisagan~. es marTlac asea, 20 milionze meti arsebuli organuli naerTebidan, 90% laboratoriaSia dasinTezebuli.
organuli naerTebis kolosaluri simravlis Seswavla SeuZlebelia garkveuli klasifikaciis gareSe.
arsebobs organul naerTTa Semdegi zogadi klasifikacia:
organuli naerTebi
Ria jaWviani
(acikluri)
Caketil-jaWviani
(cikluri)
karbocikluri
(cikli Seicavs
naxSirbadatomebs)
alicikluri
heterocikluri
(naxSirbadatomebis
garda, cikli
Seicavs sxva
atomebsac _ N, O, S da
sxv.)
aromatuli
87
CnH2n+1 C
CnH2n+1 C
O
H
O
OH
(karbonilis jgufi) da
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
H3C
n-pentani
CH CH2
CH3
CH3
2-meTilbutani
CH3
H3C
CH3
CH3
2-2-dimeTilpropani
antraceni
fenantreni
H3CCHClCH3
2-qlorpropani
H3CCH2CHOH
pentanol-1
H3CCHOHCH3
pentanol-2
90
3. geometriuli (cis-trans-izomeria)
CH3
H3C
H3C
C
C
C
cis-buten-2
C
H
CH3
trans-buten-2
Cl
Cl
Cl
C
cis-1,2-diqloreTani
Cl
trans-1,2-diqloreTani
3.2. alkanebi
(najeri naxSirwyalbadebi)
C nH 2n+2
CH 4 meTani
C 2 H 6 eTani
C 3 H 8 propani
C 4 H 10 butani
C 5 H 12 pentani
C 6 H 14 heqsani
C 7 H 16 heptani
C 8 H 18 oqtani
C 9 H 20 nonani
C 10 H 22 dekani
C 11 H 24 undekani
C 12 H 26 dodekani
CH3
1
CH3 CH CH3
CH3 CH2CH2CH 3
n. butani
2-meTilpropani,
izobutani
C5 H12
CH3
1
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH 3
n. pentani
CH3
1
CH3
CH3
CH3
2,2-dimeTilpropani,
neopentani
miReba
0
t
1. CH3COONa+NaOH
Na2CO3+CH4 (diumas meTodi)
natriumis
acetati
(viurcis meTodi)
92
Tvisebebi
1) wva (wva ewodeba JangbadTan nivTierebis urTierTqmedebis egzoTermul process).
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H 2O + Q
2) Termuli daSla
0
t
CH4
C + 2H2
3) qlorireba
+Cl
CH4 -HCl2
meTani
+Cl2
+Cl
CH2Cl2 2 CHCl3 -HCl CCl4
-HCl
-HCl
monoqlordiqlortriqlortetraqlormeTani
meTani
meTani
meTani
CH3Cl
+Cl2
3.3. alkenebi
(eTilenis rigis ujeri naxSirwyalbadebi)
C nH2n
C 2H4 eTeni, eTileni
C 3H6 propeni, propileni
C4H8 buteni, butileni
alkenebSi naxSirbadi imyofeba sp2-hibridizaciaSi
(naxSirbadis II savalento mdgomareoba). alkenebi Seicaven martiv CC bmebs da erT ormag C=C bmas. ormagi
bmidan erTi -bmaa da erTi -bma.
alkenebSi gvxvdeba izomeriis sami tipi: naxSirbadebis jaWvis izomeria, ormagi bmis mdebareobis izomeria da geometriuli (cis-, trans-) izomeria. samive
tipis izomeria iwyeba butenidan:
93
CH3
1
CH2
C CH3
2-meTilpropeni
CH3
CH3
C
C
H
H
CH3
C
H
CH3 CH
CH CH3
buten-2
H
C
CH3
trans-buten-2
cis-buten-2
miReba
t0
CH2
eTanoli H2SO4
1. C2H5OH
CH2
2. CH2 CH2 + Zn
Br
CH2 + ZnBr2
Br
1,2-dibromeTani
Tvisebebi
1) wva
C 2H4 + 3O2 2CO2 + 2H 2O
2) mierTeba
mierTeba mimdinareobs Semdegi zogadi sqemiT:
C + XY
94
CH2=CH2 + H2O
to
H2SO4
CH3CH2OH
(hidratacia)
3) polimerizacia
reaqcias, romlis drosac monomeris (mikromolekulis) ramdenime molekulis SeerTebiT miiReba polimeris erTi makromolekula, polimerizacia ewodeba
(`poli~ niSnavs mravals). ricxvs, romelic gviCvenebs,
monomeris ramdeni molekulaa gaerTianebuli polimerSi, polimerizaciis xarisxi (n) ewodeba. atomTa jgufs,
romelic
polimeris
makromolekulaSi
meordeba,
struqturuli erTeuli (rgoli) ewodeba.
n CH2 = CH2 ( CH2CH2 ) n
eTileni
(monomeri)
polieTileni
(polimeri)
gamoyeneba
eTileni gamoiyeneba
eTilis spirtisa
da
polieTilenis misaRebad, agreTve mravalricxovan organul
sinTezebSi.
3.4. alkinebi
(acetilenis rigis ujeri naxSirwyalbadebi)
C nH 2n-2
C2H2 eTini, acetileni
C3H4 propini
C4H6 butini
alkinebSi naxSirbadi imyofeba sp-hibridizaciaSi
alkinebi Seicaven martiv CC bmebs da erT sammag CC
bmas. sammagi bmidan erTi -bmaa da ori -bma.
alkinebSi gvxvdeba izomeriis ori tipi naxSirbadebis jaWvis da sammagi bmis mdebareobis izomeria.
95
C4H6
1
C CH2 CH3
CH
CH3
CH3
butin-2
butin-1
C5H8
1
CH
C CH2 CH2
CH3
CH3
pentin-1
C CH2 CH3
pentin-2
1
CH
CH CH3
CH3
3-meTilbutin-1
miReba
1) CaC2 + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 + C 2H2
kalciumis
karbidi
0
t
2) 2CH 4
C2H 2 +3H2
K
Tvisebebi
1) wva
2C 2H2 + 5O2 4CO2 + 2H2O
2) mierTeba mimdinareobs or stadiad Semdegi zogadi sqemiT:
X Y
C
+ XY
C C
X Y
+ XY
C C
X Y
96
HC
CH + H2O
HgSO4
CH3
t0
(kuCerovis reaqcia)
acetaldehidi
3) Canacvleba
HC CH + Cu2Cl2 Cu C C
HC CH + Ag 2O AgC C
Cu
spilenZis
acetilenidi
Ag
2HCl
2H 2 O
vercxlis
acetilenidi
gamoyeneba
acetileni farTod gamoiyeneba samrewvelo organul sinTezSi (ZmarmJavas, sinTezuri kauCukis da sxv.).
acetilenis bazaze dasinTezebulia daaxloebiT 50 000
organuli nivTiereba. acetilenis wvis reaqcia gamoiyeneba metalebis saWrelad da SesaduReblad.
3.5. arenebi
(benzolis rigis aromatuli naxSirwyalbadebi)
C nH 2n-6
CH
C6H6 ~
HC
CH
HC
CH
~
CH
97
orTo (1,2-)
meta (1,3)
o-qsiloli,
1,2-dimeTilbenzoli
para (1,4)
m-qsiloli,
1,3-dimeTilbenzoli
p-qsiloli,
1,4-dimeTilbenzoli
miReba
1. qvanaxSiris dakoqsvisas
2. 3HC
CH
C
t0
(zelinskis reaqcia)
Tvisebebi
benzolisaTvis ufro damaxasiaTebelia Canacvlebis
reaqciebi, Tumca gansakuTrebul pirobebSi is Sedis
mierTebis reaqciebSic.
98
1) Canacvleba
NO2
+ HNO3
H2SO4
konc.
(nitrireba)
nitrobenzoli
Br
+Br2
FeBr3
+ HBr
(bromireba)
brombenzoli
2) mierTeba
CH2
+3H2
Ni:
H2C
CH2
H2C
CH2
CH2
cikloheqsani
CHCl
+3Cl2
CHCl
ClHC
ClHC
CHCl
CHCl
heqsaqlorcikloheqsani
99
3.6. alkanolebi
(najeri erTatomiani spirtebi)
C nH 2n+1OH an ROH
spirtebis atomuroba ganisazRvreba maT molekulebSi hidroqsilis jgufis (OH) ricxvis mixedviT.
CH3OH meTanoli, meTilis spirti, xis spirti;
C2H5OH eTanoli, eTilis spirti, Rvinis spirti;
C3H7OH propanoli, propilis spirti;
C4H9OH butanoli, butilis spirti.
erTatomian najer spirtebSi gvxvdeba izomeriis ori
tipi: naxSirbadebis ConCxis izomeria da hidroqsilis
jgufis mdebareobis izomeria. izomeria iwyeba propanolidan:
C3 H7OH
3
C H 3 C H 2 CH 2 O H
C H 3 C HOH C H 3
propanol 2
propanol1
C4 H9OH
4
C H 3 C H 2 C H 2 CH 2 O H
butanol1
CH3
CH
C H 3 C HOH C H 2 C H 3
butanol 2
CH3
CH2OH
CH3
2-meTilpropanol-1
CH3
CH3
OH
2-meTilpropanol-2
meoreuli
mesameuli
100
miReba
1) CH2 CH2 + H2O
H2SO4
CH3CH2OH
t0
Tvisebebi
1) 2C 2H5OH + 2Na 2C 2H5ONa + H 2
natriumis eTilati
2) C2H5OH
t0
CH2
H2SO4
CH2+H2O
(Sidamolekuluri dehidratacia)
3) 2C2H5OH
t0
C2 H5
H2SO4
O C2 H5 + H2 O
dieTileTeri
(martivi eTeri)
3.7. alkanalebi
(aldehidebi)
an
CH3 CH2
CH2 CHO
ConCxis
CH3 CH CHO
butanali,
erbos aldehidi
CH3
2-meTilpropanali,
izoerbos aldehidi
miReba
1) C2H5OH
2) CH
O
[O]
CH3 C
(spirtis arasruli daJangva)
-H2O
H
CH + H2O
HgSO4
CH3
t0
(kuCerovis reaqcia)
Tvisebebi
1) daJangva
CH3
+ Ag2O
CH3
O
H
OH
ZmarmJava
Zmris
aldehidi
CH3
CH3
+ 2Cu(OH)2
(vercxlis sarkis
reaqcia)
+ 2Ag
O
OH
lurji
+ Cu2O + 2H2O
agurisferi
C
H
N1
+ H2 CH3CH2OH
102
3.8. alkanmJavebi
(najeri erTfuZiani karbonmJavebi)
O
CnH2n+1
O
an
C
OH
OH
karbonmJavas fuZianoba ganisazRvreba maT molekulaSi karboqsilis jgufis (COOH-is) ricxvis mixedviT.
HCOOH meTanmJava, WianWvelmJava.
CH3COOH eTanmJava, ZmarmJava.
CH3CH2COOH propanmJava, propionis mJava.
CH3CH2CH2COOH butanmJava, erbos mJava.
karbonmJavebSi gvxvdeba naxSirbadatomebis ConCxis
izomeria. izomeria iwyeba butanmJavadan.
3
CH3 CH2
CH2 COOH
butanmJava,
erbos mJava
CH3 CH COOH
CH3
2-meTilpropanmJava,
izoerbos mJava
miReba
1) CH3CH2OH
[O]
CH3COOH (spirtis daJangva)
-H2O
[O]
2) CH3CHO
CH3COOH (aldehidis daJangva)
Tvisebebi
_
103
CH3COOH + C2H5OH
H+
CH3COOC2H5 + H2O
ZmarmJava eTilieTeri
(rTuli eTeri)
reaqcias spirtsa da mJavebs Soris, romlis Sedegad miiReba rTuli eTeri (esTeri) da wyali,
eTerifikaciis reaqcia ewodeba.
4) radikalSi Canacvleba (qlorireba)
CH3COOH + Cl 2 ClCH2 COOH + HCl
monoqlorZmarmJava
daJangva
RCH 2OH
aRdgena
spirti
aRdgena
aldehidi
karbonmJava
104
literatura
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
105
H+
OH
NH 4
K+
Na+
Ag+
Ba2+
Cu2+ Hg2+
xs
xs
xs
xs
mx
Pb2+
Fe2+
Fe3+
Al3+
NO3
xs
xs
xs
xs
xs
xs
xs
xs
xs
xs
xs
xs
xs
xs
xs
Cl
xs
xs
xs
xs
xs
xs
xs
xs
xs
xs
mx
xs
xs
xs
2-
xs
xs
xs
xs
SO 32
xs
xs
xs
xs
mx
mx
mx
mx
mx
mx
SO 24
xs
xs
xs
xs
mx
mx
xs
xs
xs
xs
xs
xs
xs
CO32
xs
xs
xs
xs
SiO 32
xs
xs
PO 34
xs
xs
xs
xs
CH3COO
xs
xs
xs
xs
xs
xs
xs
xs
xs
xs
xs
xs
xs
xs
xs
107
gamomcemlobis redaqtori
garekanis dizaini
kompiuteruli uzrunvelyofa
108
109