Comparative Structure Lab

Background
By looking at skeletons, evolutionary scientist can determine various different facts
about the organism by comparing the skeleton to present day and past organisms
skeletons. Structural similarities between different species give evidence that the two
species have a frequent ancestor; these are called Homologous Structures. The
difference and change between the species give evidence that there was a favourable
change depending on the organisms adaptability or its given environment.
Purpose
The purpose of this experiment is to compare and contrast among different sets of
structures to help give evidence to evolutionary relationships between different species
represented through a cladogram.
Hypothesis
If species have similar structures then, they will be closely related and represented near
each other on the cladogram.
Materials
-

Pencil
Paper (with observation chart)

Ruler

- Calculator
- Structure diagram sets

Procedure
1. Observe the diagram sets given and record your observations in the charts
provided. Measure and convert where needed.

Observations
Part A:
Forelimb Structure
Name of
Mammal

Name of
Forelim
b

Bat

Wing

Wolf

Front
leg

Turtle

Arm

Type of Environment
Function of Forelimb (state how the
the Species Dwells (e.g forelimb components contribute to the
forest, plains, water,
effectiveness of the function)
underground)
Air
- adapted as wing for flying
- scapula connects wing to body
- humerus forms upper shoulder joint
and lower elbow joint
- radius contributes to top wrist and
elbow joint
- ulna contributes to elbow joint below
- carpal is relatively petit
- metacarpals and phalanges provide
strong frame and large wing shape
- metcarpals and phalanges stretch
out skin to help with flying and gliding
through air
Forest, woods, tundra
- scapula connects front leg to body
- humerus forms upper shoulder joint
and lower elbow joint
- radius makes up upper and lower
front arm and contributes to front
wrist and elbow joint
- ulna contributes to elbow joint behind
- humerus, radius, ulna elongated so
wolf can extend footing
- carpal helps forms wolfs paw,
somewhat like wrist
- metacarpals and phalanges close
together to bear weight
- phalanges bent because wolf walks
on toes
Water

scapula connects arm to body

humerus forms upper shoulder joint
and lower elbow joint
radius contributes to bottom wrist
and elbow joint

Sea
Lion

Flipper

water

Elephan
t

Front
leg

Grasslands, marshes,
forests

ulna contributes to top elbow and

wrist joint
carpal acts as wrist and helps to
extend metacarpals and phalanges
metacarpals and phalanges provide
strong frame and large flipper shape
metacarpals and phalanges stretch
out skin to support flipper shape to
help with swimming

scapula is wide
scapula connects flipper to body
humerus forms upper shoulder joint
and lower elbow joint
radius contributes to front wrist and
elbow joint
ulna contributes to back elbow and
wrist joint
humerus, radius and ulna very short
carpal is very wide, connects radius
and ulna to metacarpals
long, wide metacarpals and
phalanges to give flipper shape, and
help support sea lion when on land
scapula connects front leg to body
scapula directed downward to line up
with humerus and ulna
humerus forms upper shoulder joint
and lower elbow joint
radius contributes to inner wrist and
elbow joint
ulna contributes to outer elbow and
wrist joint
ulna carries most weight
carpal is connects radius and ulna to
metacarpals
metacarpals and phalanges very
short and stubby

Mole

Paw

Underground

Human

Arm

Terrestrial

scapula short, and shaped like rod

scapula connects arm to body
pointy humerus
humerus supports forelimb
ulna contributes to elbow joint above
carpal contributes to elbow joint
below
carpal connects radius, ulna and
metacarpals
carpal rotates, and is wrist
thumb of mole is part of carpal
metacarpals very short, connect
carpal to phalanges (only on fingers)
phalanges very long; help with
digging
scapula connects arm to body
humerus and scapula create ball and
socket shoulder joint
ball and socket joint enables flexible
rotation (360 degrees)
long, slender humerus
humerus forms upper elbow joint
radius contributes to elbow joint
above
ulna contributes to elbow joint below
radius and ulna form lower elbow
joint
carpal is small, and is the wrist,
allows for rotation
thin metacarpals and phalanges
thin, small metacarpals and
phalanges allow for grip on small
objects

The mammalian forearm parts, which include the scapula, humerus, radius, ulna,
carpals, metacarpals and phalanges, have similar functions among different mammals.
They all have an important role in the survival of the animal and contribute to easier
movement. They have different functions, from rotation to supporting the main body of
the animal to griping object.

Hands and Feet Structure:

Traits
Claws
Nails
Same
hand/foot
size
Different
hand/foot
size
Tactile pad
on both
hands and
feet
Different
finger/toe
shape
Endothermi
c

Tree
Shrew
X

Slow
Loris
X
X

Tarsier

Baboon

Oranguta
n

Human

X
X

X
X

Howler
Monkey

Baboon

Species Cladogram

Human

Orangut
an

Different finger/toe
size, not tactile pad
on hands and feet
Different hand/foot size

Howler
Monkey
Tree
Shrew
Slow
Loris

Same hand/foot size

Tarsier
Nails

Different hand/foot size

Endothermic, tactile pad on hands
and feet, claws, same hand/foot
size

Cladogram Rationale
This cladogram looks the way it does because some traits that once disappeared,
reappear in later species. The only trait they all have in common is being endothermic;
the ability to absorb energy and heat from its surroundings. Tactile pads on both the
hands and feet are present on every species except for Human; the first species the
trait is absent on. Humans are also the only species that have a different finger and toe
size. Orangutans eliminiate the difference in hand and foot size, but Baboons brought it
back and it ended up being present in the Human species as well.
Tree shrew: -foot is symmetrical
- foot is double the length of the hand
- fingers and toes all the same length
Slow Loris:

- hands and feet same size

- feet are thicker
- foot has one claw on thumb

Tarsier

- fingers and toes are very long

- tactile pads very large and round
- fingers and toes are straight

Howler Monkey- fingers are long, same size

- foot is slimmer and longer than hands
- thumb is curved on foot, straight on hand
Baboon

- foot has an extension to make it longer

- approximately double the size

Orangutan

- same shape
- foot is slightly longer and has a longer thumb

Human

- palm of hands is round

- palm of foot it long

- toes are small and round and stubby

- fingers are long
Part B:
Skull Comparison
Trait

Australopithecus vs.
Chimpanzee
50 cm3 bigger
Bigger, longer and
pointier
Slightly longer and
elongated
Closer together
wider
smaller, more narrow
arch

Australopithecus vs.
Human
950 cm3 smaller
Rounder and smaller

Zygomatic arch

Australopithecus vs.
Chimpanzee
Smaller, thinner arch

Molar

Smaller

Premolar

Canine
Incisor

More spaced out,

smaller
Bigger, pointier, longer
Wider, more spaced out

Australopithecus vs.
Human
Arch is lower, smaller,
rounder
Smaller, almost half the
size
Smaller, closer

Cranial Capacity
Canine Tooth
Temporal Area

Nuchal Area
Zygomatic Arch

Smaller
Farther apart

thinner, smaller
no arch at all from top or
back view
smaller and lower from
side view
Brow Ridge
faces upward
only seen from side
protrudes more outward
view
bigger and longer
Based on the skull, the Australopithecus must have been limited when eating. The
angle of the teeth is awkward, making it hard for the mammal to bite into certain foods,
such as round fruits. Also, the zygomatic arch makes the skull have a more rectangular
shape, and protrude outwards a lot from the back; making it easy to get hit by anything
causing death or serious injury. Where as the Chimpanzee and Human skull are round
and barely have anything that sticks out a lot.
Dentition Comparison
Trait

Same size
Bigger, evenly spaced

Temporal muscle

Elongated, bigger

Smaller, more
rectangular
Masseter muscle
Thinner
Smaller, shorter, thinner
Mandible
shorter
Smaller, shorter, thinner
Based on the teeth of each mammal, the Australopithecus had a limitation because of
its small teeth and large jaw. The mammal would have been able to hold a lot in its
mouth, but not able to chew all of it resulting in choking and unhealthy digestion.
Whereas the Human and Chimpanzee jaw and teeth can easily work together to chew
food properly so there can be healthy digestion and a lower chance of choking.
Pelvis and Legs Comparison
Trait

Australopithecus vs.
Australopithecus vs.
Human
Chimpanzee
Innominate
Thinner, longer
Slightly larger, thicker
Acetabulum
Slightly larger
Slightly larger
Sacrum
Thinner, longer
Longer, bigger
Femur
Straight, slightly larger
Longer, bigger, thicker
Based on pelvis and leg structure, the Australopithecus would have been very slow at
running, especially from predators which could result in serious injury or death. The
small femur bone prevents it from running fast and also when it comes to climbing, the
Australopithecus wouldnt go very high in a short amount of time. This would make the
mammal extremely tired, very quickly. Since the Chimpanzee and Human have long
femurs, they can easily run and walk quickly, and simply get away from predators.
Foot Comparison
Trait

Australopithecus vs.
Chimpanzee
Longer, larger, thicker
Slightly wider
Longer, slightly thicker

Australopithecus vs.
Human
Talus
Bigger, thicker, longer
Tarsal
Bigger
Phalanges
Thicker, roughly same
size
Calcaneus
Slightly less round
Larger, longer, thicker
Metatarsal
Thinner, longer
Thicker, longer
By looking at the foot structure of the Australopithecus, we can see that the foot was
very flat and small. Since the foot is small and flat, it would have been hard for the
Australopithecus to balance and there would have been lots of pressure on the feet to
support and hold up the rest of the body. By knowing this, we can assume the
Australopithecus must have walked on all fours. Whereas the Human foot evenly
distributes the weight around the foot with its indents. The Chimpanzee foot is long and
big so it was able to support the weight of the Chimpanzee.

In conclusion, the Australopithecus must have died off and been one of the
species once alive before Humans because it was not successful. However, a lot of the
traits of the Australopithecus are visible on Humans today. The Australopithecus was not
successful because of its body structure; it prevented other organ systems from working
the best they could. This mainly affected the digestive system because the
Australopithecus was not able to get all the nutrients it needed with this structure.
Survival in general was affected by this body structure; it prevented the Australopithecus
from getting food (e.g. from high trees) because it would not have been able to climb
very high and also it would not have been able to escape from predators easily because
it cannot run quickly.