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Laurel Benn
July 9, 2009
Definition 1 An Infinite Series is an expression of the form
an = a1 + a2 + ... + an + ...
n=1
Where a1 , a2 , a3 , ..., an , ... are called the terms of the series. If we let Sn be
the sum of the first n terms of the series then we have the following:
S1 = a1
S 2 = a1 + a2
S 3 = a1 + a2 + a3
.
.
.
n
Sn = a1 + a2 + a3 + ... + an =
an
n=1
an .
n=1
If {Sn } converges to a limit S, then the series also converges and S is called
the sum of the series.
S=
an
n=1
Now, S1 = 1, S2 = 1 1 = 0, S3 = 1, S4 = 0, e.t.c
1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, ... is the sequence of partial sums.
This sequence is divergent the given series is divergent.
Well now look at a class of series called a geometric series.
Definition 3 A geometric series is a series of the form a + ar + ar2 + ar3 +
... + arn + ....Where a 6= 0 and r is a real number called the ratio of the
series.
Theorem 1 A geometric series converges if |r| < 1 and diverges if |r| 1.
a
When the series converges the sum is 1r
5
Example 2 5 + 45 + 452 + 453 + 454 + ... + 4k1
+ ...
1
is a geometric series with a = 5,and r = 4 . the series converges with sum
= 15 1 = 20
3
4
Example 3 Determine if
X
1
k=1
5k
the sum.
Well Ill leave this one for you. Just identify it as a geometric series and do
whats needed.
Example 4 Determine if the series
k=1
1
converges or diverges. If
k(k + 1)
n
X
1 1 1
1
1
1
1
= 1 + + ... +
1
n+1
1
n+1
1
=1
and n
lim Sn = n
lim 1
n+1
X
1
=1
k=1 k(k + 1)
k=1
1
converges or diverges. If it
(k + 2)(k + 3)
Example 6
ak diverges.
k=1
k
diverges since
k=1 k + 1
lim
k
1
= lim
k
k+1
1+
1
k
= 1 6= 0
n=1
2.
n=1
can = c
an
n=1
(an bn ) =
n=1
an
bn
n=1
X
3
4k
k=1
X
3
4k
k=1
2
5k1
3
4
1
4
=1
Example 8 Find the sum of
k=1
2
1
X
3
2
k
k1
4
k=1 5
1
5
5
3
=
2
2
X
2
k=1
X
1
5k1
2
5k
k=1
Well
5k
= 2
X
1
k=1
5k
5k
what to do.
k=1
k
converges or diverges.
k=10 k + 1
X
X
k
k
From Example 6
diverges, therefore
also diverges since
k=1 k + 1
k=10 k + 1
X
k
it is
with the first nine terms taken out and according to (3) from
k=1 k + 1
Theorem 3 such a series must also diverge.
Example 9 Determine if
n=1
and let f (x) be the function such that f (n) = an . If f is decreasing and
continuous for x 1 , then
n=1
an and
Example 10 Determine if
X
1
n=1
n2
converges or diverges.
f (x) =
4
1
x2
Z M
dx
dx
= lim
2
M
x
x2
1
1
M
1
= lim
M
x 1
1
=1
= lim 1
M
M
We have just shown that the improper integral converges,therefore the series
converges.
Z
X
1
x
2
ex
X
n
n=1
en2
converges or diverges.
= xex then
2
f (x) = ex (1 2x2 ) 0
This implies that f is decreasing for x 1 and since all the terms of the
series are positive we can go ahead and use the integral test.
Z
xe
x2
dx = lim
M 1
xex dx
M
1
2
= lim ex
M
2
1
1
1 M 2
= lim
e
M 2e
2
1
=
2e
This implies that the improper integral converges and therefore the series
converges.
Theorem 5
X
1
k=1
kp
= 1+
1
1
+ p + ..., where p > 0 converges if p > 1 and
p
2
3
diverges if 0 < p 1.
The above series is called a p - series.
X
1
which is called the harmonic series and
When p = 1 we get the series
k=1 k
which is of course divergent.
converges.
3
k
k=1
1
Now
= 11 This means that the series is a p-series with p = 31 . From
3
k
k3
the last theorem we know that a p - series converges if p > 1 and diverges if
0 < p 1. Therefore the given series diverges.
Example 13 Determine if the series
k=1
an+1
let = n
lim
an
X
2n
n=1
n
2n+1
, an = 2n!
(n+1)!
n+1
2
2
= (n+1)!
2n!n = n+1
n!
converges or diverges.
an+1 =
an+1
a
n
2
=0
n+1
Therefore the series converges by the ratio test.
= n
lim
1. a1 a2 a3 ... ak ...
2. lim ak = 0
k
an xn = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + ... + an xn + ...
n=0
n=0
an (x c)n = a0 + a1 (x c) + a2 (x c)2 +
a
n
R = n
lim
, 0 R .
an+1
Example 15 Find the radius of convergence of
a
n
R = n
lim
=
an+1
X
xn
n=0
1/n!
lim
n 1/(n + 1)!
(n + 1)!
= n
lim
n!
n!
= n
lim (n + 1) =
A radius of convergence of infinity means that the power series converges for
all real values of x.
Example 16 Find the radius of convergence of
a
n
R = n
lim
=
an+1
(1)n /2n
lim
=
n (1)n+1 /2n+1
X
(1)n (x + 1)n
n=0
n+1
2n
2
= lim 2 = 2
n
2n
Since the center of the series is c = 1, we conclude that the series converges
in the interval (12, 1+2) = (3, 1). In fact if we check for convergence
at the endpoints we find that the series diverges at the endpoints and (3, 1)
is in fact the interval of convergence.
lim
n
We now look at an important type of power series called the Taylor series.
Here well show how to use derivatives of a function to write the power series
for that function.
Definition 6 (Taylor Series) If f (x) has derivatives of all orders at c,
then the power series for f (x) centered at c is called the Taylor series for
f (x) centered at c and is given by
X
f (c)
f (n) (c)
f (n) (c)
(xc)n = f (c)+f (c)(xc)+
(xc)2 +...+
(xc)n +...
n!
2!
n!
n=0
If c = 0 then the Taylor series is called a Maclaurin series.
Example 17 Find the Maclaurin series for f (x) = ex .
Now f (0) = e0 = 1 and since f (x) = ex and all higher derivatives of f also
equal ex . This implies that f (n) (0) = 1 for all n.
Now by the definition of the Maclaurin series,
3
ex = f (0) + f (0)x + f (0)x
+ f (0)x
+ ...
2!
3!
x2
x3
= 1 + x + 2! + 3! + ...
X
xn
=
.
n=0 n!
Example 18 Find the Taylor series for f (x) = 1/x, centered at 1.
f (x) = x1 f (1) = 1
f (x) = x2 f (1) = 1
f (x) = 2x3 f (1) = 2
8
3
(4)
4
+ f (1)(x1)
+ f (1)(x1)
+ ...
f (x) = x1 = f (1) + f (1)(x 1) + f (1)(x1)
2!
3!
4!
2(x1)2
6(x1)3
24(x1)4
= 1 (x 1) + 2! 3! +
...
4!
= 1 (x 1) + (x 1)2 (x 1)3 + (x 1)4 ...
=
n=0
(1)n (x 1)n .