Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
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15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5
15.6
15.2.1
15.2.2
15.2.3
15.2.4
15.2.5
15.3.2
15.4.2
General............................................................................................................. 15-5
15.5.2
15.5.3
15.5.4
15.5.5
15.6.2
15.6.3
15.6.4
15.6.5
15.6.6
15.6.7
APPENDIX 15.A
APPENDIX 15.B
APPENDIX 15.C
15.C.1
15.C.2
15.C.3
15-i
15.C.4
15-ii
15.1
INTRODUCTION
2.
15.2
POLLUTANT CHARACTERISATION
TSS
BOD
COD
TP
SP
TKN
Cu
Total copper
Pb
Total lead
Zn
Total zinc
Faecal Coliforms
(15.1)
(15.2)
The use of
conservative
decay (see
substances
important.
(15.3)
load measures is not appropriate for nonpollutants, such as faecal coliforms which
Section 15.6.2 for definition). For these
it is the instantaneous value which is
EMC = C =
M
=
V
C (t ) Q (t ) dt
Q (t ) dt
(15.4)
15-1
15-2
Load=
QxC
Load=
QxC
Figure 15.1
(a) Hydrograph
Concentration, C
Pollutograph
EMC(3)
EMC(1)
Event 1
EMC(2)
Event 2
Event 3
Time
Figure 15.2
15.3
DESIGN CRITERIA
15-3
R = D . Cv
where,
R
15.4
(a)
100%
DCIA
20%
50%
90%
80%
80%
70%
60%
50%
0.01
0.1
0.25
10
Figure 15.3
15-4
where,
Rn =
Pn =
=
Dn =
Table 15.1
Landuse
0.1 0.3
Pasture
0.2 0.6
Urban
0.5 0.7
where,
Rn =
Dn =
Cv =
(R n Pn )
n =1
(15.7)
(D n Pn )
n =1
15.5.1 General
Rn = Dn . C
15.5
Cv
Forest
1/n
rainfall depth in event with ARI 'n'
rainfall
soils
vegetation type
landuse
15-5
USLE Method
(a)
L =
(15.8)
where,
Table 15.2
VR =
Pollutant
Sediment
Native
Vegetation/Forest
85
Suspended solids
Total Nitrogen
Ammonia
Faecal coliforms
Industry
Urban
Construction
500
50 to 200
50 to 200
4,000
30
60
85
6
0.2
0.8
1.0
1.2
0.03
0.09
0.12
0.13
0.01 to 0.03
0.01 to 0.26
0.01 to 9.8
260 to 4,000
700 3,000
4,000 200,000
Total Phosphorus
Rural Grazing
Copper
0.03 to 0.09
Lead
0.2 to 0.5
Zinc
0.27 to 1.1
Sources:
15-6
1.
2.
3.
from Sungai Kinta Dam Project, Flood Hydrology Report, Angkasa GHD Engineers (1998).
4.
(b)
(d)
(15.9)
where,
L =
R =
a =
e =
an empirical exponent
(15.10)
(15.11a)
E = 9.28 P 8838.15
(15.11b)
where,
I30 = the maximum 30-minute rainfall intensity (mm/hr) for
the storm of required ARI,
E = annual erosivity (units of J/m2)
P = annual rainfall (mm)
The soil-erodibility factor, K, is a measure of the intrinsic
susceptibility of a given soil to detachment and transport
by rainfall and runoff, on the basis of five soil parameters :
percent silt, percent sand, organic matter content, soil
structure and permeability of the soil profile. K is defined
by Equation 15.12. The K values can also be estimated
from the nomograph in FRIM (1999) developed by
Warrington et al (1980)
K = 2.1x 106( 12 OM ) M 1.14 + 0.0325( S 2) + 0.025( P 3)
(15.12)
15-7
(15.13)
where is the slope length (m) and S is the slope in
percent. The exponent m has values of 0.2 for S <1, 0.3
for 1<S <3, 0.4 for 3<S <5, 0.5 for 5<S <12 and 0.6 for
S>12%. Alternatively, the nomograph in FRIM (1999) can
be used.
The vegetation management factor (VM), is defined as the
ratio of soil loss from a field subject to a system of control
measures to that from the same site without any control
provision. It combines two factors C and P used in the
original USLE.
The expression for VM given in FRIM (1999) is intended
mainly for forest cover. It incorporates three sub-factors
for forest canopy cover, mulch or ground vegetation cover,
and bare ground with fine roots. A VM factor of unity can
be assigned to a recently stripped surface at a construction
site since the condition essentially resembles a continuous
fallow condition.
In urban stormwater practice, the factor C accounts for
the effect of various control practices related to surface
stabilising treatment, runoff-reduction measures, sedimenttrapping, scheduling in time and space of exposed areas,
and other conventional or unconventional control practices.
By definition, the overall VM factor of a system of control
practices can be evaluated as the product of the control
factors associated with each of the individual control
measures.
At present there is insufficient data to give detailed
guidance on suitable values of VM or C for Malaysia. This
should be adjusted for the amount of exposed land surface
in the urban area, assuming that impervious areas would
not produce any sediment. It is recommended that
Equation 15.14 be adopted for all urban drainage
calculations.
VM = C (1 IA)
(15.14)
15.6
15-8
2.
3.
4 d .g . r p rv
.
C d .rv
3
(15.15)
where,
Vs =
rp
rv
Cd =
24
3
+
+ 0.34
Re
Re
(15.16a)
24
Re
(15.16b)
15-9
(r p rv )
(15.17)
18
2.
3.
.100
(15.18)
Q / WD
Vs
Pat
ho
fP
art
icle
'P'
Outlet
Zone
Riser
Outlet
Settling Zone
Storage Zone
Figure 15.5
15-10
(Q / WD )
(Horizontally)
(15.19a)
The time for the particle to fall to the storage zone will be:
tv =
D
Vs
(Vertically)
(15.19b)
Q
Vs
(15.20)
Vs th
dm
(15.21)
(1.0548LU s
/ qh
(15.22)
dC
S
dt
= I (C i C ) A .C .Vs
(15.23)
where,
C
Ci =
time
Vs =
(15.24)
where,
15-11
C n +1 = C n
K 1n +1 K 1n +1
(15.25)
where,
t
K 1n +1 = (S n + 1 + S n ) +
(I n + 1 + I n ) + AV s t
2
(15.26a)
t
K 2 n +1 = (S n 1 + S n +1 )
2
(I n +1 + I n ) AV s t
(15.26b)
t
K 3 n +1 =
(I n +1 + I n )(C i (n +1) + C in )
2
(15.26c)
2C
2C
HC HUxC HUyC
= HDx 2 + HDy 2
+
+
y
t
x
x
y
Inflow
Concentration
Storage
Area
t1
I1
C i1
S1
A1
I2
C i2
15-12
Time
t2 etc
HR (15.27)
Table 15.3
S2
A2
6
In+1+In
10
11
12
Sn+1+Sn
C in+1+C in
K1n+1
K2n+1
K3n+1
Cn
S1+S2
C i1+C i2
C1
I1+I2
K12
K22
K32
C2
(a)
Unsaturated Media
t
z
C
S
C
S
2C
C
+
= .D
.
t
t
z
z 2
(15.28)
where
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
time (T)
the distance (L)
the solute concentration in the liquid phase (M.L-3)
the sorbed concentration (M.L-3)
the volumetric water content (L3.L-3)
the bulk density of the porous medium (M.L-3)
a dispersion coefficient (L2.T-1)
the pore water velocity (L.T-1).
S = KdC b
(15.29)
1.
(b)
2.
3.
Saturated Media
15-13
15-14
APPENDIX 15.A
Table 15.A1
Storm Event Pollutant Exports (kg/km2) for ACT and Brisbane, Australia
Landuse/vegetation categories
Pollutant
Native vegetation/ forest
Rural grazing
Established Urban
200R1.1
400R1.1
1000R1.4
8R
20R
200R
Brisbane
130R0.75
6.1R
166R0.75
Total phosphorus-ACT
0.05R0.57
0.12R0.57
0.4R0.8
Brisbane
0.17R0.9
0.022R
0.15R0.9
0.15R1.6
0.3R1.6
3R0.84
Brisbane
1.5R0.86
0.16R
1.45R0.86
30-100x109 R0.9
300-1500x109 R0.9
400-1000x109 R0.9
6.4x109 R1.1
1.0x109 R0.95
10.3x109 R1.1
Sediment ACT
(no Brisbane data)
Suspended solids-ACT
15-15
15-16
APPENDIX 15.B
Parameter
(a)
Acidity (pH)
Organics
(a)
: BOD5
1 13
mg/L
COD
9 - 16
mg/L
1-3
mg/L
0-2
mg/L
5 - 10
PCU
18 - 24
mg/L
2 - 10
mg/L
47
JTU
(b)
Inorganic C
(b)
(b)
(b)
Solids: Total
Suspended solids
(a)
(b)
(b)
Turbidity
Nutrients
Units
36
TOC
Colour
Organic N
0.5 1.0
mg/L
NH3-N
(b)
0.01 0.04
mg/L
NO2-N
(b)
0.00 0.01
mg/L
NO3-N
0.05 1.0
mg/L
Total N
0.02 1.5
mg/L
Orthophosphorus
0.0 0.05
mg/L
Total P
0.02 0.15
mg/L
30 - 70
g/L
Heavy metals:
(a)
lead
15-17
APPENDIX 15.C
15.C.1
WORKED EXAMPLE
Problem: Estimate the average annual pollutant loads from a sample 100 hectare catchment with 50% directly-connected
impervious area (DCIA). Prepare curves showing the average annual load carried in storms equal to or
exceeding storms of different ARI. Use Ipoh IDF data and assume a 30 minute storm duration.
Solution:
1)
The first step is the calculation of runoff volumes for a range of return periods using the Volumetric Rational Method.
This step is shown in the following Table 15.C1.
A ten year simulation period is assumed in order to simplify the calculations. The spreadsheet calculates event runoff
by the Rational Formula as a function of rainfall intensity, and also calculates the total runoff from events of that size
during a ten year period. The average number of events in this ten year period is equal to the ARI multiplied by ten.
The method uses the probabilistic interpretation of storm exceedance, and ignores the effect of storms larger than
20 year ARI as the contribution of such storms on an annual basis is negligible.
Calculations are performed row by row for storms of a range of ARIs. The total runoff volumes from storms of each
size are summed to produce the expected total annual runoff. This method is a simplification of the real situation
because it assumes that there is no runoff from storms of less than the smallest size (1/16 year ARI). The error
introduced by this assumption is negligible.
Table 15.C1
Average
no. of Events
in 10 years
160
80
40
20
10
5
2
1
0.5
3
Runoff
Cumulative
Rainfall
Runoff (m )
mm per Intensity Coefficient mm per Total per Total in
Amount in
Runoff as
Event
(mm/hr)
C
Event
Event
10 years Larger Events % of Total
9.0
18.0
0.49
4.4
4,410
705,600
2,713,924
78.7%
17.5
35.0
0.63
11.0
11,025
882,000
1,831,924
85.7%
24.0
48.0
0.68
16.3
16,320
652,800
1,179,124
90.8%
31.7
63.4
0.72
22.8
22,824
456,480
722,644
94.3%
42.3
84.5
0.76
32.1
32,110
321,100
401,544
96.9%
52.8
105.6
0.80
42.2
42,240
211,200
190,344
98.5%
61.7
123.4
0.82
50.6
50,594
101,188
89,156
99.3%
68.9
137.8
0.84
57.9
57,876
57,876
31,280
99.8%
73.6
147.2
0.85
62.6
62,560
31,280
0
100%
Assumptions:
Rainfall IDF data for Ipoh, extrapolated to small ARI
Sample catchment area =
100 ha
DCIA =
50%
tc = 30 minutes
Use Curve 3 on Design Chart 14.3
2)
References:
Methodology based on CRCFE (1998), Case Study 2
Weighted C v
0.58
Annual Runoff
1277 mm
Annual Volume
Percentage (%) =
1,277,000 m
(total- amount in larger events)
total
The second step is the calculation of annual loads of selected pollutants for a range of return periods using the runoff
calculated in Table 15.C1. This step is shown in the following Table 15.C2. The Table follows a similar structure to
Table 15.C1. For storms of each ARI, the runoff is obtained from the previous table and is multiplied by the EMC to
give pollutant load.
15-18
Subject Index
Note that in this example the EMC formulation is used for each of the selected pollutants. Therefore pollutant load is
directly proportional to flow. This would not be the case if an alternative formulation for pollutant load was used.
19
Table 15.C2
Sediment Loading
Size of
Event
(ARI)
0.0625
0.125
0.25
0.5
1
2
5
10
20
Average
no. of Events
in 10 years
160
80
40
20
10
5
2
1
0.5
Runoff
Cumulative
Sediment Export (t)
(mm per
Urban Rural Total per Total in
Amount in
Export as
Event)
Event
10 years Larger Events % of Total
4.4
0.53
0.88
1.4
225
867
20.6%
11.0
1.32
2.20
3.5
282
586
46.4%
16.3
1.96
3.26
5.2
209
377
65.5%
22.8
2.74
4.56
7.3
146
231
78.8%
32.1
3.85
6.42
10.3
103
128
88.2%
42.2
5.06
8.44
13.5
68
61
94.4%
50.6
6.07 10.12
16.2
32
29
97.4%
57.9
6.95 11.58
18.5
19
10
99.1%
62.6
7.51 12.52
20.0
10
0
100%
Total
1,093
Assumptions:
Sediment EMC
Urban
200
(mg/L)
Rural
500
Rainfall IDF data for Ipoh, extrapolated
30 minute duration event
60.0 ha Urban @ 80% DCIA
40.0 ha Rural @ 5% DCIA
100.0 ha total
DCIA %=
References:
Methodology based on CRCFE (1998), Case Study 2
Events larger than 20 year are not significant
Estimated annual sediment yield (t)
109
50.0
Average
no. of Events
in 10 years
160
80
40
20
10
5
2
1
0.5
Urban
Rural
Runoff
(mm per
Urban
Event)
4.4
0.22
11.0
0.56
16.3
0.83
22.8
1.16
32.1
1.64
42.2
2.15
50.6
2.58
57.9
2.95
62.6
3.19
Cumulative
SS Export (t)
Rural Total per Total in
Amount in
Export as
Event
10 years Larger Events % of Total
0.05
0.28
44.4
170.8
20.6%
0.13
0.69
55.4
115.3
46.4%
0.20
1.03
41.1
74.2
65.5%
0.27
1.44
28.7
45.5
78.8%
0.39
2.02
20.2
25.3
88.2%
0.51
2.66
13.3
12.0
94.4%
0.61
3.19
6.4
5.6
97.4%
0.69
3.65
3.6
2.0
99.1%
0.75
3.94
2.0
0.0
100%
Total
215.1
References:
Methodology based on CRCFE (1998), Case Study 2
Events larger than 20 year are not significant
Estimated annual SS yield (t)
21.5
85
30
Average
no. of Events
in 10 years
160
80
40
20
10
5
2
1
0.5
Runoff
(mm per
Urban
Event)
4.4
0.34
11.0
0.86
16.3
1.27
22.8
1.78
32.1
2.50
42.2
3.29
50.6
3.95
57.9
4.52
62.6
4.88
Cumulative
TP Export (kg)
Rural Total per Total in
Amount in
Export as
Event
10 years lLarger Events % of Total
0.16
0.50
80.26
308.99
20.6%
0.40
1.25
100.32
208.67
46.4%
0.59
1.86
74.33
134.34
65.5%
0.82
2.60
51.98
82.35
78.8%
1.16
3.66
36.59
45.76
88.2%
1.52
4.81
24.05
21.71
94.4%
1.82
5.77
11.54
10.17
97.4%
2.08
6.60
6.60
3.57
99.1%
2.25
7.14
3.57
0.00
100%
Total
Assumptions:
TP EMC
(mg/L)
15-20
Urban
Rural
0.13
0.09
389.2
References:
Methodology based on CRCFE (1998), Case Study 2
Events larger than 20 year are not significant
Estimated annual TP yield (kg)
38.9
Subject Index
15.C.2
Problem:
For a 50 hectare catchment, estimate the expected annual sediment loads for pre, during, and post medium residential
development (35% imperviousness) in an area where the annual rainfall is 1800 mm.
Solution: The calculations are shown in the following Table.
Cv
EMC
(g/m3)
Annual Runoff
Depth (mm)
Annual Runoff
Volume (m3)
Load
(tonnes)
Pre-development
0.20
500
360
180,000
90.0
Construction
0.40
4000
720
360,000
1440
Post-development
0.55
120
990
495,000
59.4
Condition
When the sediment is deposited it will be poorly consolidated. For estimating the volume (m3) of deposited material, an insitu sediment dry density of 750 kg/m3 is recommended. Also when considering the likely variation in deposited quantities,
the concentration could vary depending on landuse and catchment characteristics.
15.C.3
Percentage (%)
Large
31
0.07
Medium
54
0.0067
Small
15
0.000016
Solution:
The first step involves the hydrologic routing of the given inflow hydrograph through the storage reservoir using the full
routing methods described earlier. These calculations produce the variations with time of the water surface area and
storage volume in the reservoir and the outflow discharge. Routing of the pollutants is then carried out using the approach
described in Section 15.6.5, using in turn each of the three settling velocities (adjusted for the effect of turbulence). The
loadings (g/s) for each time increment are obtained by multiplying the ordinates of the inflow hydrograph (m3/s) by the
average inflow concentration of 185 mg/l and the ordinates of the outflow hydrograph by the derived values of the
concentration of pollutant in the outflow. Trap efficiency is then computed from Equation 15.18. The values of trap
efficiency for the three representative particle sizes are then weighted according to the above size distribution to give an
overall value. Part of the calculations for the medium-size fraction are presented in Table 15.C3 in order to illustrate the
procedure.
21
The calculations are also carried out for the smallest and the largest size fractions. The results show that the trap
efficiencies are 99.5, 95.12 and 9.9 % for the largest, the medium, and the smallest size ranges respectively, leading to an
overall (weighted) trap efficiency of 83.7 %.
Table 15.C3
Typical Calculation for the Routing of Pollutants using a 2 year ARI Hydrograph for a Storm Duration of
12.5 hrs and the Medium Size Fraction with a Settling Velocity of 0.00074 m/s
Time
(h)
Inflow
(m3/s)
Conc. in
(mg/l)
Outflow
(m3/s)
Head
(m)
Storage
(m3)
Area
(m2)
0.0
0.412
185
0.262
0.100
6,289
78,704
0.5
0.451
185
0.276
0.103
6,568
1.0
0.571
185
0.296
0.108
1.5
0.768
185
0.328
2.0
1.016
185
2.5
1.291
3.0
1.584
Sum
Inflow
Sum
Storage
Sum
Conc in
79,390
0.863
12,856
370
6,962
80,321
1.022
13530
370
0.116
7,584
81,707
1.339
14546
370
0.379
0.128
8,554
83,699
1.784
16138
370
185
0.452
0.144
9,907
86,193
2.307
18461
370
185
0.546
0.163
11,596
88,950
2.875
21503
370
etc.
K1
K2
K3
Conc. out
(mg/l)
Load in
(g/s)
Load out
(g/s)
0.5
120,016
-94,303
287,379
2.395
83.4
0.661
1.0
122,080
-95,021
340,326
0.924
105.6
0.273
1.5
125,238
-96,147
445,887
2.851
142.1
0.935
2.0
129,901
-97,625
594,072
2.431
188.0
0.921
2.5
136,036
-99,114
768,231
3.876
238.8
1.752
3.0
143,284
-100,278
957,375
3.969
293.0
2.167
Time
(h)
0.0
15-22
Subject Index
15.C.4
2)
3)
4)
For clay particles, 0.004 mm in diameter and Vs = 1.6 x 10-5 m/sec, efficiency is:
= Vs t h / dm = 1.6 x 10-5 x 1.64 x 104/2.04 = 0.13
5)
For fine sand 0.2 mm in diameter and Vs = 2.2 x 10-2 m/sec, efficiency is:
= 2.2 x 10-2 x 1.64 x 104/2.04 = 177
Therefore the reservoir would trap 13 % of the clay while all the sand (100 %) would be trapped within 1/177 of the basin
length. This approach nevertheless assumes steady-state conditions and does not consider the effects of flow turbulence
which would retard settlement, or of short-circuiting routing sediments through the reservoir.
23